Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Phinda Game Reserve (KwaZulu-Natal)'

In South Africa, trypanosomosis also known as Nagana, transmitted by Glossina brevipalpis and G. austeni, is the major cause of anaemia and chronic debilitating condition in cattle. There is a wealth of entomological information on the ecology of the two tsetse species generated following the devastating outbreak in cattle due to Nagana in 1990. However, it is unfortunate that these entomological data has not been supported by parallel studies on the epidemiology of the disease. Therefore, the present study presents the first intensive epidemiological investigations since 1990 to address the problem of animal trypanosomosis in South Africa. The relationship between trypanosomes herd average prevalence (HAP), herd average anaemia (HAA) and herd average packed cell volume (HA-PVC) were investigated in cattle in three communal diptanks located by the Hluhluwe-uMfolozi Game Reserve by regular monthly sampling for 15 months. The tsetse challenge with G. brevipalpis in two of the diptanks, Mvutshini and Ekuphindisweni, was high but low in the third (Ocilwane). In addition, G. brevipaplis and G. austeni coexist in Mvutshini diptank. This high and low tsetse challenge presented different disease scenarios. Cattle at Mvutshini and Ekuphindisweni diptanks had the highest HAP of 12.3% and 8.9%, respectively, which is significantly different (p = 0.001) from the HAP obtained from cattle at Ocilane (2.9%). Both cattle herds at Mvutshini and Ekuphindisweni diptanks also had the highest HAA, 27.7 and 33.4%, respectively, while cattle at Ocilwane had the lowest, 11.1% (statistically different; p = 0.001). Conversely, cattle at Ocilwane diptank had the highest HA-PCV, ranging between 29-32% while cattle at Mvutshini and Ekuphindisweni diptanks had the lowest HA-PCV (24-29%). The interaction between HAP and HAA is significant (p = 0.021). The overall effect of HAP on the animal health condition is clearly demonstrated when comparing the anaemia in trypanosomes infected and uninfected cattle at the 3 diptanks. Fifty percent, 63% and 100% of trypanosomes infected cattle were anaemic at Mvutshini, Ekuphindisweni and Ocilwane diptanks, respectively. In comparison, the prevalence of anaemia in uninfected cattle in the 3 diptanks was 20, 30 and 10% at Mvutshini, Ekuphindisweni and Ocilwane diptanks, respectively. By combining the data from the 3 diptanks (1,800 observations), the overall HAA in infected and uninfected cattle was 62 and 20%, respectively The results of trypanosomes seasonal surveys conducted at 7 communal diptanks in tsetse infested areas, showed that all cattle at the diptanks were infected with trypanosomes with mean HAP and HAA of 10.3 and 35.3%, respectively. The highest HAP (range 15-31%, n=4) was recorded in Ngwenyambili diptank. This high infection in the cattle herds produced high values of HAA (50%; range 40-60). The infection rate with trypanosomes in G. brevipalpis caught from the field showed immature infections in the midgut of 3.5% (16/458) while only one fly was found with mature infection in the proboscis (1/458, 0.22%). Very few G. austeni were collected (total of 9) during the same period and dissected. The infection rate with trypanosomes immature and mature infections was found to be very high; 5/9 (55.5%). Blood samples were collected from a total of 132 buffaloes randomly immobilized for tuberculosis testing by the Hluhluwe-uMfolozi Game Reserve Authority. Two buffaloes were found to have T. congolense infection by the buffy coat technique. The presence of trypanosomes infected buffaloes in this study confirms the occurrence of sylvatic cycle at the tsetse/livestock/Hluhluwe-uMfolozi Game Reserve, thus, presenting a high risk of serious disease to cattle. The objective of the study on the strategic treatment of trypanosomosis conducted on one farm in endemic area was to treat adult cows and calves at an arbitrary HAP threshold before the disease produces any clinical symptoms or production losses. The strategic use of ethidium bromide and novidium chloride produced attractive results whereby cattle were protected for an extended period of 3 to 6 months with no development of anaemia during this period. Therefore, two to four treatments per year may be sufficient to keep cattle productivity on the farm under the tsetse challenge Copyright
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012.
