Journal articles on the topic 'Phillips curve evidence in developed and developing countries'

<strong>Abstract:</strong> The main purpose of this study is to quantitatively explore the empirical evidence either in support of or against the existence of the Phillips curve in Ghana using a modified version of the New Keynesian Phillips curve (NKPC) model with Nigeria and US as benchmarks. With time-series data from 1971-2020, the study uses the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression framework to analyse the statistical significance of the parameters of the model. Using different measures of market tightness, informed by Chow&rsquo;s structural break test, and drawing on variants of the NKPC, the study interestingly&nbsp; finds that the standard positive association between the output gap and inflation for the US and other advanced economies is not present for Ghana and Nigeria. This new discovery has important relevance for the conduct of economic policy in Ghana, Nigeria and other developing countries and warrants a careful evaluation of the application of the NKPC for developing and emerging economies. <strong>Keywords:</strong> Inflation, Money, Monetary Policy, New Keynesian Model, New Keynesian Phillips curve, Phillips curve, Phillips curve evidence,&nbsp; flattening of the Phillips Curve, Phillips curve evidence in developed and developing countries. <strong>Title:</strong> Investigating the Evidence of the Philips Curve in Ghana, Nigeria and the US:&nbsp; Does the empirical evidence support the Philips Curve in Ghana, Nigeria and the US? <strong>Author:</strong> John Adjei <strong>International Journal of Novel Research in Marketing Management and Economics</strong> <strong>ISSN 2394-7322</strong> <strong>Vol. 10, Issue 1, January 2023 - April 2023</strong> <strong>Page No: 1-16</strong> <strong>Novelty Journals</strong> <strong>Website: www.noveltyjournals.com</strong> <strong>Published Date: 03-</strong><strong> January- 2023</strong> <strong>DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7501099</strong> <strong>Paper Download Link (Source)</strong> <strong>https://www.noveltyjournals.com/upload/paper/Investigating%20the%20Evidence%20of%20the%20Philips%20Curve-03012023-1.pdf</strong>

Unemployment is among the major problems not only in less developed and developing countries but in developed countries as well. It spells out the extent of poverty a household will have to sustain. Strongly influenced by the premises of the Okun’s Law and Phillips Curve, this study sought to determine the link between unemployment and inflation and economic growth. An additional explanatory variable, age dependency ratio, was introduced to investigate this facet of unemployment which is based on the premise that a high age dependency ratio would result to lower unemployment. Unit root tests were employed to the data series prior to testing the hypothesized relationships which employed ordinary least squares (OLS) regression technique. Tests for heteroskedasticity and collinearity were done using White’s test and VIF, respectively. It was found that unemployment is negatively related to inflation and economic growth, confirming Okun’s Law and Philips Curve in the Philippines for the period covering 1980 to 2009. Moreover, age dependency ratio was found to be positively related with unemployment albeit, the relationship is not significant. The coefficient of determination obtained for the model was 72.7% hence overall, the regression line relatively describes the data well.

Economic liberalization has been the emphasisof adjustment policies in developing countries; ASEAN countries jumped on the bandwagon and espousedeconomic reforms by liberalizingits international trade andfinancial policies. Through the development of free tradeagreement policies such as AEC and RCEP,regional economic integration is accelerating in South East Asia; not leaving behind the less developed member countries such as Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam (CLMV). Hence, the objectives ofthis paper are to examine the dynamic impact of economic liberalization (financial and trade liberalization) on ASEAN’seconomic growth and to assess the possibility of the existence of convergence club between ASEAN and its RCEPcounterparts. Using the annual data covering the period of 1994to 2014, the analysis is based on the Pooled Mean Group (PMG) estimations for liberalization analysis while the Phillips and Sul (2007) methodology is used to assess the economic convergence clubs. The empirical evidence suggests that both trade and financial liberalization play a significant role in ASEAN’seconomic growth. For convergencein RCEP,full sample find an absence of homogenous convergence;as a result, four club convergencesare formed.The result highlights the importance of trade and financial liberalization in enhancing economic growth of ASEANandimpliesthat strong commitments in continuation of liberalization and integration policies arerecommended to promote a sustained economic growth.

Globalization led to economic integration, which increased the competitiveness of economies through interconnection and interdependence. Financial Development (FD) is considered as an engine of Economic Growth (EG) that significantly contributes in economic productivity and raising prosperity in an economy. This study aims to analyze the relationship between FD and global competitiveness from a global perspective. For this purpose, panel data of 87 developed and 60 developing countries have been used for the period 2000- 2020. The Panel Quantile Regression (PQR) estimation technique has been used for the analysis. The results demonstrate that sustainable FD significantly increases the competitiveness of all countries. However, this impact is non-linear across different quantile groups which suggests evidence of an inverted U-shaped relationship. The linearized marginal effect indicates that all developed economies lie before the maturity of the inverted U-shaped curve. In contrast, except Bolivia, Cabo Verde, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Korea Rep of, Lebanon, Mongolia, Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Siri Lanka, Tunisia, and Vietnam, all remaining developing nations also lie before the maturity of an inverted U-shaped curve. This indicates that FD accelerates global competitiveness up to a certain optimal point, and excessive financialization may lead to the misallocation of resources and raising financial risk. The study suggests that developing countries need to implement policies to attain optimal level of sustainable FD, which boosts their competitiveness. The major contribution of the present study is to help the policy makers to formulate proper policies to increase global competitiveness.

This study proved the EKC hypothesis results of the trade-off between economic growth and environmental degradation in Indonesia. The researchers used the non-linear quadratic regression estimation. This study found that the EKC hypothesis was almost valid in all islands in Indonesia, such as Sumatra Island, Sulawesi Island, Borneo Island, and Small Island in the Eastern Region of Indonesia. Thus, the economic growth causes the environmental gradation while the trade-off did not apply in Java and Bali. Government policies regarding the environment and globalization played an important role in generating and transferring production technology that saved resources and used cleaner technology from developed countries to developing countries so the EKC hypothesis does not apply in Indonesia.

Asia and the Pacific have made rapid progress in economic growth but still have work to do in environmental degradation. Logical consequence because pursuing economic progress has raised environmental problems and has become one of the central issues for development. The Asia-Pacific region became the most significant contributor and growth in carbon dioxide emissions compared to other regions. The research objective is to analyze the impact of urbanization on environmental quality and its interaction through economic growth using the standard Dynamic Model of the Autoregressive Distributed Lag approach. The result show demonstrates consistency in developed countries and the High-Income countries categories. Urbanization has a significant negative effect on emissions, and the Growth variable is significantly positive; nevertheless, the EKC curve does not occur. Urbanization deteriorates the relationship between growth and emissions. It is not proven in developing countries and the lower and upper middle income. Equitable development needs to be carried out by every country by considering the quality and sustainable economic institutions and pro-environmental innovations, especially in developing or lower and upper-middle countries.

This study empirically examines the dynamic relationships among tourism, economic growth, and CO2 emissions and compares the effects of tourism on economic growth and CO2 emissions between developed and developing economies. By employing robust panel econometric techniques, the results show that tourism has significant positive impacts on economic growth for both developed and developing economies, supporting the prevailing hypothesis of tourism-led economic growth. The results also reveal that the impact of tourism on CO2 emissions is reducing much faster in developed economies than in developing economies, providing evidence of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis on the link between tourism growth and CO2 emissions. Our findings demonstrate the importance of the classification of countries by economic development level to obtain a deeper understanding of relationships among tourism, economic growth, and CO2 emissions. Policy implications are provided and discussed.

The paper first presents evidence from the engineering literature on air and water pollution control, which shows that, when the pollution abatement technologies are in place, large reductions in pollution have been achieved at costs that are small relative to the costs of production. A simulation model is then developed to study the effects of technical progress on pollution abatement, and applied to particular cases in developing countries. The results are compared with the projections of an environmental Kuznets curve: they reproduce the latter if policies were not to be introduced until per capita incomes reached levels comparable to those of the industrial countries when they first introduced their policies; but show dramatically lower and earlier peaks if policies were to be introduced earlier. The conclusion is shown to apply more generally, and it is argued that developing countries can aspire to addressing their environmental problems at a much earlier phase of development than the industrial countries before them.

Income inequality has emerged as a defining challenge of our time, particularly in advanced economies, where the gap between rich and poor has reached unprecedented levels. This study analyzes income inequality trends from 2000 to 2023 across developed countries (the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France) and developing nations using World Bank Gini coefficient data. We employ comprehensive visualization techniques, Pareto distribution analysis, and ARIMA time-series forecasting models to evaluate the effectiveness of the Kuznets curve as a predictor of income inequality. Our analysis reveals significant deviations from the traditional inverse U-shaped Kuznets curve across all examined countries, with persistent volatility rather than the predicted decline in inequality. Forecasts using ARIMA and neural networks indicate continued fluctuations in inequality through 2030, with the U.S. and Germany showing upward trends while France and the UK demonstrate relative stability. These findings challenge the conventional Kuznets hypothesis and demonstrate that contemporary inequality patterns are influenced by factors beyond economic development, including technological change, globalization, and policy choices. This research contributes to the literature by providing empirical evidence that the Kuznets curve has limited predictive power in modern economies, informing policymakers about the need for targeted interventions to address persistent inequality rather than relying on economic growth alone.

The agricultural sector has historically been significant. However, today, eventhough the share of the agricultural sector in the total output is lower compared to other sectors in both developed and developing countries, it remains a sector of great importance in terms of both food production and economic indicators. To reveal the economic impacts of the agricultural sector, this study examines the relationship between agricultural exports, agricultural employment, and economic growth in Turkey for the period 1990-2022. In the study, per capita income is used as an indicator of economic growth, the share of agricultural exports in total exports as an indicator of agricultural exports, and the share of agricultural employment in total employment as an indicator of agricultural employment. The ADF and Phillips-Perron (PP) unit root tests and the ARDL bounds testing approach were used as methods in the study. According to the obtained results, there is a cointegration relationship for the model. Based on the long-term coefficients, agricultural exports increase economic growth, while agricultural employment decreases it. According to the short-term results, there is no deviation in agricultural employment, while agricultural exports also statistically significantly and positively affect economic growth in the short term. Turkey should increase agricultural mechanization and shift agricultural employment to other sectors. Furthermore, instead of exporting agricultural products as raw materials, processing them and exporting them as higher value-added products would contribute more to economic growth.

This study examined the relationship between CO2 emissions embodied in international trade and economic growth for OECD and non-OECD countries between 2005 and 2015. Unlike the traditional environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis, which does not account for trade patterns, CO2 emissions embodied in trade balances were adopted in several models. To analyze the panel series, this study utilized econometric procedures: panel regression, the panel unit root test, the panel cointegration test, and panel Granger causality. To investigate evidence supporting the pollution haven hypothesis (PHH), this study constructed an equation including CO2 emissions embodied in net exports as a proportion of consumption. The results from the panel regression model validated the EKC hypothesis, even considering the CO2 emissions embodied in trade. Results of the panel unit root, panel cointegration, and Granger causality tests showed that CO2 emissions embodied in trade and economic growth have bi-directional Granger causality. This study provided evidence for the PHH, although some upper countries of net exporters or net importers for CO2 emissions can be observed. This study highlighted the need to intensify international cooperation to decrease environmental pollutants in both developed and developing countries, and considered the importance of CO2 emissions embodied in trade by expanding globalization.

The paper uses the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) theory to study the environmental impact of economic growth in 17 Asian countries in the period 1996-2019 and at the same time search for the income threshold which causes a change in direction of impact. A dynamic panel threshold regression model is used. The findings show that economic growth has an inverted U-shaped nonlinear effect on environmental degradation. Accordingly, economic growth increases the impact on degradation when GDP per capita is low, but when it exceeds the threshold point (12487 USD thousand/person/year), economic growth helps to improve environmental quality. When comparing the difference in impact between the group of developed and developing countries, our results again confirm these findings. This result provided evidence that the EKC hypothesis exists in Asian countries. In addition, energy consumption, foreign direct investment, trade openness, and institutional quality significantly impact CO2 emissions. Some policy implications are suggested to reduce environmental degradation and promote sustainable economic development in Asia based on the research results

Tourism plays an important role in fostering economic growth within the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum member countries. Nevertheless, the development of this sector has resulted in significant depletion of natural resources and pollution. This research aims to determine the relationship between tourism, economic growth, and environmental pollution in both developing and developed APEC economies from 1995 to 2020. By adopting the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) framework, two dynamic panel data models are estimated employing Dynamic Ordinary Least Squares (DOLS), and causal relationships are established using the Dumitrescu–Hurlin test. The results indicate that tourism and economic growth have had a positive influence on the rise of environmental pollution in both groups of economies during the specified period. This research offers new insights by analyzing twelve developing and nine developed APEC economies over a span of 25 years, estimating two DOLS models, conducting Dumitrescu–Hurlin causality tests, and presenting evidence of EKC for both types of economies. Consequently, the implementation of policies that foster the preservation of natural areas, the utilization of renewable energies, and the promotion of sustainable tourism practices is recommended.

The relationship between income inequality and economic growth has long been a subject of intense academic debate, with varying perspectives emerging from different theoretical and empirical studies. This article delves into the complexities of this relationship, exploring how income inequality can both positively and negatively impact economic growth, depending on the context. Theoretical perspectives range from the classical Kuznets Curve, which posits that inequality initially increases with economic growth before eventually declining, to more contemporary views that highlight the risks of excessive inequality, particularly in developing economies. Empirical evidence from developed and developing countries further underscores the nuanced nature of this relationship. In developed economies, income inequality may sometimes promote growth by incentivizing investment and innovation, provided there are strong institutions to mitigate potential downsides. Conversely, in developing economies, high levels of inequality often inhibit growth by restricting access to education, healthcare, and other essential services, thus limiting human capital development. The study also emphasizes the critical role of institutions and policy interventions in shaping the relationship between income inequality and economic growth. Effective governance, progressive taxation, and investment in social infrastructure are highlighted as key strategies to balance growth with equity. The findings suggest that while some inequality might be necessary to spur economic progress, excessive inequality poses significant threats to long-term sustainable development. The article concludes by advocating for a balanced policy approach that promotes inclusive growth and ensures that the benefits of economic expansion are shared more broadly across society.

Wastewater recycling has emerged as a prominent option among the various alternative sources of water in both developing and developed countries. However, the questions that need to be answered in this context are: how do communities determine which option is best for them, and what are the factors that make one water alternative more appealing than another? The aim in this paper is to understand the factors that affect wastewater management across communities that are at varying stages of economic development. From an in-depth literature review of 329 studies, the factors that determine wastewater management have been grouped together into four categories: physical, economic, institutional and environmental factors. Finally, drawing on the Environmental Kuznets Curve, a framework has been developed that combines these factors that constrain or facilitate wastewater treatment and recycling over a broad spectrum of economic settings and stages of development. The factors, their components and the methods through which relevant empirical evidence can be collected to assess them, are presented and discussed in detail. In doing this, the aim is to highlight the changing nature of the four factors which will influence long-term investments in wastewater infrastructure.

Abstract Population aging will inevitably bring an increasing burden of poor cognitive function. The risk factors for cognitive decline have been widely studied. Even though environmental hazards have the greatest adverse impacts on older adults and the existing evidence has shown that green space, air pollution, and weather have an impact on cognitive function, most of the studies were conducted in developed countries and limited to cross-sectional analyses. China has the largest aging population in the world so the research evidence from it can offer an insight to the study in other developing countries facing similar issues and inform future public health policy and disease control. Using the data from a nationally representative sample of adults aged 45 years and older from the three waves of China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS 2011-2015) and China City Statistical Yearbook, this study estimated multilevel growth curve models for the effects of green space coverage, air pollution, and weather conditions on cognitive function and cognitive decline. It showed that after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, built area green coverage rate was positively associated with cognition score at baseline, and higher annual minimum temperature was associated with faster decline in cognitive function. These effects did not substantially change after weekly total hours of physical activities and levels of social engagement were added and the interaction effects were examined between environmental conditions with them, respectively. More research on the mechanisms of the effects of environmental factors on cognition is needed such as the subgroup analyses.

The global focus on the use of renewable energy resources was mainly reignited by the signing of the Kyoto Protocol Agreement in 1997. Since then, the world has seen a great deal of progress in terms of the production and consumption of renewable energy. This in turn is rapidly powering economic growth and social development around the globe. Contrary to popular belief, the use of renewable energy is not limited to developed countries only. The developing countries are also rapidly endorsing renewable energy as a vital engine of economic growth and societal development. In this regard, even though renewable energy production and consumption are in their infancy in BRICS, these countries are taking concrete steps towards the development of renewable energy resources. The results of previous studies have indicated that with an increase in the GDP of a country its carbon footprint also tends to increase; the Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) countries are no exception in this regard. One of the main challenges in research related to measuring the contribution of renewable energy towards economic growth is the use of a singular model or techniques that may not be appropriate for the generalization of the results. This study intends to overcome this challenge by application of multiple econometric-based models which include the “Cross Dependency” test, the unit root test, and “CIPS” (cross-sectional augmented IPS). Besides these the second generation, stochastic models based upon econometrics, such as the DOLS test (dynamic ordinary least square) and the FMOLS (fully modified ordinary least square) are also applied for verification of the contribution of renewable energy towards the economic growth of the BRICS countries. The novelty of the study mainly stems from fact that these models are seldom applied in tandem and especially in the BRICS countries. The results of the study indicate that the existence of the bi-directional relationship between the use of renewable energy and economic growth is mainly indicated by the increase in GDP, thus lending support to the feedback hypothesis. Moreover, the conservation hypothesis was proven by the existence of a unidirectional causality relationship between the use of renewable energy and CO2 emissions. Alongside these, the study also included sensitivity analysis to gauge the impact of the growth of GDP on the CO2 emissions of BRICS countries, and regression analysis was performed to create an EKC curve which was used to gauge not only the sensitivity but also to help in highlighting the impact of using renewable energy in controlling and reducing CO2 emissions, thus proving the EKC theory. Thus, it can be deduced that increase in CO2 emissions is of major concern for the BRICS countries, which has led them to increase the production of renewable energy. Based upon the findings of the present study it is recommended that policymakers should encourage the use of renewable energy by offering incentives in financial terms, such as interest-free or low-interest loans, subsidies and feed-in tariffs.

