Academic literature on the topic 'Philippine American War (1899-1902)'

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Journal articles on the topic "Philippine American War (1899-1902)"

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Diokno, Maria Serena I. "Perspectives on Peace during the Philippine—American War of 1899–1902." South East Asia Research 5, no. 1 (March 1997): 5–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0967828x9700500102.

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Brody, David. "Celebrating Empire on the Home Front: New York City's Welcome-Home Party for Admiral Dewey." Prospects 25 (October 2000): 391–424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0361233300000715.

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The January 3, 1900, edition of the popular, New York City newspaper the World contains an advertisement for a new edition of The Century Dictionary & Cyclopedia & Atlas (Figure 1). The strength of this reference guide, according to the full-page advertisement, is the volume's war maps. The presentation of battle cartography “enable[s] one to trace instantly the movements of every important campaign on land or sea, the routes of invading armies, raids, etc., placing and dating on the maps the battles, sieges and blockades not only of ancient and medieval times, but also those of the year just ended – and this without any complexity in the maps themselves.” In case the reader needed to be reminded about recent wars, the advertisement has enormous graphic representations of “Africa” and the “Philippine Is.” The map of the Philippines would have immediately signified the Spanish-American (1898) and Philippine-American (1899–1902) Wars to readers, conflicts that the pages of the mass media covered widely.
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Holden, William N. "The role of geography in counterinsurgency warfare: The Philippine American War, 1899–1902." GeoJournal 85, no. 2 (January 24, 2019): 423–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-09971-7.

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Russell, Timothy D. "“I FEEL SORRY FOR THESE PEOPLE”: AFRICAN AMERICAN SOLDIERS IN THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR, 1899–1902." Journal of African American History 99, no. 3 (July 2014): 197–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.5323/jafriamerhist.99.3.0197.

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Federspiel, Howard M. "Islam and Muslims in the Southern Territories of the Philippine Islands During the American Colonial Period (1898 to 1946)." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 29, no. 2 (September 1998): 340–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022463400007487.

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The United States gained authority over the Philippine Islands as a result of the Spanish-American War (1898) and the Treaty of Paris (1899), which recognized American wartime territorial gains. Prior to that time the Spanish had general authority over the northern region of the Islands down to the Visayas, which they had ruled from their capital at Manila on Luzon for nearly three hundred years. The population in that Spanish zone was Christianized as a product of deliberate Spanish policy during that time frame. The area to the south, encompassing much of the island of Mindanao and all of the Sulu Archipelago, was under Spanish military control at the time of the Spanish American War (1898), having been taken over in the previous fifteen years by a protracted military campaign. This southern territory was held by the presence of Spanish military units in a series of strong forts located throughout the settled areas, but clear control over the society was quite weak and, in fact, collapsed after the American naval victory at Manila Bay. The United States did not establish its own presence in much of the southern region until 1902. It based its claim over the region on the treaty with the Spanish, and other colonial powers recognized that claim as legitimate.
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Smiley, Will. "Lawless Wars of Empire? The International Law of War in the Philippines, 1898–1903." Law and History Review 36, no. 3 (June 13, 2018): 511–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0738248017000682.

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Writing for his fellow military officers in early 1903, United States Army Major C.J. Crane reflected on the recent Philippine–American War. The bloody struggle to suppress an insurgency in the Philippines after the United States had annexed them from Spain in 1899 had officially concluded the previous July. The war had been accompanied by fierce racist sentiments among Americans, and in keeping with these, Crane described his foes as “the most treacherous people in the world.” But Crane's discussion drew as much on concepts of law as it did on race. The average American officer, Crane argued, had “remembered all the time that he was struggling with an enemy who was not entitled to the privileges usually granted prisoners of war,” and could be summarily executed, without benefit of “court-martial or other regular tribunal.” If anything, the Americans had been too generous. “Many [American] participants in the struggle,” he maintained, “have failed to fully understand that we were practically fighting an Asiatic nation in arms and almost every man a soldier in disguise and a violator” of the laws of war. But what did those laws mean to the United States during the conflict, and what does this indicate about the broader history of international law's relationship to empire?
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Aune, Stefan. "Indian Fighters in the Philippines." Pacific Historical Review 90, no. 4 (2021): 419–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/phr.2021.90.4.419.