Veterinary Tropical Diseases
unrestricted

Diatoms are microscopic algae found in almost all aquatic environments. They are habitat specific and have silica frustules which preserve well in sediments. They have been used extensively to provide a multitude of palaeoecological data relating to pH, nutrient loads and water levels. Here, the diatoms in a lake sediment core from Hluhluwe-Imfolozi, South Africa, are analysed to show fluctuations in littoral to benthic taxa, and brackish to freshwater taxa as indicators of lake level changes over time. Changes in lake level act as a proxy for warm/dry or cold/wet periods over time. During the last 240 years lake levels have remained consistently low but nevertheless indicate four alternating periods of cold/wet and warm/dry climate. From c. A.D. 1770 (the last few decades of the Little Ice Age) to the c. A.D. 1840 the climate was cool and wet, but nonetheless gradually warmed up and became drier. From c. A.D. 1840 through to c. A.D. 1920 a there was a gradual increase in temperature and corresponding decrease in rainfall. Then, from c. A.D. 1920 till c. A.D. 1980 there was another colder, wetter period. Finally, very recently, from around c. A.D. 1980 till the present day, Hluhluwe-Imfolozi has experienced warmer, drier conditions once. Pollution-tolerant diatoms increase during the last 100 years and indicate eutrophication of the lake, a consequence of anthropogenic activity in the region. The diatom sequence from Phindiswene provides a high resolution climatic proxy for the critical period covering the latter stages of the Little Ice Age (LIA), post LIA warming, and recent increasing anthropogenic impacts.

Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) are classified as critically endangered on the IUCN red data list (IUCN 2010). In Ndumo Game Reserve in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, a black rhino population has seen a decline in numbers from nearly 50 rhino in 1988 to only eight in 2006. This study aimed to determine the factors or events responsible for the decline in black rhino numbers in Ndumo. The first part of this study focuses on the historical data and literature on Ndumo’s black rhino population. Specifically, I examined historical data regarding Ndumo’s black rhino population estimates, recruitment patterns, mortality rates, number of removals, introductions, densities and other large herbivore population estimates. Results suggest that a combination of high removals due to inaccurate estimates and competition from other herbivore populations, specifically nyala (Nyala angasi) and impala (Aepyceros melampus), played a role in this population’s decline. Also, a change in the Usuthu River course negatively affected the population’s social structure, movement patterns and recruitment success. The introduction of five black rhino from Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park in 2008 seems to have been a success, and should increase reproductive success. Secondly, we determined the amount of browse currently (2008) available to black rhino in Ndumo, the proportional species composition of this browse and its suitability for black rhino. The results show that browse availability is fairly high (average of 17.8%) in Ndumo but the suitability is low. Croton menyhartii is the single biggest contributor to browse availability in Ndumo, contributing 25% of all available browse. This plant species is unfortunately rejected by black rhino and most other browsers. Furthermore, two invasive alien plant species (Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara) are amongst the four most abundant plant species in Ndumo and are also rejected by black rhino. An effective alien plant clearing programme is needed to eradicate invasive alien species in Ndumo, which will help alleviate the poor browse conditions. A population viability analysis (PVA) was done during the last part of the study to predict the possibility of extinction or survival of this black rhino population in future. The VORTEX model was used in this study. Data and trends as actually observed in Ndumo since 1988 was used as the first simulation’s input parameters, to test whether the model will predict a similar decline in black rhino numbers as observed in Ndumo. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses with different input parameters were done to test the probability of extinction or survival under all possible circumstances. The model predicted a high probability of survival, even with most of the sensitivity analyses, suggesting that small populations of less than 50 individuals are viable if managed correctly. Parameters that impacted negatively on the growth rate of this population were density dependant breeding, a low recruitment rate and a decline in carrying capacity.