The world’s development infrastructure is at risk from landslides and their consequences in many areas across the globe. There is evidence that landslide disaster is increasing in developing countries. Lesser Himalaya of Nepal is highly susceptible for landslide and various people lose their life and property each year due to landslide. The main aim of this study was to prepare 1) to identify the specific characteristics of landslides in Jumre Khola watershed. 2) To relate the rainfall intensity with landslides distribution in Jumre Khola watershed. &amp; 3) To prepare landslide susceptibility map of Jumre Khola watershed. For this, a detailed landslide inventory was prepared by field survey and Google Earth imagery interpretation. This inventory map was separated into two groups for training the model and validating the result. A landslide susceptibility maps was developed by WOE model. Finally, validation of the model was done by using the success rate curve analysis. The verification result showed that the model performed very well with the success rate of 86.79%. The generalized linear model was performed between landslide and rainfall to know if there is significant relationship between landslide and rainfall. The Jumre Khola watershed is selected for the present study due to the presence of a large number of landslides in the region as well as due to the presence of huge amount of settlement in the mountain slopes and the river valley that are in high risk of landslides. The produced susceptibility map can be useful for general land-use planning, as well as it can provide information to the planners for the adaptation of appropriate mitigating measures for landside in the Jumre Khola watershed.

In most developing countries, biophysical data are scarce, which hinders evidence-based watershed planning and management. To use the scarce data for resource development applications, special techniques are required. Thus, the primary goal of this study was to estimate sediment yield and identify erosion hotspot areas of the Andasa watershed with limited sediment concentration records. The hydrological simulation used meteorological, hydrological, suspended sediment concentration, 12.5 m Digital Elevation Model (DEM), 250 m resolution African Soil Information Service (AfSIS) soil, and 30 m resolution land-cover data. Using the limited sediment concentration data, a sediment rating curve was developed to estimate the sediment yield from discharge. The physical-based Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was employed to simulate streamflow and sediment yield in a monthly time step. The result shows that SWAT predicted streamflow with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.88 and 0.81, Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) of 0.88 and 0.80, and percent of bias (PBIAS) of 6.4 and 9.9 during calibration and validation periods, respectively. Similarly, during calibration and validation, the model predicted the sediment yield with R2 of 0.79 and 0.71, NSE of 0.72 and 0.66, and PBIAS of 2.7 and −8.6, respectively. According to the calibrated model result in the period 1992–2020, the mean annual sediment yield of the watershed was estimated as 17.9 t ha−1yr−1. Spatially, around 22% of the Andassa watershed was severely eroded, and more than half of the watershed (55%) was moderately eroded. The remaining 23% of the watershed was free of erosion risk. Therefore, the findings suggests that applying the sediment rating curve equation, in conjunction with hydrological and sediment modeling, can be used to estimate sediment yield and identify erosion hotspot areas in data-scarce regions of the Upper Blue Nile Basin in particular, and the Ethiopian highlands in general with similar environmental settings.

The world's development&nbsp;infrastructure is at risk from landslides and their consequences in&nbsp;many&nbsp;areas across the globe. There is evidence that landslide disaster is increasing in developing countries. Lesser Himalaya of Nepal is highly susceptible for landslide and various people lose their life&nbsp;and property&nbsp;each year due&nbsp;to landslide. The main aim&nbsp;of&nbsp;this study&nbsp;was&nbsp;to prepare&nbsp;1) to identify the specific characteristics of landslides in Jumre Khola watershed. 2) To relate the rainfall intensity with landslides distribution in Jumre Khola watershed. &amp; 3) To prepare landslide susceptibility map of Jumre Khola watershed. For this, a detailed landslide inventory was prepared by field survey and Google Earth imagery interpretation. This inventory map was separated into two groups for training the model and validating the result. A landslide susceptibility&nbsp;maps was developed by&nbsp;WOE model. Finally, validation&nbsp;of&nbsp;the model&nbsp;was done by using the success rate curve analysis. The verification result showed that the model performed very well&nbsp;with the success rate of&nbsp;86.79%. The generalized linear model&nbsp;was performed between landslide and rainfall to know if there is significant relationship between landslide and rainfall. The Jumre Khola watershed is selected for the present study due to the presence of a large number of landslides in&nbsp;the region&nbsp;as well&nbsp;as due tothe presence of&nbsp;huge amount of&nbsp;settlement in the mountain slopes and the river valley that are in high risk of landslides. The produced susceptibility map can be useful for general land-use planning, as well as it can provide information to the planners for the adaptation of appropriate mitigating measures for landside in the Jumre Khola watershed.

The COVID-19 pandemic has created unprecedented burdens on people’s health and subjective well-being. While countries around the world have established models to track and predict the affective states of COVID-19, identifying the topics of public discussion and sentiment evolution of the vaccine, particularly the differences in topics of concern between vaccine-support and vaccine-hesitant groups, remains scarce. Using social media data from the two years following the outbreak of COVID-19 (23 January 2020 to 23 January 2022), coupled with state-of-the-art natural language processing (NLP) techniques, we developed a public opinion analysis framework (BertFDA). First, using dynamic topic clustering on Weibo through the latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) model, a total of 118 topics were generated in 24 months using 2,211,806 microblog posts. Second, by building an improved Bert pre-training model for sentiment classification, we provide evidence that public negative sentiment continued to decline in the early stages of COVID-19 vaccination. Third, by modeling and analyzing the microblog posts from the vaccine-support group and the vaccine-hesitant group, we discover that the vaccine-support group was more concerned about vaccine effectiveness and the reporting of news, reflecting greater group cohesion, whereas the vaccine-hesitant group was particularly concerned about the spread of coronavirus variants and vaccine side effects. Finally, we deployed different machine learning models to predict public opinion. Moreover, functional data analysis (FDA) is developed to build the functional sentiment curve, which can effectively capture the dynamic changes with the explicit function. This study can aid governments in developing effective interventions and education campaigns to boost vaccination rates.

Up to the beginning of the last decade, financial economics was dominated by linear paradigm, which assumed that economic time series conformed to linear models or could be wellapproximated by a linear model. However, there is increasing evidence that asset returns may be better characterized by a model which allows for non-linear behaviour. Though more efforts are now being directed towards the Asian stock markets in the light of their increasing importance to the investment world and the world economy, there is an extremely sparse literature, which utilizes recent advances in non-linear dynamics to examine the data generating process of the South-Asian stock markets. This study investigates the presence of non-linear dependence in three major markets of South Asia: India, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan. It was, however, realized that merely identifying non-linear dependence was not enough. Previous research has shown that the presence of nonlinear characteristics usually takes the form of ARCH/GARCH (Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity or Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity) type conditional heteroscedasticity. Keeping this in view, this study investigates whether the non-linear dependence is caused by predictable conditional volatility. It has been found that the simple GARCH (1, 1) model has fitted all the market return series adequately and accounted for the non-linearity found in the series. The findings reveal the following: The application of the BDS test developed by Brock, et al., (1996) strongly rejects the null hypothesis of independent and identical distribution of the return series as well as the linearly filtered return series for all the markets under study. With the possibility of linear dependence causing the rejection of independent and identical distribution (IID) being eliminated by linear filtering, the study also shows that non-stationarity of return series is also not a cause for non-IID behaviour by applying Augmented Dickey Fuller test and Phillips-Perron test. This implies the presence of non-linear dependence in the return series. For researchers in the developing countries, it is time to embrace the shift to non-linearity as it would provide a better understanding of the underlying dynamics of financial time series. However, the results are not necessarily inconsistent with efficient market hypothesis, simply because non-linearity does not essentially imply predictability as the future price changes can be predictable but only with a time horizon too short to allow for excess profits. The implications of non-linear dependence and presence of GARCH effects go beyond the issue of market efficiency. The common assumption of constant variance underlying the theory and practice of option pricing, portfolio optimization, and value-at-risk (VaR) calculations needs to be revised. If the assumed stochastic processes do not adequately depict the full complexity of the true generating processes, then any derivatives in question may be mis-priced.

Abstract Introduction The prescribing rate of Opioids is increasing and is perceived as main contributor to opioid misuse.1,2 Community pharmacists can help reduce opioid misuse rates by carrying out licit opioid misuse prevention services.3 Understanding and reviewing the barriers and facilitators to community pharmacists’ involvement in the prevention of licit (over-the-counter and prescription) opioid misuse prevention services have the potential to significantly improve these services. Aim To identify, collate and synthesise existing evidence of stakeholders’ views regarding barriers and facilitators to community pharmacists’ role in licit opioid misuse. Methods A systematic review of original studies was carried out in MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, CINAHL, and APA PsycINFO using search terms for community pharmacy, opioid misuse interventions and opioid misuse. Titles, abstract and full text were independently reviewed by two researchers and consensus on eligibility of included studies was reached. Studies were included if they were: either qualitative or mixed methods studies of community pharmacy and licit opioid misuse; published in English; either over-the-counter or prescription opioids. Quantitative, non-English studies; and studies on illicit opioids were excluded. Narrative synthesis was carried out by: developing a theory of change model, data extraction and thematic analysis, discussing relationship and robustness of studies. Quality assessment was carried out by the Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal checklist. Ethical approval was obtained from Newcastle University Faculty of Medical Sciences Research ethics committee. Results A total of 1,234 articles were retrieved from all database searches. After deduplication, title, abstract screening and data extraction, 10 studies were included. Barriers and facilitators identified are knowledge and skill, pharmacists’ attitude, relationship with prescribers, time, number of support staff, remuneration of service, scheduling of over-the-counter opioids, corporate pharmacy support, private counseling room and electronic programmes. The factors grouped as: capabilities are knowledge and skill; opportunities include relationship with prescribers, time, number of support staff, remuneration of services, scheduling of over-the-counter opioids, corporate pharmacy support, private counseling room and electronic programmes while motivation was Pharmacists’ attitude. Discussion/Conclusion Overall, Study opines that: (1) improving capabilities and opportunities will improve motivation of the Community Pharmacists; (2) improved motivation of Community Pharmacists will improve their involvement in the prevention of licit opioids misuse. (3) Improved capability could be achieved by implementation of policies that focus on: improving opioid misuse education at the undergraduate level and routine training of community pharmacists; while (4) improved opportunity could be achieved by implementing integrated pharmacy care model (a health system in which community pharmacists and prescribers collaborate), increased number of pharmacy support staff, remuneration for service, upscheduling of OTC opioids, pharmacy managers’ support, modifying the community pharmacy setting to include a private consultation area and efficient electronic systems. Findings of this study may not be generalized to developing countries because majority of the studies included in the review were carried out in developed countries. However, implementation of these factors (by policy makers, pharmacy managers) will improve community pharmacists’ attitude towards the provision of licit opioid misuse prevention services resulting in improved community pharmacists’ involvement in these services. References 1. Davies E, Phillips C, Rance J, Sewell B. Examining patterns in opioid prescribing for non-cancer-related pain in Wales: preliminary data from a retrospective cross-sectional study using large datasets. British Journal of Pain. 2019;13(3):145-58. 2. Jani M, Birlie Yimer B, Sheppard T, Lunt M, Dixon WG. Time trends and prescribing patterns of opioid drugs in UK primary care patients with non-cancer pain: A retrospective cohort study. PLoS Medicine. 2020;17(10):e1003270. 3. Society RP. Improving care, reducing harm and preventing death in people who use drugs: pharmacy's role 2021. Available from: https://www.rpharms.com/recognition/all-our-campaigns/policy-a-z/drug-deaths-and-the-role-of-the-pharmacy-team

Obesity is a chronic, long-term medical condition that progressively worsens over time. It is a global health concern affecting both developing and developed countries. Historically, obesity was predominantly an issue among adults; however, it has increasingly become a significant problem among children and adolescents in recent years. Numerous studies have investigated the underlying risk factors influencing adolescent obesity using traditional statistical methods. However, the application of machine learning approaches remains underexplored, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This study aimed to apply both statistical (Logistic and probit models) and machine learning models to adolescent obesity data from Nigeria to identify key influencing variables and determine the most suitable modeling approach. The data used for this study were secondary data sourced from the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) 2018. The variables analyzed included demographic characteristics and other obesity-related factors. Logistic regression, probit regression, and naïve Bayes models were employed for the analysis. The dataset consisted of a total of 491 studied participants, with 200 (40.7%) being male and 291 (59.3%) females. The summary statistics indicated that the mean age of respondents was 14.55 years, with mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures of 108.41 mmHg and 71.07 mmHg, respectively. The logistic regression analysis revealed that male adolescents were 5.727 times more likely to be obese compared to females. Additionally, the odds of being obese were 0.84 times lower for adolescents without a family history of obesity. Among the models tested, logistic regression provided the best fit for the data, demonstrating the highest sensitivity (0.8929), specificity (0.8194), area under the curve (AUC = 0.8525), and accuracy (88.80%). This model also had the lowest Akaike Information Criterion (AIC = 317.15) and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC = 409.48). The findings of this study indicate that logistic regression is the most suitable model for identifying determinants of adolescent obesity in Nigeria. The results highlight the importance of gender and family history as significant predictors of obesity, which can inform targeted public health interventions. Further exploration of machine learning techniques in this context is recommended to enhance predictive capabilities and support evidence-based decision-making in obesity prevention efforts.