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This article explores the connections between the violence that accompanied U.S. continental expansion in the nineteenth century and the Philippine-American War, which began in 1899 after Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States following the Spanish-American War. Perhaps geographic distance has served to mask the temporal proximity of these linked periods of U.S. expansion, because this is a connection that has remained largely unexplored in the historiography. Rather than viewing 1898 as a caesura marking the separation between the continental and global phases of American empire, this article explores continuities through an examination of the interaction between imperial culture and military violence. Some U.S. soldiers in the Philippines drew directly on their experiences in wars with Native people, while others narrated their time in the Philippines as an “Indian war” and validated their actions by discursively positioning themselves and their troops as “Indian fighters.” The Indian Wars were translated, through the actions, imaginations, and writing of U.S. soldiers, politicians, and journalists, into a flexible discourse able to travel across space and time. These frontier resonances became one of several structuring narratives that sought to racialize Filipinos in order to justify the war and occupation.
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Lowitz, Leza. "Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream 1899-1999 (review)." Manoa 15, no. 2 (2003): 212–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/man.2003.0137.

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Tone, John. "Mark R Barnes, The Spanish-American War and Philippine Insurrection, 1898–1902: An Annotated Bibliography." European History Quarterly 43, no. 3 (July 2013): 524–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265691413493729c.

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Ortiz, Stephen R. "Rethinking the Bonus March: Federal Bonus Policy, the Veterans of Foreign Wars, and the Origins of a Protest Movement." Journal of Policy History 18, no. 3 (July 2006): 275–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jph.2006.0010.

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In 1927, the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW), the national organization founded in 1899 by veterans of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars, appeared destined for historical obscurity. The organization that would later stand with the American Legion as a pillar of the powerful twentieth-century veterans' lobby struggled to maintain a membership of sixty thousand veterans. Despite desperate attempts to recruit from the ranks of the nearly 2.5 million eligible World War veterans, the VFW lagged behind in membership both the newly minted American Legion and even the Spanish War Veterans. The upstart Legion alone, from its 1919 inception throughout the 1920s, averaged more than seven hundred thousand members. Indeed, in 1929, Royal C. Johnson, the chairman of the House Committee on World War Veterans Legislation and a member of both the Legion and the VFW, described the latter as “not sufficiently large to make it a vital factor in public sentiment.” And yet, by 1932, in the middle of an economic crisis that dealt severe blows to the membership totals of almost every type of voluntary association, the VFW's membership soared to nearly two hundred thousand veterans. Between 1929 and 1932, the VFW experienced this surprising growth because the organization demanded full and immediate cash payment of the deferred Soldiers' Bonus, while the American Legion opposed it. Thus, by challenging federal veterans' policy, the VFW rose out of relative obscurity to become a prominent vehicle for veteran political activism. As important, by doing so the VFW unwittingly set in motion the protest movement known as the Bonus March.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Philippine American War (1899-1902)"

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Redgraves, Christopher M. "African American Soldiers in the Philippine War: An Examination of the Contributions of Buffalo Soldiers during the Spanish American War and Its Aftermath, 1898-1902." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2017. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1011857/.

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During the Philippine War, 1899 – 1902, America attempted to quell an uprising from the Filipino people. Four regular army regiments of black soldiers, the Ninth and Tenth Cavalry, and the Twenty-Fourth and Twenty-Fifth Infantry served in this conflict. Alongside the regular army regiments, two volunteer regiments of black soldiers, the Forty-Eighth and Forty-Ninth, also served. During and after the war these regiments received little attention from the press, public, or even historians. These black regiments served in a variety of duties in the Philippines, primarily these regiments served on the islands of Luzon and Samar. The main role of these regiments focused on garrisoning sections of the Philippines and helping to end the insurrection. To carry out this mission, the regiments undertook a variety of duties including scouting, fighting insurgents and ladrones (bandits), creating local civil governments, and improving infrastructure. The regiments challenged racist notions in America in three ways. They undertook the same duties as white soldiers. They interacted with local "brown" Filipino populations without fraternizing, particularly with women, as whites assumed they would. And, they served effectively at the company and platoon level under black officers. Despite the important contributions of these soldiers, both socially and militarily, little research focuses on their experiences in the Philippines. This dissertation will discover and examine those experiences. To do this, each regiment is discussed individually and their experiences used to examine the role these men played in the Philippine War. Also addressed is the role ideas about race played in these experiences. This dissertation looks to answer whether or not notions on race played a major role in the activities of these regiments. This dissertation will be an important addition to the study of the Philippine War, the segregated U. S. Army, and African American history in the modern period.
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McEnroe, Sean F. "Oregon soldiers and the Portland press in the Philippine wars of 1898 and 1899 : how Oregonians defined the race of Filipinos and the mission of America." PDXScholar, 2001. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/4028.