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012.
Centre for Wildlife Management
MSc
Unrestricted

In recent years several regions in South Africa including KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) have experienced a significant shift in their farming practice, moving away from conventional commercial farming to the apparently more lucrative private game farming. This is clearly evident in the northern parts of KZN, where most Private Game Reserves (PGRs) occur in semi-arid areas, which are poorly suited to agriculture or livestock farming. These conversions of land cover or change in land use (i.e. from conventional commercial farming to private game farming) is occurring fairly swiftly even though the extent (area of change), impacts and implications of this trend have not been established. Very limited scientific research has been carried out on the environmental effects, impacts and implications of these land cover/use changes related to PGRs. In an attempt to document these changes as well as the environmental implications, three PGRs i.e. Kube Yini, Thanda and Phinda and the Mkhuze Game Reserve within northern KZN were selected for in-depth study. Mkhuze, which is owned and managed by the state, was selected as the control for this study, as it has remained relatively undisturbed for a long period of time. A comparison between the PGRs and Mkhuze was carried out to compare the land cover/use changes within the study area since the establishment of the PGRs. Remote sensing software was used to achieve the aim and objectives of this study. Using satellite images from 1990 and 2007, a change detection analysis was performed to determine the land cover/use changes that occurred within the study area during the period 1990-2007. Sixty-four land cover/use classes were generated from the analysis. These sixty-four classes were reclassified into five broad land cover/use classes which were identified as (1) water and riverine vegetation, (2) sand forest, forest and rock faces, (3) woodlands, (4) old fields and disturbed areas, (5) and grasslands. The results illustrated that during the period 1990 to 2007, the land cover/use of the entire study area changed significantly, with the overall land cover/use changes illustrating a decrease in the water bodies and riverine vegetation (6 percent to 3 percent); sand forest, forest and rock faces (19 percent to 16 percent); woodlands (26 percent to 25 percent); and old fields and disturbed areas (26 percent to 25 percent) whilst an increase in the grasslands (23 percent to 31 percent) was evident. Within each individual PGR, significant land cover/use changes related to private game farming were evident. In Kube Yini PGR, a decrease in the water bodies and riverine vegetation (4 percent to 1 percent); old fields and disturbed areas (23 percent to 11 percent); and grasslands (6 percent to 5 percent) were observed whilst an increase in the sand forest, forest and rock faces (31 percent to 47 percent); and grasslands (6 percent to 5 percent) land covers were seen. There has been no change in the woodlands cover (i.e. remains 36 percent). Old fields and disturbed areas have decreased due to the clearing programme that was implemented by Kube Yini, which has also contributed to the increased sand forest, forest and rock faces; and grassland land covers. At Thanda PGR, water bodies and riverine vegetation remained the same overall, while an increase in the grasslands cover (19 percent to 49 percent) was clearly evident. A decrease in the sand forest, forest and rock faces (13 percent to 4 percent); woodlands (29 percent to 18 percent); and old fields and disturbed areas (38 percent to 28 percent) was also noted. This was due to Thanda‟s Management Plan, whereby management had cleared the old fields and disturbed areas to accommodate the increased tourist accommodation, increased game species as well as the increased space that is required for these species. Furthermore over the recent years, Thanda has been practicing bush clearing and thinning of vegetation, which has resulted in the creation of a grassland landscape. A grassland landscape was required for viewing the game species, which resulted in a decreased sand forest, forest and rock faces; woodlands; and old fields and disturbed areas. In Phinda too, the water bodies and riverine vegetation remained the same (i.e. 1 percent). The sand forest, forest and rock faces (32 percent to 19 percent); and woodlands (43 percent to 41 percent) decreased whilst an increased old fields and disturbed areas (15 percent to 26 percent); and grasslands (9 percent to 13 percent) were observed. Sand forests are sensitive and decrease in extent rather easily as a result of disturbances experienced in the area. The decrease in sand forest, forest and rock faces during this period may be due to the increased wildlife