ABSTRAK Tujuan utama dari makalah ini untuk menguji secara empiris pengaruh zakat, Produk Domestik Regional Bruto (PDRB) perkapita, Upah Minimum Regional/Provinsi (UMP), dan inflasi terhadap tingkat gini rasio di 34 provinsi di Indonesia selama tahun 2018-2020. Temuan penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa distribusi zakat yang diproksikan dengan Indeks Kesejahteraan BAZNAS serta tingkat inflasi secara statistik tidak berpengaruh signifikan terhadap tingkat ketimpangan pendapatan di Indonesia. Sementara itu, tingkat PDRB perkapita dan UMP memiliki arah hubungan negatif dan berpengaruh signifikan secara statistik terhadap tingkat ketimpangan pendapatan di Indonesia. Penelitian ini memberikan rekomendasi kepada pengelola zakat untuk menciptakan dan mengembangkan program zakat yang mampu memberdayakan perekonomian mustahik sehingga mampu mengurangi tingkat kesenjangan pendapatan dalam masyarakat. Selain itu, seluruh pemangku kepentingan (stakeholders) harus bersinergi dalam upaya meningkatkan realisasi pengumpulan dana zakat di lembaga dengan melalui peningkatan literasi dan kesadaran masyarakat guna mengoptimalisasikan peran zakat dalam peningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat. Kata kunci: Indeks Kesejahteraan BAZNAS, Ketimpangan Pendapatan, Makroekonomi, Zakat. ABSTRACT The main objective of this paper was to empirically examine the effect of zakat, Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) percapita, Regional/Provincial Minimum Wage, and inflation on the gini ratio in 34 provinces in Indonesia during 2018-2020. The findings of this study indicate that the distribution of zakat, which is proxied by the BAZNAS Welfare Index, and the inflation rate has no statistically significant effect on the level of income inequality in Indonesia. Meanwhile, GRDP per capita and Regional/Provincial Minimum Wage levels have a negative and statistically significant relationship to the level of income inequality in Indonesia. In order to lessen the degree of income inequality in society, this study offers recommendations to zakat managers on how to design and develop zakat programs that can strengthen the mustahik's economy. In addition, all stakeholders must work together in an effort to increase the realization of zakat fund collection in institutions by increasing literacy and public awareness in order to maximize the contribution of zakat to raising the welfare of mankind. Keywords: Baznas Welfare Index, Income Inequality, Macroeconomics, Zakat. REFERENCES Abdelbaki, D. H. H. (2013). The impact of zakat on poverty and income inequality in Bahrain. Review of Integrative Business &amp; Economics Reseacrh, 2(1), 133–154. Afandi, A., Rantung, V. P., &amp; Marashdeh, H. (2017). Determinants of income inequality. 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Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a prevalent health concern within the general population of Pakistan, where the average lifespan is notably lower than the global average, with men typically living to 67 years and women to 69 years. According to the 2019 Global Burden of Disease study, Pakistan had an estimated age-standardized incidence rate of CVD at 918.18 per 100,000 (compared to the global rate of 684.33 per 100,000), along with an age-standardized death rate of 357.88 per 100,000 (globally, this rate is 239.85 per 100,000).1 Coronary heart disease (CHD), as revealed by the Framingham Heart Study focusing on individuals aged 40 to 94 without prior heart disease, displayed a lifetime risk of 49% for men and 32% for women when reaching the age of 40.2 There has been a declining trend in death rates in the United States attributed to CVD, CHD, and stroke since 1975. Data from 2000 to 2008 also indicate a decline in CHD mortality.3 Worryingly, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports a concerning rise in CHD-related fatalities in Pakistan. In 2020, 240,720 individuals died due to CHD, accounting for 16.49% of all deaths. This highlights an escalating trend of CHD-related mortality in Pakistan. It's important to note that most individuals presenting with cardiac events have one or more established or borderline risk factors aside from age and gender.4-6 While some essential risk factors are discernible, others may remain elusive. The screening of these risk factors and the evidence for targeted therapeutic interventions are still emerging and require further exploration.7 The starting point for assessing CVD risk factors is variables used to predict major cardiovascular events. These include age, sex, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, diabetes mellitus, and smoking status. Although risk assessment tools like the Pooled Cohort Equation in 2014 and Astro-CHARM have been developed, they have yet to provide satisfactory assessments for potential new CVD risk factors.8 CHD is recognized as a multifactorial disorder resulting from genetic and environmental factors interplay. Environmental risk factors have been identified in approximately 80% of CHD cases.9 Several risk scores, such as the Framingham Risk Score, PROCAM, Reynolds Risk Score, and QRISK 2, have been proposed to guide the use of statins in high-risk groups.10-14 Yet, these risk scores often lack precision and may either overestimate or underestimate future CHD events.15,16 The variation in disease susceptibility among individuals with similar environmental factors and conventional coronary artery disease risk factors (CRFs) may be attributed to genetic variations.17 Genetic analysis can potentially enhance risk discrimination beyond the consideration of CRFs alone. Family history of heart disease, accounting for more than 40% of risk estimation, has long been considered a part of CRFs.18 Candidate gene studies have been conducted to identify common variants in genes associated with disease pathways.19 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been employed as markers of genetic diversity. Among these SNPs, those located on the 9p21 locus have shown the strongest association with CHD risk to date.20,21 However, despite the clear link between these variants and incident CHD, 9p21 locus SNPs have not definitively improved the prediction or classification of CHD risk compared to traditional risk factors.22-24 It is important to note that most genetic studies on CHD have predominantly focused on European/Caucasian populations, and their applicability to the South Asian population, including Pakistan, requires further investigation.25,26 In this context, the Pakistani population, much like other Asian countries, is underrepresented in genetic research on CHD. Shahid SU et al. did some work in this respect,27 showing 21 SNPs risk score for genetic risk analysis in the Pakistani population. In conclusion, while different risk assessment tools have been developed for the Pakistani population aged 40 years and above, there is an urgent need to expand cardiac risk evaluation by identifying genetic markers related to CHD, particularly in the younger population. This will be crucial for advancing our understanding of CHD risk factors and developing more effective prevention and intervention strategies. References Samad Z, Hanif B. Cardiovascular Diseases in Pakistan: Imagining a Postpandemic, Postconflict Future. Circulation. 2023;147(17):1261-3. Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Beiser A, Levy D. Lifetime risk of developing coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1999;353(9147):89-92. Cooper R, Cutler J, Desvigne-Nickens P, Fortmann SP, Friedman L, Havlik R, et al. Trends and disparities in coronary heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases in the United States: findings of the national conference on cardiovascular disease prevention. Circulation. 2000;102(25):3137-47. Greenland P, Knoll MD, Stamler J, Neaton JD, Dyer AR, Garside DB, et al. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA. 2003;290(7):891-7. Khot UN, Khot MB, Bajzer CT, Sapp SK, Ohman EM, Brener SJ, et al. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2003;290(7):898-904. Vasan RS, Sullivan LM, Wilson PW, Sempos CT, Sundström J, Kannel WB, et al. Relative importance of borderline and elevated levels of coronary heart disease risk factors. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142(6):393-402. Hackam DG, Anand SS. Emerging risk factors for atherosclerotic vascular disease: a critical review of the evidence. JAMA. 2003;290(7):932-40. Pencina MJ, D'Agostino Sr RB, D'Agostino Jr RB, Vasan RS. Evaluating the added predictive ability of a new marker: from area under the ROC curve to reclassification and beyond. Stat Med. 2008;27(2):157-72. Aziz KU, Faruqui AM, Patel N, Jaffery H. Prevalence and awareness of cardiovascular disease including life styles in a lower middle class urban community in an Asian country. Pak Heart J. 2008;41(3-4):11-20. Beaney KE, Cooper JA, Ullah Shahid S, Ahmed W, Qamar R, Drenos F, et al. Clinical utility of a coronary heart disease risk prediction gene score in UK healthy middle aged men and in the Pakistani population. PloS One. 2015;10(7):e0130754. Belsky DW, Moffitt TE, Sugden K, Williams B, Houts R, McCarthy J, et al. Development and evaluation of a genetic risk score for obesity. Biodemograp Soc Biol. 2013;59(1):85-100. Bennet AM, Di Angelantonio E, Ye Z, Wensley F, Dahlin A, Ahlbom A, et al. Association of apolipoprotein E genotypes with lipid levels and coronary risk. JAMA. 2007;298(11):1300-11. Brindle P, Beswick A, Fahey T, Ebrahim S. Accuracy and impact of risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Heart. 2006;92(12):1752-9. Casas JP, Cooper J, Miller GJ, Hingorani AD, Humphries SE. Investigating the Genetic Determinants of Cardiovascular Disease Using Candidate Genes and Meta‐analysis of Association Studies. Ann Hum Genet. 2006;70(2):145-69. Collins GS, Altman DG. An independent and external validation of QRISK2 cardiovascular disease risk score: a prospective open cohort study. BMJ. 2010;340:340:c2442. Conroy RM, Pyörälä K, Fitzgerald AE, Sans S, Menotti A, De Backer G, et al. Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project. Eur Heart J. 2003;24(11):987-1003. IBC 50K CAD Consortium. Large-scale gene-centric analysis identifies novel variants for coronary artery disease. PLoS Genet. 2011;7(9):e1002260. Cooper JA, Miller GJ, Humphries SE. A comparison of the PROCAM and Framingham point-scoring systems for estimation of individual risk of coronary heart disease in the Second Northwick Park Heart Study. Atherosclerosis. 2005;181(1):93-100. Cordell HJ. Detecting gene–gene interactions that underlie human diseases. Nat Rev Genet. 2009;10(6):392-404. Samani NJ, Erdmann J, Hall AS, Hengstenberg C, Mangino M, Mayer B, et al. Genomewide association analysis of coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(5):443-53. Paynter NP, Chasman DI, Buring JE, Shiffman D, Cook NR, Ridker PM. Cardiovascular disease risk prediction with and without knowledge of genetic variation at chromosome 9p21.3. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150(2):65-72. Palomaki GE, Melillo S, Bradley LA. Association between 9p21 genomic markers and heart disease: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2010;303(7):648-56. Patel RS, Asselbergs FW, Quyyumi AA, Palmer TM, Finan CI, Tragante V, et al. Genetic variants at chromosome 9p21 and risk of first versus subsequent coronary heart disease events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(21):2234-45. Dutta A, Henley W, Lang IA, Murray A, Guralnik J, Wallace RB, et al. The coronary artery disease–associated 9p21 variant and later life 20-year survival to cohort extinction. Circ Cardiovasc Genet. 2011;4(5):542-8. Hernesniemi JA, Seppälä I, Lyytikäinen LP, Mononen N, Oksala N, Hutri-Kähönen N, et al. Genetic profiling using genome-wide significant coronary artery disease risk variants does not improve the prediction of subclinical atherosclerosis: the cardiovascular risk in young finns study, the bogalusa heart study and the health 2000 survey–a meta-analysis of three independent studies. PloS One. 2012;7(1):e28931. Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C, Vinogradova Y, Robson J, Minhas R, Sheikh A, et al. Predicting cardiovascular risk in England and Wales: prospective derivation and validation of QRISK2. BMJ. 2008;336(7659):1475-82. Shahid SU, Cooper JA, Beaney KE, Li K, Rehman A, Humphries SE. Genetic risk analysis of coronary artery disease in Pakistani subjects using a genetic risk score of 21 variants. Atherosclerosis. 2017;258:1-7.

The relationship between wage inflation and unemployment (Phillips Curve) is controversial in economic thought, and the controversy is centered around whether there is always a trade-off or not. If this relationship is negative it is called The short-run Fillips Curve. However, in the long run, this relationship may probable not exist. The matter of how inflation and unemployment influence economic growth, is debatably among macroeconomic policymakers. This study examines the behavior of the Phillips Curve in Sudan and its effect on economic growth.

AbstractSustainability is a process that characterizes in a broad sense a nation’s ecological performance and may display a time-varying pattern. Such dynamic trajectories may vary among different countries and prompt not only intriguing questions on space–time convergence but also on the possibility of club convergence. The scope of this study is to investigate the long-run convergence pattern of 137 countries, as presented by their sustainable development index (SDI) over the period 1990–2019. The statistical–econometric analysis used to identify convergence across (groups of) countries is based on the advanced Phillips and Sul (JAE 24:1153–1185, 2009; ECTA 75:1771–1855, 2007) method. The empirical findings from our study allow us to identify two SDI convergence clubs of countries. The first and the biggest club includes mainly the developing African and Asian countries; whereas, the second club includes many OECD countries including inter alia the US, Canada, and Australia. Our analysis brings to light that the transition paths of these two clubs show a significant divergence pattern; this a-symmetry calls also into question the effectiveness of global green policies, such as the clean development mechanism as foreseen in the Kyoto protocol.

The recent economic disturbances such as the outbreak of coronavirus, the Russia–Ukraine war, and disrupted supply chains, have resulted in high inflationary shocks that are difficult to combat. The most vulnerable to these global shocks are developing countries where trade is a crucial factor in economic growth. In this context, the study aims to investigate the impact of trade openness and output gap on inflation in BRICS countries from 1999Q1 to 2018Q4. Owing to growing economic integration and rising cross-sectional dependence, the study employs Dynamic Common Correlated Effect (DCCE) model to examine the long-run relationship between the variables. In addition, the study employs Dumitrescu and Hurlin (2012) to investigate the causal relationship between variables. The findings suggest that a more open trade policy helps to reduce rising domestic inflation. The price lowering impact of export openness outperforms the inflationary impact of imports, resulting in flattened Phillips curve. Moreover, the results indicate that the underpowered effect of the domestic output gap is not sufficient to counteract the unfavourable impact of the foreign output gap on inflation in BRICS. As a result, the study advocates providing subsidies and tax breaks to help export-oriented businesses thrive while keeping the global factors in check.

<strong>ABSTRACT: </strong>Legitimate countries try to sustain economic growth and on the other side face pollutant emissions during the production process. Global warming and climate changes are the results of these pollutant emissions. The study estimates the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis empirically in the panel of Asian developed and developing countries. The study used data for five countries ranges from 1981 to 2010. The empirical results are obtained by fixed effect method. In addition, dynamic relationship between CO₂ emission per capita, energy consumption per capita, export product diversification (Theil index) and economic growth per capita is checked. The value of Theil index suggests that in developed countries export product diversification is elastic whereas it is inelastic in developing countries. It suggests that developed countries export-basket has items with fewer pollutant emissions. On other hand, export-basket of developing countries still has large pollutant emission items. The energy consumption in industries for production contributes to CO₂ emission. The GDP per capita is positively associated with CO₂ emission whereas, squared GDP per capita has a reducing role in CO₂ emission. The signs of GDP and squared GDP per capita provide the evidence of EKC hypothesis. In addition to that, the study also checks the validity of Green Solow model in Asian developed and developing countries. The validity is checked with Mann-Kendall trend test. The results infer that except Singapore, no other country exhibits the initial increase and then decreasing trend to support the Green Solow model. Moreover, the graphical representation of Mann-Kendall trend test indicates that GDP or economic growth trend is higher than the emission trend in Hong Kong and Singapore.

The fact that scenarios of high unemployment potentially offer the opportunity for improved environmental sustainability remains a dilemma. In instances when environmental sustainability is triggered by increased unemployment, that poses a challenge in the simultaneous achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs) 8 (decent work and economic growth) and 13 (climate action). On the basis of this concern, in this study, we examine whether a swap association exists between unemployment and environmental quality vis-à-vis the environmental Phillips curve (EPC) hypothesis for high-, upper, and lower middle-income (HUmLmI) economies (comprising both developed and developing countries) over the period 1990–2020. We used the novel dynamic autoregressive distributed lag simulation approach. From the findings, the EPC hypothesis is not valid in high-income (developed) economies in the short and long term. However, the validity of the EPC hypothesis was upheld in the upper and lower middle-income (developing) economies. This implies that the lack of decent work opportunities/high unemployment rates hampers environmental quality in high-income countries, promotes environmental quality in upper middle-income countries, and does not drive environmental quality in lower middle-income countries. In addition, economic growth and the use of fossil energy exacerbate environmental degradation. On the other hand, the consumption of renewable energy sources reduces environmental woes by −0.22, −0.54, and −1.15 in HUmLmI countries, respectively. This shows that renewable energy sources adapt to the environmental sustainability motive. These results imply that policy instruments to drive SDGs 8 and 13 in these income-categorized economies should be case specific rather than taking a unilateral policy approach.

The study empirically investigated the determinants of Environmental Quality using energy utilization intensity, and globalization. The investigation determines linear, inverted U shaped or N shaped relationship between CO2 emission and GDP using panel ARDL approach. 64 countries are selected for making two panel data models of developed economies and developing economies for the time period 1970-2015. The outcomes showed that in long run increase in the energy use intensity and the global integration lead to an increase in the CO2 emissions. In the case ofGDP, the study has confirmed an inverted U shape relationship proposing prospects of green growth. Hence, results of the study found that there is significant evidence of global environmental Kuznets curve for both economies. In comparison, developing economies pollute more with an increase in GDP, but they are also expected to revert faster towards green growth as compared to developed economies.

Abstract We consider various factors impacting the participation of women in science throughout the world, with a particular emphasis on developing countries. For the world as a whole, we find that when the percentage of women working in science in a country is plotted vs. the per capita GDP of the country (adjusted for purchasing power parity) the data fall on an inverted U-shaped ‘boomerang’ curve. Thus, as per capita wealth increases, the percentage of women in science first increases and then falls. This is in marked contrast to the (right-side-up) U-shaped curve that is well-established for the participation of women in the labor force as a whole, suggesting that there are factors in the culture of science that result in opposing trends to those observed in the general workforce. This also results in many developing countries having a much higher participation of women in the scientific workforce than is seen in economically developed countries. Contradicting previous reports to the contrary, we find a positive correlation between gender equality in science and the degree of overall gender equity in the country. Thus, we do not find evidence for the claim that greater gender equity results in the manifestation of innate gender differences in preferences for science. We find differing patterns of retention in science for women in developing and developed countries. We also briefly discuss other factors that make it difficult for women in developing countries to follow a scientific career, or to advance in their careers.

Watershed ecological compensation programs have emerged as a pivotal instrument for internalizing the externalities associated with watershed ecological protection. In most countries, the direct participants in ecological compensation projects are ordinary persons and enterprises, but in China, the direct participants are local governments and the central government, which to some extent affected the efficacy of the compensation programs. This study used PSM–DID to analyze the efficacy of the Xin’an River Basin Ecological Compensation Project (Xin’an-BECP) and calculated the loss of opportunity developed in the upstream area through EKC (Environmental Kuznets Curve) fitting, which makes the benefit assessment of government-led ecological compensation projects more objective and provides a model that can be used to analyze the benefits of BECP in developing countries. Our results show that (1) the treatment effect of the Xin’an-BECP is not obvious; (2) the compensation funds gained by the upstream area are much lower than the theoretical opportunity loss; and (3) enterprises are not transaction participants in the Xin’an-BECP. Finally, based on the conclusions of the discussion, we propose specific policy recommendations to guide developing countries in increasing the compensatory effects of BECP in the context of growing demand for economic development.

IntroductionPrevious time-series studies have revealed a positive association between particulate matter (PM) and acute cardiovascular effects. However, the evidence mostly comes from developed countries and regions, while the majority of air-pollution-related deaths occur in developing countries. To assess the effect of short-term exposure to PM on daily cause-specific cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality in Jiangsu Province, China, we investigated 1,417,773 CVD deaths from 2015 to 2021 in Jiangsu.MethodsThe city-specific association was estimated using generalized additive models with quasi-Poisson regression, and then, random effects meta-analysis was performed to estimate the pooled provincial-average associations between acute exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 and cardiovascular disease mortality. To test the independence of PM from gaseous pollutants, we fitted two-pollutant models. Mortality data were also stratified by sex, age, and region to investigate the modification of associations. The exposure-response (E-R) curve from each city was combined using meta-analysis to drive the provincial-level E-R curve.ResultsThe results showed that each 10-μg/m3 increase in the PM2.5 concentration was associated with a 0.723% [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.512, 0.935] increase in daily total CVD mortality, a 0.669% (95% CI: 0.461, 0.878) increase in CHD mortality, a 0.758% (95% CI: 0.584, 0.931) increase in stroke mortality, a 0.512% (95% CI: 0.245, 0.780) increase in ICH mortality, and a 0.876% (95% CI: 0.637, 1.116) increase in CI mortality. The corresponding increases in daily mortality rates for the same increase in the PM10 concentration were 0.424% (95% CI: 0.293, 0.556), 0.415% (95% CI: 0.228, 0.602), 0.444% (95% CI: 0.330, 0.559), 0.276% (95% CI: 0.026, 0.526), and 0.510% (95% CI: 0.353, 0.667), respectively. The association between PM and total CVD mortality remained significant after adjusting for gaseous pollutants. Females, older adults and districts with lower average PM levels are more sensitive, especially for PM10. The E-R curve for PM on CVD mortality is steeper at lower concentrations and flattens out at higher concentrations. The estimates remained generally consistent in sensitivity analyses when excluding the data during the COVID-19 pandemic period.DiscussionOur time-series study provides evidence of positive associations between acute exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 and total and cause-specific cardiovascular disease mortality in developing countries.

Abstract Objective: To assess ability of National Early Warning Score 2 (NEWS2), systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA), and CRB-65 calculated at the time of intensive care unit (ICU) admission for predicting ICU mortality in patients of laboratory confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. Methods: This prospective data analysis was based on chart reviews for laboratory confirmed COVID-19 patients admitted to ICUs over a 1-mo period. The NEWS2, CRB-65, qSOFA, and SIRS were calculated from the first recorded vital signs upon admission to ICU and assessed for predicting mortality. Results: Total of 140 patients aged between 18 and 95 y were included in the analysis of whom majority were &gt;60 y (47.8%), with evidence of pre-existing comorbidities (67.1%). The most common symptom at presentation was dyspnea (86.4%). Based upon the receiver operating characteristics area under the curve (AUC), the best discriminatory power to predict ICU mortality was for the CRB-65 (AUC: 0.720 [95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.630-0.811]) followed closely by NEWS2 (AUC: 0.712 [95% CI: 0.622-0.803]). Additionally, a multivariate Cox regression model showed Glasgow Coma Scale score at time of admission (P &lt; 0.001; adjusted hazard ratio = 0.808 [95% CI: 0.715-0.911]) to be the only significant predictor of ICU mortality. Conclusions: CRB-65 and NEWS2 scores assessed at the time of ICU admission offer only a fair discriminatory value for predicting mortality. Further evaluation after adding laboratory markers such as C-reactive protein and D-dimer may yield a more useful prediction model. Much of the earlier data is from developed countries and uses scoring at time of hospital admission. This study was from a developing country, with the scores assessed at time of ICU admission, rather than the emergency department as with existing data from developed countries, for patients with moderate/severe COVID-19 disease. Because the scores showed some utility for predicting ICU mortality even when measured at time of ICU admission, their use in allocation of limited ICU resources in a developing country merits further research.

Purpose This study aims to examine the effect of greenfield foreign direct investment (GFDI) and mergers and acquisitions (M&amp;A) on the environment and more specifically, on the sectoral emissions of CO2. The authors identify significant differential and income effects with various data classifications of foreign direct investment (FDI) mode of entry. Design/methodology/approach The authors use system generalized method of moments with instruments for income and GFDI and M&amp;A, which allows us to control for present reverse causality and endogeneity of income and the two modes of FDI. Findings Evidence from the full sample reveals that GFDI increases pollution, supporting the pollution haven hypothesis, while M&amp;As decrease pollution in line with the halo effect hypothesis. GFDI flowing into poorer countries worsens the environment, while M&amp;As flowing to industrialized economies reduce pollution. Entry-mode effects are also present at the level of industry emissions. GFDI in developed economies decreases pollution in transport industry but increases it in poorer countries. Practical implications The authors demonstrate: first, a recipient country level-of-development effect: GFDI investment flowing into poorer countries has harmful effects on environment, but no significant effect in rich economies, while M&amp;As flowing to industrialized economies have a beneficial effect to the environment, supporting the halo hypothesis. Second, the authors demonstrate a differential entry-mode effect at the industry level: GFDI in developed economies decreases pollution from transport industry, while both modes of entry in developing economies increase it. Social implications M&amp;As emerge as a type of FDI that is less harmful to the environment. This is especially true in the case of developed economies. However, policymakers should oversee strictly the inbound GFDI flows and determine whether they carry “dirty” or “clean” production processes. This is the type of FDI to be regulated and scrutinized to ensure that economic development is fostered alongside environmental conservation. Originality/value In existing theoretical and empirical literature, little guidance is available on which mode of entry would have greater effect on the environment of the host country. This paper answers this issue by disaggregating FDI flows into GFDI and M&amp;As and examining how each mode of entry impacts pollution in host countries. To the best of the knowledge, this is the first study that analyzes the environmental impact of the two modes of entry of FDI while disentangling the environmental Kuznets curve effect from the halo effect.