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Oregon volunteer soldiers fought two wars in the Philippines from 1898 to 1899, one against the Spanish colonial government (from May to August 1898), and one against the Philippine insurgency (beginning in February of 1899). This thesis examines the connections between Oregonians' racial characterization of Filipinos and their beliefs about the wars' purposes and moral characteristics. The source material is drawn from the personal papers of Oregon volunteer soldiers and from the Portland Oregonian.
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Esser, Michael Thomas. "FIGHTING A "CRUEL AND SAVAGE FOE": COUNTERINSURGENCY AND HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES FROM THE INDIAN WARS TO THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR (1899-1902)." Master's thesis, Temple University Libraries, 2019. http://cdm16002.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p245801coll10/id/562935.

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History
M.A.
Many scholars have written about the counterinsurgency phase of the Philippine- American War (1899-1902). Military historians often downplayed the impact of human rights abuses, while emphasizing the success of the U.S. Army’s counterinsurgency instead. In contrast, social historians frequently focused on human rights abuses at the expense of understanding the U.S. Army’s counterinsurgency efforts. Unlike the majority of earlier works, this thesis unifies military, social, and legal history to primarily answer these questions: what significant factors led U.S. soldiers to commit human rights abuses during the war, and at what cost did the U.S. pacify the Filipino rebellion? The war was successfully waged at the tactical, operational, and strategic level, but wavered at the grand strategic level.1 This study argues that racism, ambiguous rules and regulations, and a breakdown of discipline contributed to U.S. soldiers committing human rights abuses against Filipinos during the counterinsurgency. Primary sources from the perspectives of American policy makers, military leaders, and common soldiers—in addition to documents on U.S. Army regulations and its past traditions—reveal a comprehensive story of what happened during this conflict. The U.S. Army’s abuse were not a historical anomaly, but a growing trend extending from nineteenth century conflicts against other races. The counterinsurgency revealed that beneath the stated principles of 1 For the purposes of this thesis, grand strategy is “the direction and use made of any and all of the assets of a security community, including its military instruments, for the purposes of policy as decided by politics.” This differs from the strategic level of war, which is the direction and exclusive use of military forces for the purposes of policy as decided by politics. Finally, the operational level is the level of war where the tasks, decided by strategy, are coordinated and individual units are commanded. These units, in turn, engaging in tactics to achieve operational objectives. Colin S. Gray, The Future of Strategy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2015), 29, 47. iii America’s benevolent mission, violent racial underpinnings existed in U.S. desires for global and domestic hegemony. The U.S. Army’s counterinsurgency resulted in a flawed victory, won at the cost of combatants, innocent civilians, and American idealism.
Temple University--Theses
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Parker, Matthew Austin Parrish T. Michael. "The Philippine Scouts and the practice of counter-insurgency in the Philippine-American War, 1899-1913." Waco, Tex. : Baylor University, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/2104/5214.

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Rost, James Stanley. "The Oregon Volunteers in the Spanish-American War and Philippine Insurrection : the annotated and edited diary of Chriss A. Bell, May 2, 1898 to June 24, 1899." PDXScholar, 1991. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/4117.

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This thesis is an annotated and edited typescript of a primary source, the handwritten diary of Chriss A. Bell, of the Second Oregon Volunteer Infantry state militia. The diary concerns the events of Oregon's National Guard state militia in the Spanish-American war in the Philippines, and the Philippine Insurrection that followed. The period of time concerned is from the beginning of May, 1898 to the end of June, 1899.
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Andersen, Jack David. "Service Honest and Faithful: The Thirty-Third Volunteer Infantry Regiment in the Philippine War, 1899-1901." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2017. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1062907/.