Monetary policy is the macroeconomic policy that allows central banks to influence the economy. It involves managing the money supply and interest rates to address macroeconomic challenges such as inflation, consumption, growth and liquidity. Historically, for a long time, the task of monetary policy was limited to controlling the exchange rate, which in turn was fixed (at the beginning of the 20th century on the gold standard) for the purposes of promoting international trade. Eventually such a policy contributed to the Great Depression of the 1930s. After the depression, governments prioritized employment. The central banks have changed their direction based on the relationship between unemployment and inflation, known as the Phillips curve. They believed in the link between unemployment and inflation stability, which is why they decided to use monetary policy (putting money into the economy) to increase total demand and maintain low unemployment. However, this was a misguided decision that led to stagflation in the 1970s and the addition of an oil embargo in 1973. Inflation rose from 5.5% to 12.2% in 1970-1979 and peaked in 1979 at 13.3%. Over the past few decades, central banks have developed a new management technique called «inflation targeting» to control the growth of the overall price index. As part of this practice, central banks are publicizing targeted inflation rate and then, through monetary policy instruments, mainly by changing monetary policy interest rates, trying to bring factual inflation closer to the target. Given that the interest rate and the inflation rate are moving in opposite directions, the measures that the central bank should take by increasing or decreasing the interest rate are becoming more obvious and transparent. One of the biggest advantages of the inflation targeting regime is its transparency and ease of communication with the public, as the pre-determined targets allows the National Bank›s main goal to be precisely defined and form expectations on of monetary policy decisions. Since 2009, the monetary policy of the National Bank of Georgia has been inflation targeting. The inflation target is determined by the National Bank of Georgia and further approved by the Parliament. Since, 2018- 3% is medium term inflation target of National Bank of Georgia. The inflation targeting regime also has its challenges, the bigger these challenges are in developing countries. There are studies that prove that in some emerging countries, the inflation targeting regime does not work and other monetary policy regimes are more efficient. It should be noted that there are several studies on monetary policy and transmission mechanisms in Georgia. Researches made so far around the topic are based on early period data. Monetary policy in the current form with inflation targeting regime started in 2009 and in 2010 monetary policy instruments (refinancing loans, instruments) were introduced accordingly, there are no studies which cover in full the monetary policy rate, monetary policy instruments and their practical usage, path through effect on inflation and economy. It was important to analyze the current monetary policy, its effectiveness, to determine the impact of transmission mechanisms on the small open economy and business development. The study, conducted on 8 variables using VAR model, identified both significant and weak correlations of the variables outside and within the politics like GDP, inflation, refinancing rate, M3, exchange rate USD/GEL, exchange rate USD/TR and dummy factor, allowing to conclude, that through monetary policy channels and through the tools of the National Bank of Georgia, it is possible to have both direct and indirect (through inflation control) effects on both, economic development and price stability

Prior research has shown that environmental hazards, such as limited green space, air pollution, and harmful weather, have the strong adverse impact on older adults' cognitive function; however, most of the studies were conducted in developed countries and limited to cross-sectional analyses. China has the largest aging population in the world so the research evidence from it can offer an insight to the study in other developing countries facing similar issues and inform future public health policy and disease control. This study examined the long-term impact of environmental factors, namely, green space coverage, air pollution, and weather conditions on cognitive function using a nationally representative sample consisting of adults aged 45 years and older selected from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS 2011–2018), the China City Statistical Yearbook, and other sources. Multilevel growth curve models were utilized for analysis and the mediator effects of physical activity and social engagement on the relationship between environmental factors and cognitive function were examined. Findings of this study showed that after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, annual precipitation of 80 cm or more, living in areas with July temperature of 28°C or higher, urban community, and green space coverage were positively associated with cognition score at the baseline and lower precipitation, urban community, and greater green space coverage were associated with slower cognitive decline over a 7-year period. The impact of gross domestic product (GDP) seemed to take into effect more and more over time. These effects did not substantially change after weekly total hours of physical activities and levels of social engagement were added. More research on the mechanisms of the effect of environmental factors on cognition is needed such as the subgroup analyses and/or with more aspects of environmental measures.

IntroductionSurgical site infection (SSI) is one of the most common surgical-related complications worldwide, particularly in developing countries. SSI is responsible for mortality, long hospitalization period, and a high economic burden.MethodThis hospital-based case–control study was conducted in six educational hospitals in Tehran, Iran. A total of 244 patients at the age of 18–85 years who had undergone open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) surgery were included in this study. Among the 244 patients, 122 patients who developed SSIs were selected to be compared with 122 non-infected patients used as controls. At the second stage, all patients (n = 350) who underwent ORIF surgery in a hospital were selected for an estimation of the standardized infection ratio (SIR). A logistic regression model was used for predicting the most important factors associated with the occurrence of SSIs. Finally, the performance of the ORIF prediction model was evaluated using discrimination and calibration indices. Data were analyzed using R.3.6.2 and STATA.14 software.ResultsKlebsiella (14.75%) was the most frequently detected bacterium in SSIs following ORIF surgery. The results revealed that the most important factors associated with SSI following an ORIF procedure were found to be elder age, elective surgery, prolonged operation time, American Society of Anesthesiologists score of ≥2, class 3 and 4 wound, and preoperative blood glucose levels of &amp;gt;200 mg/dl; while preoperative higher hemoglobin level (g/dl) was found to be a protective factor. The evidence for the interaction effect between age and gender, body mass index and gender, and age and elective surgery were also observed. After assessing the internal validity of the model, the overall performance of the models was found to be good with an area under the curve of 95%. The SIR of SSI for ORIF surgery in the selected hospital was 0.66 among the patients aged 18–85 years old.ConclusionNew risk prediction models can help in detecting high-risk patients and monitoring the infection rate in hospitals based on their infection prevention and control programs. Physicians using prediction models can identify high-risk patients with these factors prior to ORIF procedure.

Alternative Forms of Education have developed since the late 20th century, such as distance learning, homeschooling, and many parallel or supplementary systems of education often designated as “conformal” and “popular” religious institutions also instruct the young and old alike in sacred knowledge as well. In that case in my assessment of education to educate the mind also be like this to achieve growth and to gain and add value to every individual by keeping it globally excess-able for all to acquire International standard Education to unleash the highest potential of every unique talents and exercise them to put it into great values. Our core focus is to solve the problems from the bottom and look for much clearer sustainable brilliant resources to obtain the finest results. Alternative education methods and approaches refer and to enhance an educational process that facilitates teaching and learning with a golden ratio. Evaluating different strategies begins by defining traditional methods of education with characteristics such as formalization, authoritarianism, memorization, and repetition. A differentiated learning approach is also mandatory to excel the individual learning patterns or styles. All institutions provide and follow the same rules for teaching and it’s a barrier for learners to flourish with their mind power. Rules always shrink the mind of a thinker to explore, therefore having principles is much more appropriate for knowledge to unfold all the layers and dynamics of the intellect Department of the human brain. Education writing, singing, dancing, music, painting, poetry, leadership, doctor, engineering, science, etc all are knowledge &amp; Education. Which is derived from the intellect department of our brain Memory is a crucial machine system to harnesses and harvests knowledge for anything and everything. Age, color, language, different faiths, etc should not be an agenda or set it in the rule book to stop someone from acquiring true knowledge to educate themselves. Once we are capable of re-shaping the education process and all are aware of it; it will lead us towards growth and greater development in human history. In the economic field, a peaceful and sustainable world. It requires spiritual enlightenment and emotional intelligence to navigate and curve them to build something for all. As a Social creature, we are part of each other and we are related to each other–therefore we all must take and understand the responsibility for collective development. The range comes from global unity to walk the talk in actionable performance. The role of improved schooling a central part of most development strategies, has become controversial because expansion of school attainment has not guaranteed improved economic conditions. This paper reviews the role of education in promoting economic well-being, and peaceful and sustainable growth for a better world, with a particular focus on the role of Education and an educated peaceful mind of quality results. It concludes that there is strong evidence that the cognitive skills of the population — rather than mere school attainment– are powerfully related to individuals’ unique earnings, the distribution of income, and economic growth. New empirical results show the importance of both minimal and high-level skills, the complementarity of skills and the quality of economic institutions, and the robustness of the relationship between skills and growth. International comparisons incorporating expanded data on cognitive skills reveal much larger skill deficits in developing countries than generally derived from just school enrolment and attainment. The magnitude of change needed makes clear that closing the economic gap with developed countries will require major structural changes in schooling institutions. Keywords: Economic growth, Education, Social creature, institutions

Photo by Mika Baumeister on Unsplash INTRODUCTION When the COVID-19 pandemic swept the globe, governments and healthcare systems scrambled to control it. While most of the global public health community agreed that actions against the COVID-19 pandemic needed to be prompt and efficient, there were disagreements on what those actions should be. Some governments opted to adopt a containment strategy while others implemented mitigation measures; each had reasons to support their course of action, whether rooted in governmental structures, scientific findings, beliefs, or ethical and moral values. However, the dramatically different response strategies may have led to disparate results. This divide is furthered when ethical and moral values and cultural norms are added to this equation. In this paper, I will examine China and Korea, two countries that implemented a preventative containment strategy, and the United States of America and the United Kingdom, which adopted mitigation strategies. I will examine the differences in their outcomes and whether there is a “correct” response to pandemics like COVID-19. l. Response in China and Korea After its initial discovery in December 2019, COVID-19 rapidly spread beyond China to surrounding countries, including South Korea, Japan, and Singapore. China implemented swift measures drawing on its experience with the SARS outbreak. Measures included lockdowns, contact tracing, testing all individuals exposed to the virus, and consequently enforcing isolation and quarantine provisions.[1] During the early stages, the public health systems and the national government moved to a “health care to all” system to avoid nationwide spread. The government and all sectors of society were mobilized to track, contain, and adapt to the overall state of the epidemic.[2] COVID-19 continued and spread in China during Lunar New Year celebrations when population movement within the country was at its peak. Thus, Wuhan entered lockdown to control the number of infected people leaving the city to contain the virus;[3] even in areas where there were few to no cases, the general population of China voluntarily abided by measures like those implemented in Wuhan. The measures included wearing masks, social distancing, and following stay-at-home orders. Furthermore, healthcare workers from all over the country volunteered to travel to Hubei, where Wuhan is, and assembled several Fangcang shelter hospitals.[4] Fangcang hospitals were designed based on emergency medical care cabins that were used after two devastating earthquakes in China and served as temporary quarantine housing and hospital facilities.[5] They are mobile, have fast deployment, and can adapt quickly to different environments. At the start of the pandemic, Wuhan converted gymnasiums, convention centers, sports arenas and training centers, factories, and other venues into Fangcang hospitals. Although temporary, these quarantine hospital facilities were equipped with full medical equipment and personnel, allowing for complete medical functions for “treatment, disease monitoring, diagnosis and other clinical tasks.”[6] Teams of psychologists were also assigned to each hospital to provide counseling for patients.[7] Beyond separating those who were infected from the rest of the population and thus having more control over the community spread of the virus, Fangcang hospitals played a vital role in reducing patient density in traditional hospitals and medical centers by expanding treatment capacities.[8] South Korea reported its first COVID-19 case in January 2020, and, within days, the government activated the Central Disaster and Safety Countermeasures Headquarters.[9] Similar to China, South Korea used existing epidemic protocols and implemented the 3Ts strategy, prioritizing testing, tracing, and treatment.[10] High-capacity screening facilities and working with the private sector to ensure an adequate supply of tests made South Korea’s efforts successful.[11] The South Korean government strictly regulated self-isolation and quarantine. Contact tracing efforts used various data sources, “including credit card transactions and closed-circuit television footage.”[12] The government also placed stringent restrictions on travel, beginning with designated entry lines and questionnaires, but expanding to include temperature checks, testing for all travelers at the border, and a mandatory fourteen-day monitored quarantine for anyone entering the country.[13] The majority of the population responded immediately with compliance, with national weekly movement decreasing by 38 percent between February 24, 2020, and March 1, 2020, compared to the corresponding week the previous month. Schools swiftly closed across the nation, and the entire country transitioned to remote learning until the gradual reopening in May and June 2020.[14] There was some discontentment within the population, especially with the South Korean government’s practice of publicly announcing the names of individuals who tested positive.[15] Critics of this practice say it is an infringement of patient privacy and can even be viewed as an invitation to public bullying.[16] However, even with some dissatisfaction with government regulations, a survey of 1,200 South Koreans in September 2020 asking people to agree if they were satisfied with the government’s response showed that the overwhelming majority either agreed or strongly agreed (44.08 percent and 19.75 percent, respectively), and less than 20 percent of the respondents either disagreed or strongly disagreed (11.50 percent and 5.08 percent, respectively).[17] Regulations surrounding isolation and quarantine were strict and applied to those with confirmed cases of COVID-19, anyone who traveled internationally, or individuals suspected to be infected. Individuals were required to use the Self-Quarantine Safety Protection app that tracked location for fourteen days to ensure that quarantine protocols were followed.[18] Case officers monitored the app, and violators not only faced a substantial fine but were also required to wear electronic wristbands that would alert the officers if the individual left the location of their mobile device.[19] ll. The Western Response: The UK and US COVID-19 was reported in many Western nations around January 2020. However, unlike South Korea, many countries did not immediately respond to the outbreak with surveillance and containment strategies but had a wait-and-see approach. As the pandemic worsened, they gradually adopted mitigation strategies to combat the disease as it progressed. While the US adopted a combination of containment and mitigation strategies, a concrete response from state and federal governments did not occur until March 2020.[20] Even then, many states did little to address the pandemic. Although equipped with a robust healthcare system, a shortage of ventilators and hospital beds became evident in some localities early on. The US healthcare system failed to acknowledge the pandemic and prepare a coordinated response in time to stop the momentum of the disease.[21] The goal became “flattening the curve” (keeping the number of cases that needed hospital care low enough to avoid overwhelming the hospital system) as it was clear containment would be impossible. Once tests were developed, poor coordination of testing efforts and insufficient resources to test at the necessary scale to provide comprehensive national surveillance of the disease further hindered efforts to contain infected individuals and decelerate its spread.[22] Eventually, regulations and mitigation measures were implemented, including mask mandates, school closures, caps or bans on in-person gatherings, and the closure of non-essential businesses.[23] However, enforcement of these measures proved difficult, and people instigated protests against many of the recommended policies and requirements. The UK and the US both encountered a shortage of personal protective equipment for healthcare workers.[24] However, a more prominent problem arose from the UK’s initial response to the pandemic. The UK first said COVID-19 was like influenza and therefore did not call for emergency measures to deter its spread.[25] Furthermore, in the first few weeks of the pandemic, the UK government believed herd immunity was the best course of action, stating that most people would have mild symptoms,[26] and the population would become mostly immune to the virus once enough people were infected.[27] In theory, herd immunity was a potentially effective strategy. The public health authorities thought that if the threshold for herd immunity was reached, enough people would have developed protective antibodies against any future infection.[28] However, the risks of COVID-19 were high and the cases “would lead to high rates of hospitalization and need for critical care, straining health service capacity past the breaking point.”[29] Furthermore, while getting COVID-19 would offer some natural immunity against reinfection, reinfection remained a possibility, especially during the early stages of the pandemic when vaccines were unavailable.[30] Later, when vaccines were available, a study showed that an unvaccinated person who contracted the virus was more than twice as likely to become reinfected than a fully vaccinated person.[31] The UK government also expressed concern for “behavioral fatigue.”[32] It claimed that if restrictions were enforced pre-emptively and prematurely, people might become progressively “uncooperative and less vigilant.”[33] Regarding the concern for “behavioral fatigue,” numerous behavioral scientists stated that they were unconvinced that this reason was enough to hold off implementing restrictions. There was a lack of evidence of this phenomenon, and a group of 681 UK behavioral scientists said in an open letter that “[s]uch evidence is necessary if we are to base a high-risk public health strategy on it.”[34] Fortunately, this strategy only remained under consideration for a short period. After rapid increases in confirmed cases and deaths due to COVID-19, the UK government implemented more strict measures, like city lockdown, school closures, and the closure of non-essential businesses.[35] These restrictions took legal effect on March 26th, 2020 – around two weeks after the first proposal of the “herd immunity” strategy.[36] lll. Comparing the Two Approaches The Eastern and Western countries experienced significant outbreaks of COVID-19. However, looking at the mortality rate and new confirmed cases, the differences between the two categories of response to COVID-19 are significant. As of December 31, 2020, the mortality rate per 100,000 population for China and South Korea were 0.3 and 1.8, respectively, and new confirmed cases per day per 100,000 population were 87 and 1,029, respectively. However, the mortality rates per 100,000 in the US and the UK were 107 and 108, respectively, and they had up to 234,133 and 56,029 new confirmed cases every day, respectively.[37] As of July 2022, total deaths in China were 22, 994[38] (population 1.45 billion)[39] and in South Korea 24,794[40] (population 51.36 million)[41] compared to 1,015,093[42] in the US (population 335.03 million)[43] and 182,727[44] in the UK (population 68.62 million).[45] Further differences can be seen in the varying sectors of society, such as healthcare systems and authority models, political structures, and cultural customs among these countries, which in turn affect the response and control strategies.[46] In the US and the UK, rights-based political structures affected the response, making tracking and surveillance more problematic early on. But Western countries did have strict lockdowns and quarantines. China and South Korea maintained a proactive approach by “identifying and managing cases, tracking and isolating close contacts, and strictly restricting or controlling population movement when feasible and appropriate.”[47] In contrast, the UK implemented nationwide lockdowns early on, and the US restrictions varied among states. Both the UK and the US focused on treating the severe cases and those with underlying conditions rather than proactively preventing new cases from developing in the early pandemic.[48] They did shift gears to mass testing schemes and attempts to slow transmission. By the time they implemented cohesive strategies, COVID-19 was widespread. Due to their slow initial responses, they needed to manage an onslaught of cases while trying to prevent transmission. lV. Ethical Implications The “West vs. Rest” culture divide emerges when comparing the COVID-19 response strategies of East Asian countries to those of Western countries. The differences in their strategies further highlight the differences in the prevailing moral values influencing public policy. The preventative stance adopted by many East Asian countries shows a stronger collective identity among citizens. But it also may show more substantial governmental power and less appetite for protest. In contrast, the mostly non-interfering nature of Western governments’ actions shows a reliance on the “autonomous and unanimous responsibility of individuals.”[49] The moral values in the US also may reflect the prioritized position of personal rights and the suspicion of intrusive government policies. Culturally, the populations of South Korea and China are generally more tolerant of personal data-sharing and monitoring, suggesting there is less concern for autonomy or privacy. However, many people in the US and UK would consider the use of location tracking apps and electronic bracelets to be violations of individual autonomy and privacy.[50] Sectors of the Western world also argue that mandating masking or social distancing imposes on individual autonomy and free will. Mask-wearing was an existing practice in East Asian countries, even without mandates or pandemics. Individuals wear masks for common colds and influenza and do not consider a mask requirement an infringement of their autonomy. Furthermore, whether it is due to the authoritarian nature of the government or not, there is a general tendency toward public compliance and accepting government policies in many East Asian countries,[51] and the lack of public dissent played an important part in making combating COVID-19 easier for countries like China and South Korea. The lack of initiative from Western nations arguably violates the bioethical principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence.[52] For example, the promotion of the “herd immunity” strategy from the UK government and consequently the government’s inaction, risked the well-being of its citizens. The government failed to avoid the harm that COVID-19 brought. Similarly, by delaying its response until nearly two months after the initial case was reported, the US also violated the principle of non-maleficence. The success seen in South Korea and China during the early pandemic better exemplifies beneficence and nonmaleficence. The strategy of contact tracing and strict containment saved lives. The consequences of the restrictions varied across the countries as well. Not everyone can afford to self-isolate or quarantine and being required to do so can significantly impact many individuals’ well-being. Furthermore, not everyone’s occupation allows them to work from home and business closures disadvantaged portions of the population disparately. For those who are essential workers, school closures may also burden parents who do not have access to affordable childcare. The stringent restrictions regarding quarantine and self-isolation in East Asian countries also harmed people disparately, raising problems surrounding the principle of justice. However, the speed at which China had COVID-19 contained allowed people there to return to their normal lives quickly. Compared to some Western countries’ waves of lockdown and reinforcement of restrictions, the “zero-COVID” strategy in countries like China showed success, at least during the early stages of the pandemic. The contact tracing and containment was likely financially beneficial. While the pandemic resulted in substantial economic growth downgrades and global recessions, regions like East Asia were estimated to grow by around 0.5 percent. In comparison, the economy in regions like Europe contracted by around 4.7 percent.[53] CONCLUSION China arguably had an advantage in combating COVID-19 since the outbreak was relatively concentrated in one region. This allowed early detection of symptoms and quick containment of the virus. Other countries, like the US, had new cases on both coasts early in the pandemic; thus, containment was more challenging than it was in China. However, the delayed and reluctant response from countries like the US and the UK did not benefit the well-being of their populations and proved to put more stress on their healthcare systems. While mass tracking of people is politically contentious, the promptness of actions many East Asian countries employed at the beginning of COVID-19 seemed to be the more effective course of action that best protected the well-being of their citizens. - [1] Chen, Haiqian, et al. “Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparison of Strategies in Six Countries.” Frontiers in Public Health, vol. 9, September 30, 2021, pp. 1-11. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.708496. [2] Chen, et al. [3] Chen, et al. [4] Chen, et al. [5] Wang, Ke-Wei, et al. “Fangcang shelter hospitals are a One Health approach for responding to the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, China.” One Health, vol. 10, August 29th, 2020, pp. 1-6. doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2020.100167. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352771420302688. [6] Wang. [7] Wang. [8] Wang. [9] Kim, June-Ho, et al. “Emerging COVID-19 Success Story: South Korea Learned the Lesson of MERS.” Our World Data, University of Oxford, March 5, 2021. https://ourworldindata.org/covid-exemplar-south-korea. [10] Chen, Haiqian, et al. [11] Kim, et al. [12] Kim. [13] Kim. [14] Scott, Dylan and Jun Michael Park. “South Korea’s Covid-19 success story started with failure.” Vox, April 19, 2021. https://www.vox.com/22380161/south-korea-covid-19-coronavirus-pandemic-contact-tracing-testing.. [15] Scott and Park. [16] Rich, Timothy S., et al. “What Do South Koreans Think of Their Government’s COVID-19 Response?” The Diplomat, October 7, 2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/10/what-do-south-koreans-think-of-their-governments-covid-19-response/. [17] Rich, et al. [18] Kim, et al. [19] Kim, et al. [20] Chen, et al. [21] Chen, et al. [22] Chen, et al. [23] Chen, et al. [24] Chen, et al. [25]Chen, et al. [26] Chen, et al. [27] O’Grady, Cathleen. “The U.K. backed off on herd immunity. To beat COVID-19, we’ll ultimately need it.” National Geographics, March 20, 2020. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/uk-backed-off-on-herd-immunity-to-beat-coronavirus-we-need-it. [28] “Herd immunity and COVID-19: What you need to know.” Mayo Clinic, April 20, 2022. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/coronavirus/in-depth/herd-immunity-and-coronavirus/art-20486808?p=1. [29] O’Grady. [30] O’Grady. [31] Mayo Clinic, April 20, 2022. [32] Yong, Ed. “The UK’s Coronavirus ‘Herd Immunity’ Debacle.” The Atlantic, March 16, 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2020/03/coronavirus-pandemic-herd-immunity-uk-boris-johnson/608065/. [33] Yong. [34] Harvey, Nigel. “Behavioral Fatigue: Real Phenomenon, Naïve Construct or Policy Contrivance?” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 11, November 6, 2020. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.589892, quoting a March 16, 2020 open letter to the UK government. [35] Chen, et al. [36]“Timeline of UK coronavirus lockdowns, March 2020 to March 2021.” Institute for Government Analysis. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/timeline-lockdown-web.pdf. [37] Chen, et al. [38] “China: WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard.” World Health Organization, 2022, https://covid19.who.int/region/wpro/country/cn. [39] “China Population.” Worldometer, 2022, https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/china-population/. [40] “The Republic of South Korea: WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard.” World Health Organization, 2022, https://covid19.who.int/region/wpro/country/kr. [41] “South Korea Population,” Worldometer, 2022, https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/south-korea-population/. [42] “The United States of America: WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard.” World Health Organization, 2022, https://covid19.who.int/region/amro/country/us. [43] “United States Population,” Worldometer, 2022, https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/us-population/. [44] “The United Kingdom: WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard.” World Health Organization, 2022, https://covid19.who.int/region/euro/country/gb. [45] “U.K. Population,” Worldometer, 2022, https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/uk-population/. [46] Chen, et al. [47] Chen, et al., p 6. [48] Chen, et al. [49] Festing, Marion, Tobias Schumacher and Yong-Yueh Lee. “How Cultural Norms and Values Shape National Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic.” The London School of Economics and Political Science, April 15, 2021. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/businessreview/2021/04/15/how-cultural-norms-and-values-shaped-national-responses-to-the-covid-19-pandemic/. [50] Festing, et al. [51] Festing, et al. [52] Beauchamp, Tom L. and James F. Childress. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). [53] “The Global Economic Outlook During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Changed World.” The World Bank, June 8, 2020. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2020/06/08/the-global-economic-outlook-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-a-changed-world.

<strong><em>Abstrac</em></strong><em>t</em>: <em>The past couple of decades have seen a growing interest in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) research in both business and academia. It has been observed that a substantial number of studies on CSR and Financial Performance (FINP) have focused almost entirely on large firms. As pointed out earlier, the bulk number of studies on the link between CSR-firm performances is from developed countries. Thus, a limited number of studies have been conducted in developing countries and more especially in Bangladesh. We cannot generalize the findings from developed countries to developing countries without further research, therefore, requiring more research on the association between CSR and firm performance in manufacturing companies. <strong>Objective: </strong>This paper aims to exploring how CSR dimensions influence the financial performance and whether the mediating effect of selected organizational factors determine the relationship between CSR and financial performance.</em> <strong><em>Methods: </em></strong><em>A </em><em>self-administered questionnaire was used along with the simple random sampling method to collect 371 respondents&rsquo; views from medium and small scale manufacturing firms in Bangladesh. The results were analyzed by using SEM. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed followed by structural model to examine the proposed model.<strong> Findings: </strong>The findings demonstrated that CSR positively affects financial performance and organizational factors fully mediate the CSR-FINP. Furthermore, this study indicates the important order of CSR dimensions which are as follows; environmental protection, social, legal and economic dimension. In addition, it was found that small and medium scale of manufacturing firms carry out moderate level of </em>&nbsp;<em>CSR activities.&nbsp; <strong>Implications: </strong>The mediation of organizational factors in CSR linkage to financial performance is a major contribution to the literature which may help to explore the relationship between CSR and firm performance.</em> <strong><em>Originality /Values: </em></strong><em>Results of the model would be practical and useful for business managers who seek a competitive solution for succeeding in a business crises and work in the settings of domestic as well as international business. <strong>Limitations and Further Research Direction: </strong>Methodologically, we used simple random sampling for data collection. Therefore, the employees may not be representative of the wider population. Thus the findings of this study cannot be generalized to other industrial sectors in Bangladesh. However, future research could be carried out on large samples. </em> <strong>1. Introduction</strong> The concept of CSR has gained a wide consideration in the academic field as well as in the business world in recent years. As a result, CSR has grown to be an issue of much concern in the 21st century for international business (Reverte, G&oacute;mez-Melero &amp; Cegarra-Navarro, 2016; Kolk, A. &amp; Tulder, 2010). Hence, CSR has been increasingly getting more attention in the international business studies (Park &amp; Ghauri, 2015). Today&rsquo;s organizations are using CSR to develop competitive advantage and establish congenial relations with their stakeholders. Furthermore, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and investors in international businesses are increasingly interested in the issue of socially responsible business around the globe (Besieux <em>et al.</em>, 2015; Boehe &amp; Cruz, 2010).Although CSR is a subjective concept, it has been a subject of extensive research over the last few decades (Jamali, 2008). Manufacturing industry is responsible for environmental pollution and social cost. Thus, CSRis used as a way to improve corporate image and increase long-term organizational performance. This study attempts to fill the gap in literature as there is lack of research on CSR in developing countries (Ralston &amp; Egri, 2008). CSR is reflected as a western phenomenon due to the presence of social systems as compared to developing countries (Chapple &amp; Moon, 2005). CSR has broader implications for the nation as a whole while it reduces dependency on the government for social change. The manufacturing company is selected for examining the association between CSR and financial performance. The manufacturing companies are chosen for this study due to their rapid expansion Therefore, the aim of this study is to build and test a theoretical model to identify the mediating effect of innovationtowards the relationship between CSR and financial performance in the context of developing country like Bangladesh. As per above literature review, another objectives of this study was to fill the above identified gaps by examining and evaluate the viability of the proposed model and to offer a number of recommendations for decision makers to implements CSRs program in Bangladesh, the following specific research question was formulated as &ldquo;How does innovation influence the financial performance as a mediator?&rdquo; The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, a theoretical framework is used to develop the model of CSR and financial performance with mediation of innovation. Likewise,later section describes the methodology of the study. It is followed by the summary of the data analysis. Then, concluded with findings together with theoretical contributions and implications for the managers, and policy makers. Finally, the limitations of the study with avenues for future research are listed. <strong>2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Development</strong> Using a review of prior studies on CSR and Financial Performance (FINP) from the context of manufacturing firms, we adopted the most commonly used constructs in those studies. The conceptual research model (Figure-1) developed in this study postulates the constructs in different dimensions: Environment (ENV), Economic (ECO), Social (SOC), Legal (LEG), and Innovation (INV). In the subsequent section explains the relationship among variables and the theoretical support for the hypotheses which are adopted for investigating the research question. <strong><em>2.1 CSR and Financial Performance</em></strong> Some studies have been done to investigate the relationship between CSR and Corporate Financial Performance (CFP) and between Corporate Environmental Performance (CEP) and FINP, some decades ago producing found conflicting results, although the number of the research findings indicated the positive link (see for examples Preston &amp; O&rsquo;Bannon, 1997; Orlitzky, Schmidt &amp;Rynes, 2003; Simpson &amp; Kohers, 2002). According to some previous researchers (Orlitzky, Schmidt and Rynes, 2003; &nbsp;Husted and Allen, 2001), the conflicting results had been caused by two main factors: theoretical ground and methodological aspect. To resolve the theoretical ground,Husted and Allen, (2001) andOrlitzky and Benjamin (2001)proposed the theory of corporate social performance. The effect of CSR on the firm performance has attracted quite an interesting number of researchers recently. Although, most of the studies have found positive association between CSR and FINP(Cegarra-Navarro <em>et al.</em>, 2016; Orlitzky, Schmidt &amp;Rynes, 2003; Surroca, Trib&oacute; &amp; Waddock, 2010), yet few other studiesfound a negative relationship(Wright &amp; Ferris, 1997). While, some others still found no relation between the two variables(Aupperle, Carroll, &amp; Hatfield, 1985), therefore the question still remain unsettled (Aguinis &amp; Glavas, 2012). Such contradictory evidence has created ground to investigate this issue further and therefore, CSR effect on FINP and included factor may mediate their relationship(Aguinis &amp; Glavas, 2012). Aupperle, Carroll and Hatfield (1985);Cochran and Wood (1984) and Ullmann (1985)found a mixed of results concerning the concurrent relationships between social responsibility and firm performance. In another study, Bhattacharya and Sen (2004) suggested that the costs of resources used in CSR activities vary among firms across industries. In environmentally sensitive industries, firms invest huge amount of money and resources in CSR activities, such as investment in Research and Development (R &amp;D) to produce green products or building production facility and waste processing systems to improve and increase the environmental performance of products and services. These CSR activities are necessary and will help firms to create differentiated products and services which boost their sales and FINP. The above discussion led this study to posit the following hypothesis: <strong><em>H₁:</em></strong><em> There is a significant positive relationship between the </em><em>CSRand the FINP.</em> According to Bitektine and Haack (2015), the growth and success of an organization depend on its relationship with several stakeholders (e.g., employees, shareholders, consumers, suppliers, government agencies, etc.) within organization and external society. As CSR issues become increasingly important in the current business environment, organizations should invest considerable efforts and resources in CSR activities to satisfy stakeholder requirements and to obtain legitimacy. <strong><em>2.2 CSR, Innovation, and Financial Performance</em></strong> Innovation related to technological advancements which are environmentally friendly is socially acceptable towards environmental sustainability and can improve firm performance (Boonkanit &amp; Kengpol, 2010). In literature, innovation is frequently enlisted as the intensity of firm&rsquo;s investments in R&amp;D (Orlitzky &amp; Benjamin, 2001). However, CSR literature has distinguished the verity that the linkage between CSR and firms&rsquo; FINP cannot be well comprehended without taking the role of innovation into consideration(McWilliams, Siegel, &amp; Wright, 2006; McWilliams &amp; Siegel, 2001).McWilliams and Siegel(2000) pointed out that if the innovation in firms is statistically controlled, the positive relationship among CSR and firms&rsquo; financial performance will disappear. There exists positive relationship between innovation and firm&rsquo;s financial performance (Geroski, 1995; Geroski, Van Reenen, &amp; Walters, 1997).Hence, it was hypothesized that: <em>H₂: There is a significant positive relationship between </em><em>CSR and the INV.</em> Certain studies have found the association between CSR and innovation (Waddock, Bodwell, &amp; Graves, 2002). Furthermore, from the literature, it may be concluded that innovation has a tendency to heave the zero-order correlation between CSR and FINP which provide relationship between innovation and CSR is statistically significant (Schwab et al., 2000). Therefore, CSR acts as a means or vehicle for the innovation (Husted &amp; Allen, 2006, 2007) particularly in the cases where CSR is directed towards innovation (Maxfield, 2008). Indeed, innovation helps proving the business case for CSR (Maxfield, 2008). Therefore, this study postulates innovation as mediator between CSR and firm&rsquo;s financial performance as per following hypotheses: <em>H₃: Innovation moderates the relationship between CSR and FINP.</em> &nbsp; Environment Economic Social Legal CSR Innovation Financial Performance <strong>H₁</strong> <strong>H₂</strong> <strong>H₃</strong> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <em>Figure-1: Model and the related hypothesis of the research</em> To understand the relationship between CSR and FINP, we proposed a model that integrates innovation as a mediator into the relationship between CSR and FINP. In this model, we argued that CSR is significantly associated with INV (<em>H₁</em>), and CSR can also enhance FINP (<em>H₂</em>), in other words, INV will mediate the relationship between CSR and FINP (<em>H₃</em>). <strong>3. Methodology</strong> <strong><em>3.1 Measurement Instruments</em></strong> In order to conduct this empirical research, the variables in theoretical model were employed using previously validated research instruments. The study adopted the instrument of Maignan and Ferrell (2001) to measure CSR in hypothesized model. Moreover, CSR measurement items are adopted from Mishra and Suar (2010). Likewise, this study used the inductive approach to determine the dimension of CSR. The variables include: environmental dimension, economic dimension, social dimension, and legal dimension. <em>Table-1: Item Source of the Construct</em> <strong>Construct</strong> <strong>Items</strong> <strong>Source</strong> Environment &nbsp; ENV-1 Practices recycling pollutants and wastes. Schiebel and P&ouml;chtrager (2003) &nbsp; ENV-2 Manufactures eco-friendly products. ENV-3 Purchases environmentally friendly products. ENV-4 Voluntarily does recycling and re-use. Economic ECO-1 Has a strong competitive position. Balabanis, Phillips, and Lyall, (1998) ECO-2 This firm seeks a profitable business. ECO-3 Closely monitor employees&#39; productivity. ECO-4 Maximizing our profits. Social &nbsp; SOC-1 Supports culture and art activities Austin (2000);Grudinschi <em>et al.</em> (2013); Davenport (2000);Hopkins (2003); Spiller (2000) SOC-2 Participate in charitable activities SOC-3 Supports educational institutions. SOC-4 Assists to enhance quality of life Legal LGL-1 Obeys state, and local regulations. Maignan and Ferrell (2001); Spiller (2000) LGL-2 This firm fulfills its legal obligation. LGL-3 Meets minimal legal requirements LGL-4 Our products meet legal standards. Innovation &nbsp; INV-1 Frequently tries out new ideas. Calantone, Dr&ouml;ge and Vickery (2002); Moore (2001); Moore (2001) INV-2 Seeks out new ways to do things. INV-3 Our company is creative INV-4 Our new product introduction has increased Financial Performance &nbsp; FINP-1 We had larger market share. Mishra and Suar (2010) &nbsp; FINP-2 Our sales growth has been substantially better. FINP-3 Return on assets has been substantially better. FINP-4 Return on investment has been substantially. <strong><em>3.2 Population and Sample </em></strong> We focused on employees of manufacturing companies in Bangladesh. The companies were selected in a stepwise process. The respondents were selected from a population that had already experienced CSR activities in Bangladesh. Therefore, the sample size was calculated with a level of significance of 0.05. Calculation of the defined sample showed that the minimum sample size to be 196. <strong><em>3.3 Sampling Method</em></strong> The sampling method used in the study was purposive sampling. Atotal of 439 manufacturing firms in Bangladesh that meet the criteria: (1) the number of workers is more than 100 people (2) the firm is active in CSR activities at least 3 years, were considered in this study. The survey questionnaire was used in the research in which employees and managers of the firms are the unit of analysis. A self-administered questionnaire was sent to each respondent. <strong><em>3.4Questionnaire Design</em></strong> The questionnaire comprised two sections: section-A was designed to extract the respondents&rsquo; demographic characteristics, and section-B measured CSR based on the antecedent variables as follows environmental dimension of CSR, customer dimension, community dimension, legal dimension, ethical dimension, employees dimension, economic dimension. All instruments were designed on a five-point Likert scale ranging from &lsquo;strongly agree (5)&rsquo; to &lsquo;strongly disagree (1)&rsquo;, using multi-item scales. Furthermore, the questionnaires were distributed to 410 respondents, and 383 responses were received, a response rate of 93.41%. After receiving the responses, missing value analysis was performed and dropped the ones with high missing values. The remaining data included total of 371 responses, the response rate for combined sample is 90.49%. It is an acceptable response rate as per the methodological studies (Anderson <em>et al.</em>, 1988; Hair Jr <em>et al.</em> 2010). <strong><em>3.5 Data Analysis </em></strong><strong><em>Methods</em></strong> The data was analyzed through software Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS). Reliability and correlation analysis were performed through SPSS 20 and SEM was conducted through AMOS 23 as SEM was conducted because it has the ability to estimate both direct and indirect effects of a testable model; it also has the ability to ensure the consistency of the model with the data and to estimate the effects among the constructs. In the research, further, AMOS was used for testing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the structural model. Maximum likelihood method was used while testing the measurement model and the structural model.