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This manuscript is a study of the Thirty-Third Infantry, United States Volunteers, a regiment that was recruited in Texas, the South, and the Midwest and was trained by officers experienced from the Indian Wars and the Spanish-American War. This regiment served as a front-line infantry unit and then as a constabulary force during the Philippine War from 1899 until 1901. While famous in the United States as a highly effective infantry regiment during the Philippine War, the unit's fame and the lessons that it offered American war planners faded in time and were overlooked in favor of conventional fighting. In addition, the experiences of the men of the regiment belie the argument that the Philippine War was a brutal and racist imperial conflict akin to later interventions such as the Vietnam War. An examination of the Thirty-Third Infantry thus provides valuable context into a war not often studied in the United States and serves as a successful example of a counterinsurgency.
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Carlson, Ted W. "The Philippine Insurrection the U.S. Navy in a military operation other than war, 1899-1902." Thesis, Monterey, California. Naval Postgraduate School, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10945/1288.

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Approved for public release; distribution in unlimited.
U.S. naval doctrine has been dominated by the Mahanian concept of massing large capital ships for over one hundred years. Yet, it was a Cyclone-class patrol craft, a USCG cutter, and an Australian frigate that pushed up the Khor-Abd-Allah waterway and opened up the port of Umm Qasr, Iraq, during the Second Gulf War. They continue to protect it and the surrounding oil infrastructure from attack from insurgents and terrorists today. With the navy's current interest in transformation, the question arises, is the navy as presently configured well suited for today's threats? This thesis explores the question of how should the navy meet threats to national interests. This is accomplished through historical analysis of an event that is similar to the situation today: The Philippine Insurrection (1899-1902). This episode showcases the shortcomings of the navy's conventional approach to military operations other than war, and the need for change. In today's asymmetric environment, the past provides insight into effective means for handling these types of threats. This thesis concludes that the navy needs to diversify itself to incorporate different ship platforms, platforms that incorporate the utility of old with the technology of new.
Lieutenant, United States Navy
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Carlson, Ted W. "The Philippine Insurrection : the U.S. Navy in a military operations other than war, 1899-1902 /." Monterey, Calif. : Springfield, Va. : Naval Postgraduate School ; Available from National Technical Information Service, 2004. http://library.nps.navy.mil/uhtbin/hyperion/04Dec%5FCarlson.pdf.

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Diaz, Caceres Margarita J. "Religion, Politics and War In the Creation of an Ethos of Conflict in Colombia; The case of the War of the Thousand Days (1899-1902)." FIU Digital Commons, 2018. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/3657.

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The purpose of this thesis is to understand the way in which religion and politics played a role in the formulation of a cyclical ethos of conflict, focusing in the last and most important civil war of nineteenth-century Colombia: The War of the Thousand Days (1899-1902). A historiographical review was used to understand the interactions between these two structures, and it pointed at a main problem centered in the political use of religion, as well as the transformation of political debate into a matter of political faith. In conclusion, the War of the Thousand days strengthened narratives of vengeance, worsened the situation of the country, and solidified an ethos of conflict in which the State used the Church to legitimize itself against the threats to the status quo of systemic inequality.
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Jackson, Justin. "The Work of Empire: The U.S. Army and the Making of American Colonialisms in Cuba and the Philippines, 1898-1913." Thesis, 2014. https://doi.org/10.7916/D8SQ8XK7.

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Between 1898 and 1913, the limited manpower and resources of the United States Army forced it to employ thousands of Cubans and inhabitants of the Philippines to fight the Spanish and Philippine-American and Moro Wars and conduct civil administration in Cuba and the Philippines. The colonial military labor of Cubans and Philippine islanders both affirmed and challenged the claims of American political and military leaders that the United States practiced a liberal and benevolent form of colonial and neo-colonial rule. In the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea, the U.S. army's exploitation of ordinary colonial subjects breathed new life into often coercive colonial institutions, such as Chinese migrant contract labor, forced labor for public works such as roads, and the impressment of interpreters and guides and other intermediaries for military operations. The impact of American military labor relations in war and occupation endured well into periods of civilian rule in these countries, shaping the politics of race and immigration, infrastructure development and public obligation, and the civil apparatus of colonial and neo-colonial states.
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Books on the topic "Philippine American War (1899-1902)"

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Imperial, Reynaldo H. Leyte, 1898-1902: The Philippine-American War. Diliman, Quezon City: Office of Research Coordination, University of the Philippines, 1996.