&nbsp; In order to test the model hypothesis, this study administered survey using self-administered instruments. <strong>4. Results</strong> <strong><em>4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Sample</em></strong> The detailed demographic attributes of the respondents are shown in Table 1. Out of 371 respondents, 67.39% were male and 32.61% were female who participated in the study. The distribution of the respondents by age, with 21.56% wasbelow 30 years old, from 31 to 39 were 57.15%, more than 40 years were 21.29%.Approximately,45.82% of respondents have taken under-graduate and post-graduate education and 14.83% of them have taken others degree from different educational background; with 50.67% of them having more than 4 years of job experience. <em>Table-2: Demographic Characteristics of the Informants</em> <strong>Variables</strong> <strong>Description</strong> <strong>Frequency</strong> <strong>Percentage (%)</strong> <strong>Gender</strong> Male 250 67.39 Female 121 32.61 <strong>Age</strong> 20-30 Years 80 21.56 31-39 Years 212 57.15 More than 40 years 79 21.29 &nbsp; <strong>Educational Qualification</strong> Undergraduate 56 15.09 Bachelor 90 24.26 Masters 170 45.82 Others 55 14.83 <strong>Experience</strong> 0-4 Years 183 49.33 5-8 Years 89 23.99 More than 9 Years 99 26.68 <strong><em>4.2 Descriptive Statistics</em></strong> The descriptive statistics of the sample are tabulated as below in Table 3.Table 3reports the descriptive statistics for both dependent and independent variables. It is evident that the sample is well diversified by the tests of normality for preliminary results. There have been responses from managers from different sectors, experience levels. Table 3provides the means, standard deviations, minimum, maximum, skewness, kurtosis among the model variables. <em>Table-3: Descriptive Statistics for the Dependent and Independent Variables</em> <strong>Variables</strong> <strong>Mean</strong> <strong>Std. Deviation</strong> <strong>Minimum</strong> <strong>Maximum</strong> <strong>Skewness</strong> <strong>Kurtosis</strong> Environment 3.8120 .67948 1.25 5.00 -1.504 2.579 Economic 3.7190 .61103 1.25 5.00 -1.181 3.019 Social 3.6759 .66973 1.25 5.00 -.946 1.155 Legal 3.5020 .83210 1.00 5.00 -.450 .139 Innovation 3.6152 .81271 1.25 5.00 -.194 -.197 Financial Performance 3.5539 .70504 1.25 5.00 -.371 .435 &nbsp; The average level of CSR in the sample was high. The differences between several means for total CSR and environmental, customer, community, employees, economic, satisfaction, innovation, reputation, motivation, productivity, financial performancewere not significant. More than two-third (2/3) of companies do not disclose any environmental information in their annual reports (median and minimum are equal to zero). Thedistribution of variables was skewed.On considering total CSR level, we found most of variables to be statistically significant: industry environmental, community and employee. The higher level of total CSR disclosure occurs in companies with higher level of innovation, motivation, productivity, satisfaction of the employees in the organization. <strong><em>4.3 Reliability Measurement</em></strong> The reliability of construct is deemed appropriate if value remains at least 0.7 for exploratory research and 0.8 for basic research (Nunnally, 1978). The Cronbach alpha was calculated for measuring reliability. A reliability analysis was conducted through Cronbach&rsquo;s alpha coefficient. Therefore, Cronbach&rsquo;s alpha coefficient was used to measure reliability or consistency between variables. An alpha coefficient that is higher than 0.8 implies a strong consistency, and an alpha coefficient that is higher than 0.6 implies acceptable consistency. In this analysis, all the variables scored higher than 0.8. Therefore, the respondents answered the questions consistently. Table 4summarizes the reliability analysis as follows. <em>Table-4: Reliability of the constructs</em> <strong>Variables</strong> <strong>Code</strong> <strong>Items</strong> <strong>Cronbach&rsquo;s Alpha (&alpha;)</strong> Environment ENV-1, ENV-2, ENV-3, ENV-4 4 .866 Economic ECO-1, ECO-2, ECO-3, ECO-4 4 .814 Social SOC-1, SOC-2, SOC-3, SOC-4 4 .816 Legal LGL-1, LGL-2, LGL-3, LGL-4 4 .975 CSR CSR-1, CSR-2 CSR-3, CSR-4 4 .903 Innovation INV-1, INV-2, INV-3, INV-4 4 .944 Financial Performance FINP-1, FINP-2, FINP-3, FINP-4 4 .941 The seven constructs showed high internal consistency and reliability, with Cronbach alpha values of 0.866 for environmental CSR, 0.814 for economic CSR, 0.816 for social CSR, 0.975 for legal CSR, 0.903 for CSR, and 0.944 for innovation, and 0.941 for FINP. All values are greater than the recommended value of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). The result revealed a factor-loading index that was higher than 0.6 for all questions. This score proved the internal and external validity of the questions in this study. <strong><em>4.4 Confirmatory factor analysis summary</em></strong> Table 5 shows the summary of CFA. It shows the corresponding factors and the loading items and their scores. CFA tests the validity and reliability of all constructs that is conceived as a one-dimensional, precise, and consistent indicator in measuring its latent variables (J&ouml;reskog &amp; S&ouml;rbom, 1993). The cut of value for the construct reliability is recommended to be &gt; 0.7, while the cut of the value of average variance extracted is recommended to be &gt; 0.5, and the recommended loading factor is 0.6 or moreHair Jr <em>et al.</em> (2010). Table 5 shows the construct reliability value more than 0.7, greater than 0.5. The loadings and AVE for all items exceeded the 0.5 acceptable threshold, thus convergent validity is confirmed (Henseler, Ringle, &amp; Sarstedt, 2015). <em>Table-5: Outcomes of Measurement Model</em> <strong>Variables (Construct)</strong> <strong>Items (Code)</strong> <strong>Estimates (Loadings)</strong> <strong>CR</strong> <strong>AVE</strong> Environment ENV-1 .79 .867 .621 ENV-2 .79 ENV-3 .81 ENV-4 .76 Economic ECO-1 .77 .815 .525 ECO-2 .69 ECO-3 .75 ECO-4 .68 Social SOC-1 .68 .819 .531 SOC-2 .75 SOC-3 .70 SOC-4 .77 Legal LGL-1 .99 .976 .910 LGL-2 .96 LGL-3 .91 LGL-4 .96 CSR CSR-1 .89 .905 .706 CSR-2 .82 CSR-3 .71 CSR-4 .93 Innovation INV-1 .93 .905 .809 INV-2 .92 INV-3 .89 INV-4 .86 Financial Performance FINP-1 .86 .942 .802 FINP-2 .95 FINP-3 .89 FINP-4 .89 <em>Note: Reference value ** p &lt; 0.05; CR = Composite Reliability, AVE = Average Variance Extracted.</em> The loadings, AVE, composite reliability and Cronbach&rsquo;s alpha (<em>&alpha;) </em>are presented in Table 5. It can be seen from the Table 5 that CR values ranged from 0.815 to 0.976, which supports strong internal reliability. Table 5 also shows that the estimated constructs loading ranged from 0.68 to 0.99 and AVE ranged from 0.525 to 0.910 are greater than the recommended levels.Therefore, the conditions for convergent validity are satisfied in this study. It is clear from results that the items on each factor met the requirements of reliability and validity (Nunnally, 1978). <strong><em>4.5 Discriminant Validity Analysis</em></strong> To determine the discriminant validity of the construct&rsquo;s used in this research, we followed the criteria suggested byFornell and Larker, (1981). They suggested that the value of the square root of the AVE for each construct should exceed that of correlations between constructs. As can be seen in Table 6, the square root values of the AVE for each construct are higher in comparison with the AVEs in Table 5. This outcome confirms that discriminant validity is present. <em>Table-6: Discriminant Validity Analysis</em> <strong>Constructs</strong> <strong>FINP</strong> <strong>ENV</strong> <strong>ECO</strong> <strong>SOC</strong> <strong>LGL</strong> <strong>CSR</strong> <strong>INV</strong> <strong>FINP</strong> 0.895 &nbsp; <strong>ENV</strong> 0.380 0.788 &nbsp; <strong>ECO</strong> 0.365 0.650 0.725 &nbsp; <strong>SOC</strong> 0.320 0.784 0.646 0.729 &nbsp; <strong>LGL</strong> 0.250 0.537 0.414 0.578 0.954 &nbsp; <strong>CSR</strong> 0.345 0.386 0.286 0.306 0.260 0.840 &nbsp; <strong>INV</strong> 0.198 0.299 0.340 0.262 0.184 0.165 0.900 <strong><em>4.6 Model Testing</em></strong> The testing results of the end model of the research (Table 7) are as follow: the value of Chi Square =537.121with df = 329, probability = 0.000, Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 0.911, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.976, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.041, Cmin/df = 1.633. The fit of measurement of hypotheses model, was good as indicated by GFI, IFI, TLI, and CFI values are higher than the threshold values suggested by Nunnally (1978). Considering all these outcomes, it was concluded that the model fits the data well given that it exceeds all the basic requirements for goodness of-fit measures. All the values of the index showed good model feasibility criteria. This means that the research data can be used to support the structural models proposed. <em>Table-7: Summary of Model Fitness indices</em> <strong>Modification Indices of Predictor Variables</strong> <strong>Desirability Range</strong> <strong>Estimated Range</strong> &nbsp; <strong>Level of Positions</strong> CMIN/DF 3.00 1.633 3.00&gt;1.633 Satisfactory RMR (Root Mean Squires Residuals) 0.09 0.024 0.09&gt;0.024 Good GFI (Goodness of Fit Index) 0.9 0.911 0.9&lt;0.911 Good IFI (Incremental Fit Index) 0.9 0.976 0.9&lt;0.976 Good TLI (Tucker Lewis Index) 0.9 0.972 0.9&lt;0.972 Good CFI (Comparative Fit Index) 0.9 0.976 0.9&lt;0.976 Good RMSEA (Root Mean Squire Error of Approximation) 0.08 0.041 0.08&gt;0.041 Good &nbsp; The overall values provided evidence of a good model fit. All of the model-fit indices exceeded the respective common acceptable levels suggested in previous research, following the suggested cut-off value, demonstrating that the proposed model provided an adequate fit to the data collected. <strong><em>4.7 Hypotheses Testing Result of Generating Model</em></strong> Table 8 is used as the base in the testing of the five hypotheses proposed in the research.To examine the impact of CSR on FINP, CSR on INV, and INV on FINP over time, a longitudinal analysis was conducted using data collected in 2019. Table 8 shows the hypotheses test, in determining the significance of each path coefficient, estimate of regression weight, standard error of regression weight, and critical ratio for regression weight were used. Table 8 presents each parameter&#39;s C.R., estimate and S.E of the generating model. SEM analysis was conducted to determine the relationship of several variables in the research model. Hence, CSR has a significant positive and direct impact on Financial Performance (&beta; =.306; C.R = 6.142; P = ***) or H₁ was supported. And, Corporate Social Responsibility has a significant positive and direct impact on Innovation (&beta;=.235; C.R= 3.132; P= 0.002) or H₂ was supported. Finally, Innovation has a positive significant direct impact on Financial Performance (&beta;=.0.096; C.R= 2.603; P= 0.009) or H₃was also supported. <em>Table-8: Path Analysis Summary</em> <strong>Hypothesis</strong> <strong>Relationship of Path</strong> <strong>Estimate</strong> <strong>S.E.</strong> <strong>C.R.</strong> <strong>P-value</strong> <strong>Decision</strong> IV Path DV H₁ CSR ---&gt; FINP .306 .050 6.142 *** Supported H₂ CSR ---&gt; INV .235 .075 3.132 .002 Supported H₃ INV ---&gt; FINP .096 .037 2.603 .009 Supported &nbsp; These results show that innovation mediates the relationship between CSR and Financial Performance. There exists a mediatory relationship between CSR and financial performance. Hence, all the hypotheses including mediation (H₁, H₂, and H₃) were supported. <strong><em>4.8 Mediating Effects</em></strong> The mediation effect of the mediator variables of innovation were evaluated using Baron and Kenny&rsquo;s approach. To assess the significance of the mediation effect, Sobel&rsquo;s test for mediation significance was conducted. The result of the Barron-Kenny mediation test (Table 9) showed that there are partial mediation effects of innovation on financial performance. <em>Table-9: Barron-Kenny&rsquo;s Mediation Effect</em> <strong>IV</strong> <strong>MV</strong> <strong>DV</strong> <strong>IV - &gt; DV</strong> <strong>SE</strong> <strong>IV -&gt;&nbsp; MV</strong> <strong>SE</strong> <strong>IV + MV - &gt; DV</strong> <strong>Mediation</strong> <strong>IV-&gt;DV</strong> <strong>SE</strong> <strong>MV-&gt;DV</strong> <strong>SE</strong> Partial Mediation CSR INV FINP 0.326 0.048 0.167 0.058 0.0375 .048 0.163 0.043 &nbsp; After assessing the size of the mediation effect, we proceed to evaluate the significance of these effects and based on Sobel&rsquo;s test (Table 10), we found that mediation effect is significant at 0.001 levels. <em>Table-10: Sobel&rsquo;s Test for Significance of Mediation Effect</em> <strong>IV</strong> <strong>MV</strong> <strong>DV</strong> <strong><em>Sobel&rsquo;s Test</em></strong> <strong>t-value</strong> <strong>p-value</strong> <strong>Sig.</strong> CSR INV FINP 3.37142 0.001 Yes &nbsp; Besides evaluating the mediation effects, we also examine the direct, indirect, and total effects of all the exogenous variables. Table 11 shows that there were no indirect effects of CSR on INV; CSR on FINP; and INV on FINP. Other exogenous variables were found to have significant direct, indirect, and total effects on their respective endogenous variables. In terms of indirect effect on FINP, CSR (0.022) has the greatest indirect effect followed by INV (0.000).&nbsp;&nbsp; <em>Table-11: Direct, Indirect, and Total Effect</em> <strong>IV</strong> <strong>DV</strong> <strong><em>Direct Effect</em></strong> <strong><em>Indirect Effect</em></strong> <strong><em>Total Effect</em></strong> CSR INV 0.235 0.000 0.235 CSR FINP 0.306 0.022 0.328 INV FINP 0.096 0.000 0.096 &nbsp; <strong>5. Conclusions and Recommendations</strong> <strong><em>5.1 Conclusions </em></strong> This study was conducted to investigate an examination of the relationship between CSR and financial performance mediating by selected outcomes. This study provides imperative information for corporate decision makers who are interested to develop some competitive advantage and ensure sustainable growth in the market. The most remarkable finding of the study was that CSR has significantas well as positive influence on financial performance with mediating effect of innovation. Also analysis of this study indicated that environment economic, social, and legal dimensions aregood predictors, and play significant role in CSR. Moreover, CSR can help to create a competitive advantage by encouraging the development of a workforce that effectively carries out the firm&rsquo;s business strategy, leading to improved business performance. <strong><em>5.2</em></strong> <strong><em>Recommendations</em></strong> The study recommends that business organization should engage in doing CSR activities to ensure successful financial performance in rival business environment. Therefore, the business firms need to take social and corporate collaboration initiative with stakeholders, which will lead to solve social, employee, community and environmental problems, as well as improve firm&rsquo;s financial performance and the efficiency and the effectiveness of business activity. <strong>6.</strong> <strong>Implications</strong> The result of this study adds to the existing body of research literature which founda statistical significance in the relationship between CSR and financial performance. The findings also suggest that different types of CSR actions influence stakeholder&rsquo;s attitudes differently and this understanding may help managers formulate effective and efficient CSR strategies. Furthermore, this study has implications for entrepreneurs, researchers and policy makers in that they should exercise the outcomes of the CSR activities in business organization. It is clear from different statistical analysis that CSR activities can increase firm performance over a period of time. <strong>7.Limitations and Further Research Direction</strong> <strong><em>7.1 Limitations</em></strong> Despite the implications of the above results, the study had certain limitations; the first limitation was the relatively low of sampled size. Methodologically, we used a convenience sample for data collection purposes. Therefore, the employees may not be representative of the wider population. Thus the findings of this study cannot be generalized to other industrial sectors in Bangladesh. Finally, this study contributes to an overall understanding of CSR level that needs to be practiced in different organizations. <strong><em>7.2Further Research Direction</em></strong> The research findings can be a basis for further research to validate and develop better models to explain firm performance in the large-scale manufacturing firms related to CSR. However, future research could examine more antecedent or factors influencing CSR in Bangladesh. In addition, external stakeholders&rsquo; perceptions could also be considered in future research using different methodological tools, such as interviews to specify their opinions on the company&rsquo;s characteristics and the level of CSR practice.

“As the old technologies become automatic and invisible, we find ourselves more concerned with fighting or embracing what’s new”—Dennis Baron, From Pencils to Pixels: The Stage of Literacy Technologies What constitutes a computer, as we have come to expect it? Are they necessarily monolithic “beige boxes”, connected to computer monitors, sitting on computer desks, located in computer rooms or computer labs? In order for a device to be considered a true computer, does it need to have a keyboard and mouse? If this were 1991 or earlier, our collective perception of what computers are and are not would largely be framed by this “beige box” model: computers are stationary, slab-like, and heavy, and their natural habitats must be in rooms specifically designated for that purpose. In 1992, when Apple introduced the first PowerBook, our perception began to change. Certainly there had been other portable computers prior to that, such as the Osborne 1, but these were more luggable than portable, weighing just slightly less than a typical sewing machine. The PowerBook and subsequent waves of laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and so-called smart phones from numerous other companies have steadily forced us to rethink and redefine what a computer is and is not, how we interact with them, and the manner in which these tools might be used in the classroom. However, this reconceptualization of computers is far from over, and is in fact steadily evolving as new devices are introduced, adopted, and subsequently adapted for uses beyond of their original purpose. Pat Crowe’s Book Reader project, for example, has morphed Nintendo’s GameBoy and GameBoy Advance into a viable electronic book platform, complete with images, sound, and multi-language support. (Crowe, 2003) His goal was to take this existing technology previously framed only within the context of proprietary adolescent entertainment, and repurpose it for open, flexible uses typically associated with learning and literacy. Similar efforts are underway to repurpose Microsoft’s Xbox, perhaps the ultimate symbol of “closed” technology given Microsoft’s propensity for proprietary code, in order to make it a viable platform for Open Source Software (OSS). However, these efforts are not forgone conclusions, and are in fact typical of the ongoing battle over who controls the technology we own in our homes, and how open source solutions are often at odds with a largely proprietary world. In late 2001, Microsoft launched the Xbox with a multimillion dollar publicity drive featuring events, commercials, live models, and statements claiming this new console gaming platform would “change video games the way MTV changed music”. (Chan, 2001) The Xbox launched with the following technical specifications: 733mhz Pentium III 64mb RAM, 8 or 10gb internal hard disk drive CD/DVD ROM drive (speed unknown) Nvidia graphics processor, with HDTV support 4 USB 1.1 ports (adapter required), AC3 audio 10/100 ethernet port, Optional 56k modem (TechTV, 2001) While current computers dwarf these specifications in virtually all areas now, for 2001 these were roughly on par with many desktop systems. The retail price at the time was $299, but steadily dropped to nearly half that with additional price cuts anticipated. Based on these features, the preponderance of “off the shelf” parts and components used, and the relatively reasonable price, numerous programmers quickly became interested in seeing it if was possible to run Linux and additional OSS on the Xbox. In each case, the goal has been similar: exceed the original purpose of the Xbox, to determine if and how well it might be used for basic computing tasks. If these attempts prove to be successful, the Xbox could allow institutions to dramatically increase the student-to-computer ratio in select environments, or allow individuals who could not otherwise afford a computer to instead buy and Xbox, download and install Linux, and use this new device to write, create, and innovate . This drive to literally and metaphorically “open” the Xbox comes from many directions. Such efforts include Andrew Huang’s self-published “Hacking the Xbox” book in which, under the auspices of reverse engineering, Huang analyzes the architecture of the Xbox, detailing step-by-step instructions for flashing the ROM, upgrading the hard drive and/or RAM, and generally prepping the device for use as an information appliance. Additional initiatives include Lindows CEO Michael Robertson’s $200,000 prize to encourage Linux development on the Xbox, and the Xbox Linux Project at SourceForge. What is Linux? Linux is an alternative operating system initially developed in 1991 by Linus Benedict Torvalds. Linux was based off a derivative of the MINIX operating system, which in turn was a derivative of UNIX. (Hasan 2003) Linux is currently available for Intel-based systems that would normally run versions of Windows, PowerPC-based systems that would normally run Apple’s Mac OS, and a host of other handheld, cell phone, or so-called “embedded” systems. Linux distributions are based almost exclusively on open source software, graphic user interfaces, and middleware components. While there are commercial Linux distributions available, these mainly just package the freely available operating system with bundled technical support, manuals, some exclusive or proprietary commercial applications, and related services. Anyone can still download and install numerous Linux distributions at no cost, provided they do not need technical support beyond the community / enthusiast level. Typical Linux distributions come with open source web browsers, word processors and related productivity applications (such as those found in OpenOffice.org), and related tools for accessing email, organizing schedules and contacts, etc. Certain Linux distributions are more or less designed for network administrators, system engineers, and similar “power users” somewhat distanced from that of our students. However, several distributions including Lycoris, Mandrake, LindowsOS, and other are specifically tailored as regular, desktop operating systems, with regular, everyday computer users in mind. As Linux has no draconian “product activation key” method of authentication, or digital rights management-laden features associated with installation and implementation on typical desktop and laptop systems, Linux is becoming an ideal choice both individually and institutionally. It still faces an uphill battle in terms of achieving widespread acceptance as a desktop operating system. As Finnie points out in Desktop Linux Edges Into The Mainstream: “to attract users, you need ease of installation, ease of device configuration, and intuitive, full-featured desktop user controls. It’s all coming, but slowly. With each new version, desktop Linux comes closer to entering the mainstream. It’s anyone’s guess as to when critical mass will be reached, but you can feel the inevitability: There’s pent-up demand for something different.” (Finnie 2003) Linux is already spreading rapidly in numerous capacities, in numerous countries. Linux has “taken hold wherever computer users desire freedom, and wherever there is demand for inexpensive software.” Reports from technology research company IDG indicate that roughly a third of computers in Central and South America run Linux. Several countries, including Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina, have all but mandated that state-owned institutions adopt open source software whenever possible to “give their people the tools and education to compete with the rest of the world.” (Hills 2001) The Goal Less than a year after Microsoft introduced the The Xbox, the Xbox Linux project formed. The Xbox Linux Project has a goal of developing and distributing Linux for the Xbox gaming console, “so that it can be used for many tasks that Microsoft don’t want you to be able to do. ...as a desktop computer, for email and browsing the web from your TV, as a (web) server” (Xbox Linux Project 2002). Since the Linux operating system is open source, meaning it can freely be tinkered with and distributed, those who opt to download and install Linux on their Xbox can do so with relatively little overhead in terms of cost or time. Additionally, Linux itself looks very “windows-like”, making for fairly low learning curve. To help increase overall awareness of this project and assist in diffusing it, the Xbox Linux Project offers step-by-step installation instructions, with the end result being a system capable of using common peripherals such as a keyboard and mouse, scanner, printer, a “webcam and a DVD burner, connected to a VGA monitor; 100% compatible with a standard Linux PC, all PC (USB) hardware and PC software that works with Linux.” (Xbox Linux Project 2002) Such a system could have tremendous potential for technology literacy. Pairing an Xbox with Linux and OpenOffice.org, for example, would provide our students essentially the same capability any of them would expect from a regular desktop computer. They could send and receive email, communicate using instant messaging IRC, or newsgroup clients, and browse Internet sites just as they normally would. In fact, the overall browsing experience for Linux users is substantially better than that for most Windows users. Internet Explorer, the default browser on all systems running Windows-base operating systems, lacks basic features standard in virtually all competing browsers. Native blocking of “pop-up” advertisements is still not yet possible in Internet Explorer without the aid of a third-party utility. Tabbed browsing, which involves the ability to easily open and sort through multiple Web pages in the same window, often with a single mouse click, is also missing from Internet Explorer. The same can be said for a robust download manager, “find as you type”, and a variety of additional features. Mozilla, Netscape, Firefox, Konqueror, and essentially all other OSS browsers for Linux have these features. Of course, most of these browsers are also available for Windows, but Internet Explorer is still considered the standard browser for the platform. If the Xbox Linux Project becomes widely diffused, our students could edit and save Microsoft Word files in OpenOffice.org’s Writer program, and do the same with PowerPoint and Excel files in similar OpenOffice.org components. They could access instructor comments originally created in Microsoft Word documents, and in turn could add their own comments and send the documents back to their instructors. They could even perform many functions not yet capable in Microsoft Office, including saving files in PDF or Flash format without needing Adobe’s Acrobat product or Macromedia’s Flash Studio MX. Additionally, by way of this project, the Xbox can also serve as “a Linux server for HTTP/FTP/SMB/NFS, serving data such as MP3/MPEG4/DivX, or a router, or both; without a monitor or keyboard or mouse connected.” (Xbox Linux Project 2003) In a very real sense, our students could use these inexpensive systems previously framed only within the context of entertainment, for educational purposes typically associated with computer-mediated learning. Problems: Control and Access The existing rhetoric of technological control surrounding current and emerging technologies appears to be stifling many of these efforts before they can even be brought to the public. This rhetoric of control is largely typified by overly-restrictive digital rights management (DRM) schemes antithetical to education, and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Combined,both are currently being used as technical and legal clubs against these efforts. Microsoft, for example, has taken a dim view of any efforts to adapt the Xbox to Linux. Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer, who has repeatedly referred to Linux as a cancer and has equated OSS as being un-American, stated, “Given the way the economic model works - and that is a subsidy followed, essentially, by fees for every piece of software sold - our license framework has to do that.” (Becker 2003) Since the Xbox is based on a subsidy model, meaning that Microsoft actually sells the hardware at a loss and instead generates revenue off software sales, Ballmer launched a series of concerted legal attacks against the Xbox Linux Project and similar efforts. In 2002, Nintendo, Sony, and Microsoft simultaneously sued Lik Sang, Inc., a Hong Kong-based company that produces programmable cartridges and “mod chips” for the PlayStation II, Xbox, and Game Cube. Nintendo states that its company alone loses over $650 million each year due to piracy of their console gaming titles, which typically originate in China, Paraguay, and Mexico. (GameIndustry.biz) Currently, many attempts to “mod” the Xbox required the use of such chips. As Lik Sang is one of the only suppliers, initial efforts to adapt the Xbox to Linux slowed considerably. Despite that fact that such chips can still be ordered and shipped here by less conventional means, it does not change that fact that the chips themselves would be illegal in the U.S. due to the anticircumvention clause in the DMCA itself, which is designed specifically to protect any DRM-wrapped content, regardless of context. The Xbox Linux Project then attempted to get Microsoft to officially sanction their efforts. They were not only rebuffed, but Microsoft then opted to hire programmers specifically to create technological countermeasures for the Xbox, to defeat additional attempts at installing OSS on it. Undeterred, the Xbox Linux Project eventually arrived at a method of installing and booting Linux without the use of mod chips, and have taken a more defiant tone now with Microsoft regarding their circumvention efforts. (Lettice 2002) They state that “Microsoft does not want you to use the Xbox as a Linux computer, therefore it has some anti-Linux-protection built in, but it can be circumvented easily, so that an Xbox can be used as what it is: an IBM PC.” (Xbox Linux Project 2003) Problems: Learning Curves and Usability In spite of the difficulties imposed by the combined technological and legal attacks on this project, it has succeeded at infiltrating this closed system with OSS. It has done so beyond the mere prototype level, too, as evidenced by the Xbox Linux Project now having both complete, step-by-step instructions available for users to modify their own Xbox systems, and an alternate plan catering to those who have the interest in modifying their systems, but not the time or technical inclinations. Specifically, this option involves users mailing their Xbox systems to community volunteers within the Xbox Linux Project, and basically having these volunteers perform the necessary software preparation or actually do the full Linux installation for them, free of charge (presumably not including shipping). This particular aspect of the project, dubbed “Users Help Users”, appears to be fairly new. Yet, it already lists over sixty volunteers capable and willing to perform this service, since “Many users don’t have the possibility, expertise or hardware” to perform these modifications. Amazingly enough, in some cases these volunteers are barely out of junior high school. One such volunteer stipulates that those seeking his assistance keep in mind that he is “just 14” and that when performing these modifications he “...will not always be finished by the next day”. (Steil 2003) In addition to this interesting if somewhat unusual level of community-driven support, there are currently several Linux-based options available for the Xbox. The two that are perhaps the most developed are GentooX, which is based of the popular Gentoo Linux distribution, and Ed’s Debian, based off the Debian GNU / Linux distribution. Both Gentoo and Debian are “seasoned” distributions that have been available for some time now, though Daniel Robbins, Chief Architect of Gentoo, refers to the product as actually being a “metadistribution” of Linux, due to its high degree of adaptability and configurability. (Gentoo 2004) Specifically, the Robbins asserts that Gentoo is capable of being “customized for just about any application or need. ...an ideal secure server, development workstation, professional desktop, gaming system, embedded solution or something else—whatever you need it to be.” (Robbins 2004) He further states that the whole point of Gentoo is to provide a better, more usable Linux experience than that found in many other distributions. Robbins states that: “The goal of Gentoo is to design tools and systems that allow a user to do their work pleasantly and efficiently as possible, as they see fit. Our tools should be a joy to use, and should help the user to appreciate the richness of the Linux and free software community, and the flexibility of free software. ...Put another way, the Gentoo philosophy is to create better tools. When a tool is doing its job perfectly, you might not even be very aware of its presence, because it does not interfere and make its presence known, nor does it force you to interact with it when you don’t want it to. The tool serves the user rather than the user serving the tool.” (Robbins 2004) There is also a so-called “live CD” Linux distribution suitable for the Xbox, called dyne:bolic, and an in-progress release of Slackware Linux, as well. According to the Xbox Linux Project, the only difference between the standard releases of these distributions and their Xbox counterparts is that “...the install process – and naturally the bootloader, the kernel and the kernel modules – are all customized for the Xbox.” (Xbox Linux Project, 2003) Of course, even if Gentoo is as user-friendly as Robbins purports, even if the Linux kernel itself has become significantly more robust and efficient, and even if Microsoft again drops the retail price of the Xbox, is this really a feasible solution in the classroom? Does the Xbox Linux Project have an army of 14 year olds willing to modify dozens, perhaps hundreds of these systems for use in secondary schools and higher education? Of course not. If such an institutional rollout were to be undertaken, it would require significant support from not only faculty, but Department Chairs, Deans, IT staff, and quite possible Chief Information Officers. Disk images would need to be customized for each institution to reflect their respective needs, ranging from setting specific home pages on web browsers, to bookmarks, to custom back-up and / or disk re-imaging scripts, to network authentication. This would be no small task. Yet, the steps mentioned above are essentially no different than what would be required of any IT staff when creating a new disk image for a computer lab, be it one for a Windows-based system or a Mac OS X-based one. The primary difference would be Linux itself—nothing more, nothing less. The institutional difficulties in undertaking such an effort would likely be encountered prior to even purchasing a single Xbox, in that they would involve the same difficulties associated with any new hardware or software initiative: staffing, budget, and support. If the institutional in question is either unwilling or unable to address these three factors, it would not matter if the Xbox itself was as free as Linux. An Open Future, or a Closed one? It is unclear how far the Xbox Linux Project will be allowed to go in their efforts to invade an essentially a proprietary system with OSS. Unlike Sony, which has made deliberate steps to commercialize similar efforts for their PlayStation 2 console, Microsoft appears resolute in fighting OSS on the Xbox by any means necessary. They will continue to crack down on any companies selling so-called mod chips, and will continue to employ technological protections to keep the Xbox “closed”. Despite clear evidence to the contrary, in all likelihood Microsoft continue to equate any OSS efforts directed at the Xbox with piracy-related motivations. Additionally, Microsoft’s successor to the Xbox would likely include additional anticircumvention technologies incorporated into it that could set the Xbox Linux Project back by months, years, or could stop it cold. Of course, it is difficult to say with any degree of certainty how this “Xbox 2” (perhaps a more appropriate name might be “Nextbox”) will impact this project. Regardless of how this device evolves, there can be little doubt of the value of Linux, OpenOffice.org, and other OSS to teaching and learning with technology. This value exists not only in terms of price, but in increased freedom from policies and technologies of control. New Linux distributions from Gentoo, Mandrake, Lycoris, Lindows, and other companies are just now starting to focus their efforts on Linux as user-friendly, easy to use desktop operating systems, rather than just server or “techno-geek” environments suitable for advanced programmers and computer operators. While metaphorically opening the Xbox may not be for everyone, and may not be a suitable computing solution for all, I believe we as educators must promote and encourage such efforts whenever possible. I suggest this because I believe we need to exercise our professional influence and ultimately shape the future of technology literacy, either individually as faculty and collectively as departments, colleges, or institutions. Moran and Fitzsimmons-Hunter argue this very point in Writing Teachers, Schools, Access, and Change. One of their fundamental provisions they use to define “access” asserts that there must be a willingness for teachers and students to “fight for the technologies that they need to pursue their goals for their own teaching and learning.” (Taylor / Ward 160) Regardless of whether or not this debate is grounded in the “beige boxes” of the past, or the Xboxes of the present, much is at stake. Private corporations should not be in a position to control the manner in which we use legally-purchased technologies, regardless of whether or not these technologies are then repurposed for literacy uses. I believe the exigency associated with this control, and the ongoing evolution of what is and is not a computer, dictates that we assert ourselves more actively into this discussion. We must take steps to provide our students with the best possible computer-mediated learning experience, however seemingly unorthodox the technological means might be, so that they may think critically, communicate effectively, and participate actively in society and in their future careers. About the Author Paul Cesarini is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Visual Communication &amp; Technology Education, Bowling Green State University, Ohio Email: pcesari@bgnet.bgsu.edu Works Cited http://xbox-linux.sourceforge.net/docs/debian.php&gt;.Baron, Denis. “From Pencils to Pixels: The Stages of Literacy Technologies.” Passions Pedagogies and 21st Century Technologies. Hawisher, Gail E., and Cynthia L. Selfe, Eds. Utah: Utah State University Press, 1999. 15 – 33. Becker, David. “Ballmer: Mod Chips Threaten Xbox”. News.com. 21 Oct 2002. http://news.com.com/2100-1040-962797.php&gt;. http://news.com.com/2100-1040-978957.html?tag=nl&gt;. http://archive.infoworld.com/articles/hn/xml/02/08/13/020813hnchina.xml&gt;. http://www.neoseeker.com/news/story/1062/&gt;. http://www.bookreader.co.uk&gt;.Finni, Scott. “Desktop Linux Edges Into The Mainstream”. TechWeb. 8 Apr 2003. http://www.techweb.com/tech/software/20030408_software. http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/archive/29439.html http://gentoox.shallax.com/. http://ragib.hypermart.net/linux/. http://www.itworld.com/Comp/2362/LWD010424latinlinux/pfindex.html. http://www.xbox-linux.sourceforge.net. http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/archive/27487.html. http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/archive/26078.html. http://www.us.playstation.com/peripherals.aspx?id=SCPH-97047. http://www.techtv.com/extendedplay/reviews/story/0,24330,3356862,00.html. http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,61984,00.html. http://www.gentoo.org/main/en/about.xml http://www.gentoo.org/main/en/philosophy.xml http://techupdate.zdnet.com/techupdate/stories/main/0,14179,2869075,00.html. http://xbox-linux.sourceforge.net/docs/usershelpusers.html http://www.cnn.com/2002/TECH/fun.games/12/16/gamers.liksang/. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Cesarini, Paul. "“Opening” the Xbox" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture &lt;http://www.media-culture.org.au/0406/08_Cesarini.php&gt;. APA Style Cesarini, P. (2004, Jul1). “Opening” the Xbox. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 7, &lt;http://www.media-culture.org.au/0406/08_Cesarini.php&gt;