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May, Glenn Anthony. Battle for Batangas: A Philippine province at war. Quezon City [Philippines]: New Day Publishers, 1993.

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E, Gianakos Perry, ed. George Ade's stories of "benevolent assimilation". Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1985.

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I, Diokno Ma Serena. The view towards peace of Filipinos, Americans, and Ameri-- kain during the Philippine-American War. Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines, Center for Integrative and Development Studies and the U.P. Press, 1994.

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Abaya, Doroteo. Miguel Malvar and the Philippine revolution: A biography. [Manila]: Miguel Malvar (MM) Productions, 1998.

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1874-1939, Palma Rafael, Kalaw Teodoro M. 1884-1940, National Historical Institute (Philippines), and National Library (Philippines), eds. The Philippine revolution: With other documents of the epoch. Manila, Philippines: National Historical Institute, 2007.

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Linn, Brian McAllister. The U.S. Army and counterinsurgency in the Philippine war, 1899-1902. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.

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Aguinaldo, Emilio. Reseña veridica de la revolucion Filipina =: True version of the Philippine revolution. Ermita, Manila, Philippines: National Historical Institute, 2002.

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Twain, Mark. Mark Twain's weapons of satire: Anti-imperialist writings on the Philippine-American War. Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse University Press, 1992.

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Soriano, Rafaelita Hilario. A shaft of light. [Manila?]: R.H. Soriano, 1991.

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Book chapters on the topic "Philippine American War (1899-1902)"

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Bauzon, Kenneth E. "The Philippine–American War, 1899–1913, and the US Counterinsurgency and Pacification Campaign." In Capitalism, The American Empire, and Neoliberal Globalization, 101–69. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9080-8_5.

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Einolf, Christopher J. "The Laws of War and Illegitimate Combatants." In America in the Philippines, 1899–1902, 25–35. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137460769_3.

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Bert, Wayne. "The Philippines—1898–1902." In American Military Intervention in Unconventional War, 55–70. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230337817_4.

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Cosmas, Graham A. "The Spanish-American and Philippine Wars, 1898-1902." In A Companion to American Military History, 139–52. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444315066.ch8.

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Coats, John. "Half Devil and Half Child: America’s War with Terror in the Philippines, 1899–1902." In Enemies of Humanity, 181–201. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230612549_10.

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"THE AMERICANS ARRIVE." In The Philippine War, 1899-1902, 3–25. University Press of Kansas, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvgs0c6m.6.

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d'Ambruoso, William L. "Justifying Torture in the Philippine-American War." In American Torture from the Philippines to Iraq, 57–88. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197570326.003.0004.

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Through primary documents such as court-martial transcripts, letters, and diaries, the Philippine-American War (1899–1902) provides an underexploited opportunity to see torturers themselves justifying their behavior at length. U.S. soldiers accused of abusing prisoners consistently played down their acts, arguing that the rope went around the detainee’s jaw instead of his neck, that the hits were slaps from the sides rather than punches straight out from the shoulder, that the “water cure” (which is somewhat like waterboarding) did not last very long, and so on. Yet at the same time, soldiers believed that it was necessary to use methods that would not be considered appropriate in other settings, because, as one veteran of the war put it, “[S]cruples often mean[t] flat failure or belated action.” Overall, U.S. interrogators in the Philippines believed that their techniques were, in the words of one practitioner, “the least brutal and painful which would be efficacious.”
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Winkelmann, Tessa. "Marshaling Interracial Intercourse during the Philippine-American War, 1898–1902." In Dangerous Intercourse, 19–46. Cornell University Press, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501767074.003.0002.