Introduction Documentary film has grown significantly in the past decade, with high profile films such as Fahrenheit 9/11, Supersize Me, and An Inconvenient Truth garnering increased attention both at the box office and in the news media. In addition, the rising prominence of web-based media has provided new opportunities for documentary to create social impact. Films are now typically released with websites, Facebook pages, twitter feeds, and web videos to increase both reach and impact. This combination of technology and broader audience appeal has given rise to a current landscape in which documentary films are imbedded within coordinated multi-media campaigns. New media have not only opened up new avenues for communicating with audiences, they have also created new opportunities for data collection and analysis of film impacts. A recent report by McKinsey and Company highlighted this potential, introducing and discussing the implications of increasing consumer information being recorded on the Internet as well as through networked sensors in the physical world. As they found: "Big data—large pools of data that can be captured, communicated, aggregated, stored, and analyzed—is now part of every sector and function of the global economy" (Manyika et al. iv). This data can be mined to learn a great deal about both individual and cultural response to documentary films and the issues they represent. Although film has a rich history in humanities research, this new set of tools enables an empirical approach grounded in the social sciences. However, several researchers across disciplines have noted that limited investigation has been conducted in this area. Although there has always been an emphasis on social impact in film and many filmmakers and scholars have made legitimate (and possibly illegitimate) claims of impact, few have attempted to empirically justify these claims. Over fifteen years ago, noted film scholar Brian Winston commented that "the underlying assumption of most social documentaries—that they shall act as agents of reform and change—is almost never demonstrated" (236). A decade later, Political Scientist David Whiteman repeated this sentiment, arguing that, "despite widespread speculation about the impact of documentaries, the topic has received relatively little systematic attention" ("Evolving"). And earlier this year, the introduction to a special issue of Mass Communication and Society on documentary film stated, "documentary film, despite its growing influence and many impacts, has mostly been overlooked by social scientists studying the media and communication" (Nisbet and Aufderheide 451). Film has been studied extensively as entertainment, as narrative, and as cultural event, but the study of film as an agent of social change is still in its infancy. This paper introduces a systematic approach to measuring the social impact of documentary film aiming to: (1) discuss the context of documentary film and its potential impact; and (2) argue for a social science approach, discussing key issues about conducting such research. Changes in Documentary Practice Documentary film has been used as a tool for promoting social change throughout its history. John Grierson, who coined the term "documentary" in 1926, believed it could be used to influence the ideas and actions of people in ways once reserved for church and school. He presented his thoughts on this emerging genre in his 1932 essay, First Principles of Documentary, saying, "We believe that the cinema's capacity for getting around, for observing and selecting from life itself, can be exploited in a new and vital art form" (97). Richard Barsam further specified the definition of documentary, distinguishing it from non-fiction film, such that all documentaries are non-fiction films but not all non-fiction films are documentaries. He distinguishes documentary from other forms of non-fiction film (i.e. travel films, educational films, newsreels) by its purpose; it is a film with an opinion and a specific message that aims to persuade or influence the audience. And Bill Nichols writes that the definition of documentary may even expand beyond the film itself, defining it as a "filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" (12). Documentary film has undergone many significant changes since its inception, from the heavily staged romanticism movement of the 1920s to the propagandist tradition of governments using film to persuade individuals to support national agendas to the introduction of cinéma vérité in the 1960s and historical documentary in the 1980s (cf. Barnouw). However, the recent upsurge in popularity of documentary media, combined with technological advances of internet and computers have opened up a whole new set of opportunities for film to serve as both art and agent for social change. One such opportunity is in the creation of film-based social action campaigns. Over the past decade, filmmakers have taken a more active role in promoting social change by coordinating film releases with action campaigns. Companies such as Participant Media (An Inconvenient Truth, Food Inc., etc.) now create "specific social action campaigns for each film and documentary designed to give a voice to issues that resonate in the films" (Participant Media). In addition, a new sector of "social media" consultants are now offering services, including "consultation, strategic planning for alternative distribution, website and social media development, and complete campaign management services to filmmakers to ensure the content of nonfiction media truly meets the intention for change" (Working Films). The emergence of new forms of media and technology are changing our conceptions of both documentary film and social action. Technologies such as podcasts, video blogs, internet radio, social media and network applications, and collaborative web editing "both unsettle and extend concepts and assumptions at the heart of 'documentary' as a practice and as an idea" (Ellsworth). In the past decade, we have seen new forms of documentary creation, distribution, marketing, and engagement. Likewise, film campaigns are utilizing a broad array of strategies to engage audience members, including "action kits, screening programs, educational curriculums and classes, house parties, seminars, panels" that often turn into "ongoing 'legacy' programs that are updated and revised to continue beyond the film's domestic and international theatrical, DVD and television windows" (Participant Media). This move towards multi-media documentary film is becoming not only commonplace, but expected as a part of filmmaking. NYU film professor and documentary film pioneer George Stoney recently noted, "50 percent of the documentary filmmaker's job is making the movie, and 50 percent is figuring out what its impact can be and how it can move audiences to action" (qtd. in Nisbet, "Gasland"). In his book Convergence Culture, Henry Jenkins, coined the term "transmedia storytelling", which he later defined as "a process where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience" ("Transmedia"). When applied to documentary film, it is the elements of the "issue" raised by the film that get dispersed across these channels, coordinating, not just an entertainment experience, but a social action campaign. Dimensions of Evaluation It is not unreasonable to assume that such film campaigns, just like any policy or program, have the possibility to influence viewers' knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. Measuring this impact has become increasingly important, as funders of documentary and issue-based films want look to understand the "return on investment" of films in terms of social impact so that they can compare them with other projects, including non-media, direct service projects. Although we "feel" like films make a difference to the individuals who also see them in the broader cultures in which they are embedded, measurement and empirical analysis of this impact are vitally important for both providing feedback to filmmakers and funders as well as informing future efforts attempting to leverage film for social change. This type of systematic assessment, or program evaluation, is often discussed in terms of two primary goals—formative (or process) and summative (or impact) evaluation (cf. Muraskin; Trochim and Donnelly). Formative evaluation studies program materials and activities to strengthen a program, and summative evaluation examines program outcomes. In terms of documentary film, these two goals can be described as follows: Formative Evaluation: Informing the Process As programs (broadly defined as an intentional set of activities with the aim of having some specific impact), the people who interact with them, and the cultures they are situated in are constantly changing, program development and evaluation is an ongoing learning cycle. Film campaigns, which are an intentional set of activities with the aim of impacting individual viewers and broader cultures, fit squarely within this purview. Without formulating hypotheses about the relationships between program activities and goals and then collecting and analyzing data during implementation to test them, it is difficult to learn ways to improve programs (or continue doing what works best in the most efficient manner). Attention to this process enables those involved to learn more about, not only what works, but how and why it works and even gain insights about how program outcomes may be affected by changes to resource availability, potential audiences, or infrastructure. Filmmakers are constantly learning and honing their craft and realizing the impact of their practice can help the artistic process. Often faced with tight budgets and timelines, they are forced to confront tradeoffs all the time, in the writing, production and post-production process. Understanding where they are having impact can improve their decision-making, which can help both the individual project and the overall field. Summative Evaluation: Quantifying Impacts Evaluation is used in many different fields to determine whether programs are achieving their intended goals and objectives. It became popular in the 1960s as a way of understanding the impact of the Great Society programs and has continued to grow since that time (Madaus and Stufflebeam). A recent White House memo stated that "rigorous, independent program evaluations can be a key resource in determining whether government programs are achieving their intended outcomes as well as possible and at the lowest possible cost" and the United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB) launched an initiative to increase the practice of "impact evaluations, or evaluations aimed at determining the causal effects of programs" (Orszag 1). Documentary films, like government programs, generally target a national audience, aim to serve a social purpose, and often do not provide a return on their investment. Participant Media, the most visible and arguably most successful documentary production company in the film industry, made recent headlines for its difficulty in making a profit during its seven-year history (Cieply). Owner and founder Jeff Skoll reported investing hundreds of millions of dollars into the company and CEO James Berk added that the company sometimes measures success, not by profit, but by "whether Mr. Skoll could have exerted more impact simply by spending his money philanthropically" (Cieply). Because of this, documentary projects often rely on grant funding, and are starting to approach funders beyond traditional arts and media sources. "Filmmakers are finding new fiscal and non-fiscal partners, in constituencies that would not traditionally be considered—or consider themselves—media funders or partners" (BRITDOC 6). And funders increasingly expect tangible data about their return on investment. Says Luis Ubiñas, president of Ford Foundation, which recently launched the Just Films Initiative: In these times of global economic uncertainty, with increasing demand for limited philanthropic dollars, assessing our effectiveness is more important than ever. Today, staying on the frontlines of social change means gauging, with thoughtfulness and rigor, the immediate and distant outcomes of our funding. Establishing the need for evaluation is not enough—attention to methodology is also critical. Valid research methodology is a critical component of understanding around the role entertainment can play in impacting social and environmental issues. The following issues are vital to measuring impact. Defining the Project Though this may seem like an obvious step, it is essential to determine the nature of the project so one can create research questions and hypotheses based on a complete understanding of the "treatment". One organization that provides a great example of the integration of documentary film imbedded into a larger campaign or movement is Invisible Children. Founded in 2005, Invisible Children is both a media-based organization as well as an economic development NGO with the goal of raising awareness and meeting the needs of child soldiers and other youth suffering as a result of the ongoing war in northern Uganda. Although Invisible Children began as a documentary film, it has grown into a large non-profit organization with an operating budget of over $8 million and a staff of over a hundred employees and interns throughout the year as well as volunteers in all 50 states and several countries. Invisible Children programming includes films, events, fundraising campaigns, contests, social media platforms, blogs, videos, two national "tours" per year, merchandise, and even a 650-person three-day youth summit in August 2011 called The Fourth Estate. Individually, each of these components might lead to specific outcomes; collectively, they might lead to others. In order to properly assess impacts of the film "project", it is important to take all of these components into consideration and think about who they may impact and how. This informs the research questions, hypotheses, and methods used in evaluation. Film campaigns may even include partnerships with existing social movements and non-profit organizations targeting social change. The American University Center for Social Media concluded in a case study of three issue-based documentary film campaigns: Digital technologies do not replace, but are closely entwined with, longstanding on-the-ground activities of stakeholders and citizens working for social change. Projects like these forge new tools, pipelines, and circuits of circulation in a multiplatform media environment. They help to create sustainable network infrastructures for participatory public media that extend from local communities to transnational circuits and from grassroots communities to policy makers. (Abrash) Expanding the Focus of Impact beyond the Individual A recent focus has shifted the dialogue on film impact. Whiteman ("Theaters") argues that traditional metrics of film "success" tend to focus on studio economic indicators that are far more relevant to large budget films. Current efforts focused on box office receipts and audience size, the author claims, are really measures of successful film marketing or promotion, missing the mark when it comes to understanding social impact. He instead stresses the importance of developing a more comprehensive model. His "coalition model" broadens the range and types of impact of film beyond traditional metrics to include the entire filmmaking process, from production to distribution. Whiteman (“Theaters”) argues that a narrow focus on the size of the audience for a film, its box office receipts, and viewers' attitudes does not incorporate the potential reach of a documentary film. Impacts within the coalition model include both individual and policy levels. Individual impacts (with an emphasis on activist groups) include educating members, mobilizing for action, and raising group status; policy includes altering both agenda for and the substance of policy deliberations. The Fledgling Fund (Barrett and Leddy) expanded on this concept and identified five distinct impacts of documentary film campaigns. These potential impacts expand from individual viewers to groups, movements, and eventually to what they call the "ultimate goal" of social change. Each is introduced briefly below. Quality Film. The film itself can be presented as a quality film or media project, creating enjoyment or evoking emotion in the part of audiences. "By this we mean a film that has a compelling narrative that draws viewers in and can engage them in the issue and illustrate complex problems in ways that statistics cannot" (Barrett and Leddy, 6). Public Awareness. Film can increase public awareness by bringing light to issues and stories that may have otherwise been unknown or not often thought about. This is the level of impact that has received the most attention, as films are often discussed in terms of their "educational" value. "A project's ability to raise awareness around a particular issue, since awareness is a critical building block for both individual change and broader social change" (Barrett and Leddy, 6). Public Engagement. Impact, however, need not stop at simply raising public awareness. Engagement "indicates a shift from simply being aware of an issue to acting on this awareness. Were a film and its outreach campaign able to provide an answer to the question 'What can I do?' and more importantly mobilize that individual to act?" (Barrett and Leddy, 7). This is where an associated film campaign becomes increasingly important, as transmedia outlets such as Facebook, websites, blogs, etc. can build off the interest and awareness developed through watching a film and provide outlets for viewers channel their constructive efforts. Social Movement. In addition to impacts on individuals, films can also serve to mobilize groups focused on a particular problem. The filmmaker can create a campaign around the film to promote its goals and/or work with existing groups focused on a particular issue, so that the film can be used as a tool for mobilization and collaboration. "Moving beyond measures of impact as they relate to individual awareness and engagement, we look at the project's impact as it relates to the broader social movement … if a project can strengthen the work of key advocacy organizations that have strong commitment to the issues raised in the film" (Barrett and Leddy, 7). Social Change. The final level of impact and "ultimate goal" of an issue-based film is long-term and systemic social change. "While we understand that realizing social change is often a long and complex process, we do believe it is possible and that for some projects and issues there are key indicators of success" (Barrett and Leddy, 7). This can take the form of policy or legislative change, passed through film-based lobbying efforts, or shifts in public dialogue and behavior. Legislative change typically takes place beyond the social movement stage, when there is enough support to pressure legislators to change or create policy. Film-inspired activism has been seen in issues ranging from environmental causes such as agriculture (Food Inc.) and toxic products (Blue Vinyl) to social causes such as foreign conflict (Invisible Children) and education (Waiting for Superman). Documentary films can also have a strong influence as media agenda-setters, as films provide dramatic "news pegs" for journalists seeking to either sustain or generation new coverage of an issue (Nisbet "Introduction" 5), such as the media coverage of climate change in conjunction with An Inconvenient Truth. Barrett and Leddy, however, note that not all films target all five impacts and that different films may lead to different impacts. "In some cases we could look to key legislative or policy changes that were driven by, or at least supported by the project... In other cases, we can point to shifts in public dialogue and how issues are framed and discussed" (7). It is possible that specific film and/or campaign characteristics may lead to different impacts; this is a nascent area for research and one with great promise for both practical and theoretical utility. Innovations in Tools and Methods Finally, the selection of tools is a vital component for assessing impact and the new media landscape is enabling innovations in the methods and strategies for program evaluation. Whereas the traditional domain of film impact measurement included box office statistics, focus groups, and exit surveys, innovations in data collection and analysis have expanded the reach of what questions we can ask and how we are able to answer them. For example, press coverage can assist in understanding and measuring the increase in awareness about an issue post-release. Looking directly at web-traffic changes "enables the creation of an information-seeking curve that can define the parameters of a teachable moment" (Hart and Leiserowitz 360). Audience reception can be measured, not only via interviews and focus groups, but also through content and sentiment analysis of web content and online analytics. "Sophisticated analytics can substantially improve decision making, minimize risks, and unearth valuable insights that would otherwise remain hidden" (Manyika et al. 5). These new tools are significantly changing evaluation, expanding what we can learn about the social impacts of film through triangulation of self-report data with measurement of actual behavior in virtual environments. Conclusion The changing media landscape both allows and impels evaluation of film impacts on individual viewers and the broader culture in which they are imbedded. Although such analysis may have previously been limited to box office numbers, critics' reviews, and theater exit surveys, the rise of new media provides both the ability to connect filmmakers, activists, and viewers in new ways and the data in which to study the process. This capability, combined with significant growth in the documentary landscape, suggests a great potential for documentary film to contribute to some of our most pressing social and environmental needs. A social scientific approach, that combines empirical analysis with theory applied from basic science, ensures that impact can be measured and leveraged in a way that is useful for both filmmakers as well as funders. In the end, this attention to impact ensures a continued thriving marketplace for issue-based documentary films in our social landscape. References Abrash, Barbara. "Social Issue Documentary: The Evolution of Public Engagement." American University Center for Social Media 21 Apr. 2010. 26 Sep. 2011 ‹http://www.centerforsocialmedia.org/›. Aufderheide, Patricia. "The Changing Documentary Marketplace." Cineaste 30.3 (2005): 24-28. Barnouw, Eric. Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film. New York: Oxford UP, 1993. Barrett, Diana and Sheila Leddy. 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