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This chapter explores how the lives of Filipino women shifted after the arrival of the US military in the Philippines. It starts with the letters of the Lopez family highlighting the atrocities of the US military demanding people's homes and liberties of women and became part of the later anti-imperialist agenda. Dangerous intercourse most often materialized in the ubiquitous physical sexual violence around the archipelago during the Philippine–American War. The chapter elaborates on how both Americans and Filipinos attempted to shape the narrative on sexuality and control interracial intercourse to achieve their respective vision for the Philippines and influence the Philippine–American War. It explains that the sexual vice economy and its adjacent liquor industry offered ways to undermine US imperial rule and negotiate their positions in the changing political climate.
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Tupas, Ruanni. "English in the Philippines." In The Oxford Handbook of Southeast Asian Englishes, 285–96. Oxford University Press, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780192855282.013.14.

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Abstract Any discussion of English in the context of a national polity, especially a postcolonial one, must have a long historical reach. With English in the Philippines, this means locating its political, ideological, and discursive dimensions within the colonial matrix of American colonialism. English was imposed during the Philippine–American War of 1899–1902; thereafter, English and education served as a core cultural tool for ‘benevolent assimilation’. Thus, the promise of English as a legitimate discourse of aspiration even among the poor is a promise that has not been fulfilled for all. English remains a socioeconomically differentiating language; it is pervasive in most aspects of Philippine life, but the colonial ideologies and practices associated with it endure. The challenge now is how not to deprive Filipinos of opportunities to learn English while, at the same time, leaving them free to commit themselves to demolishing conditions of coloniality which perpetuate its power.
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Kelly, Piers. "From Pinay to Mariano Datahan (And Back Again)." In The Last Language on Earth, 175–210. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197509913.003.0008.

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Mariano Datahan was the charismatic leader of the Eskaya community who lived on the island of Bohol in the Philippines, from circa 1875 to 1949. From various oral and written sources, it is possible to establish the broad circumstances of his life that led to his establishment of a radical utopian community. In childhood he served as an altar boy under the missionary linguist Fr. Felix Guillen, and he later participated in the Philippine–American War (1899–1902). After converting to the Iglesia Filipina Independiente he developed a more radical spiritual program and attracted followers from across the island. His militant movement had many similarities with cult organizations known as pulahans and colorums, active on neighboring islands. He would make peace with the U.S. regime and began developing a unique cultural and literary program that came to fruition in the years before the Japanese occupation of Bohol (1942–1945).
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Conference papers on the topic "Philippine American War (1899-1902)"

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Kender, Walter J. "Citrus Canker: Impacts of Research on Eradication and Control." In ASME 1986 Citrus Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/cec1986-3204.

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Citrus Bacterial Canker Disease (CBCD), caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri, occurs in many citrus areas of the world. It has been reported in 40 different countries, on 5 continents (Asia, South Africa, Australia, South America and North America). Prior to the 1984 outbreak in Florida, the 4 known strains of the bacterium were A, B, C and Mexican bacterioses. Canker-A or Strain-A, endemic in Asia, was reported in China, India and Java in the early 1800’s, found in Japan in 1899 and in the Philippines in 1914. It affects most citrus species and hybrids. Grapefruit is especially susceptible. Strain-A was introduced into the United States from Japan on trifoliate orange seedlings in 1910. An eradication program was started in 1915 in Florida and the disease was eradicated in 1927. In South America, the Asiatic form was not found until 1957 in Brazil and 1972 in Argentina. In 1979, the A Strain broke out in the commercial citrus area of Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Paper published with permission.
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Reports on the topic "Philippine American War (1899-1902)"

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Rost, James. The Oregon Volunteers in the Spanish-American War and Philippine Insurrection : the annotated and edited diary of Chriss A. Bell, May 2, 1898 to June 24, 1899. Portland State University Library, January 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.15760/etd.6001.

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2

Abb, Madelfia A. Bringing About a Military Learning Organization the US Army in the Philippine War, 1899-1902. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, February 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada383682.

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3

McEnroe, Sean. Oregon soldiers and the Portland press in the Philippine wars of 1898 and 1899 : how Oregonians defined the race of Filipinos and the mission of America. Portland State University Library, January 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.15760/etd.5912.

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