and especially elephant population experienced on this reserve. The woodlands land cover decreased in size as a result of clearing to accommodate tourist infrastructure as well as creating a grassland landscape i.e. open space and clear viewing for the game species. The changes in Phinda‟s land cover resulted can be explained by the different management practices that were practised on the reserve. The results from the PGRs were compared against Mkhuze so as to determine whether private game faming was in fact changing the landscape of the study area. During this period 1990 to 2007, Mkhuze experienced only slight changes within it‟s land cover/use classes: water and riverine vegetation (2 percent to 1 percent); sand forest, forest and rock faces (16 percent to 15 percent); and grasslands (29 percent to 26 percent) decreased whilst an increase in the woodlands (27 percent to 30 percent); and old fields and disturbed areas (26 percent to 28 percent) were noted. Since Mkhuze is managed by the state with its priority being conservation first and not increased monetary gain, competition between species and habitants occurred with the least amount of human influence. It is most likely that the water and riverine vegetation; and grasslands decreased due to the drought experienced in the area between 2001-2006, which may have led to the increased old fields and disturbed areas. In addition woodlands may have increased due to its resistance to harsh conditions. Also contributing to the increased old fields and disturbed areas could be the increased wildlife numbers experienced in the reserve. The slight drop in the sand forest, forest and rock faces land cover most likely resulted due to natural competition between the vegetation species as well as management realising the significance of the sand forest, thus assisting in the preservation of the sand forest, forest and rock faces cover. An accuracy assessment was carried out to determine the accuracy of the image classification, and a 75 % accuracy was achieved for the overall analysis. The results illustrate that during the period 1990-2007, the study area‟s land cover changed significantly and that this was mostly like due to the changes within the land cover of the individual PGRs. Climatic data for this period was also taken into consideration to see whether climate variations had occurred and whether this had impacted the change in land cover/use of the study area. The results from the PGRs were compared against the state reserve results as well as the climatic data. The results suggest that the majority of the land cover/use changes within the study area had occurred largely due to private game farming rather than natural processes. The climatic variables such as temperature of the area remained fairly unchanged whilst humidity remained fairly high. With the exception of the drought experienced in the area between the period 2001-2006, it is most likely that the changes in the area are the result of the change to private game farming. Private game farming is having a significant effect on the landscape of the study area and this is largely due to the different management practices practised on each individual PGR. It is recommended that PGRs be monitored and regulated consistently in order to prevent the degradation of the environment and its ecosystem. The study exhibits the value and usefulness of satellite imagery in detecting land cover/use changes related to private game farming. Landsat 5 TM imagery was the most suitable and accurate in identifying and mapping broad scale land cover/use changes related to private game farming. If a more detailed level of investigation is required, the use of higher resolution imagery (e.g. Spot/Landsat 7) is advised.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2010.

The identification of non-random species composition patterns predicted by assembly rules is a central theme in community ecology. Based on life history characteristics, species composition patterns of rodents and shrews should be consistent with predictions from nestedness rather than competition hypotheses. This study investigated the seasonal changes in rodent and shrew assemblages in eleven savanna vegetation types in a protected reserve in South Africa. Rodents and shrews were sampled between 2009 and 2010 at Phinda Private Game Reserve (PPGR), KwaZulu-Natal. Sample-based rarefaction curves showed that rodent and shrew abundance and richness varied among seasons and vegetation types. Species richness estimators indicated that inventories for rodents (80%) and shrews (100%) were fairly complete. Null-model analyses found no evidence that species co-occurrence patterns in the reserve were non-random with respect to predictions from Diamond’s Assembly rules, niche limitation hypothesis and nestedness hypothesis. I also investigated seasonal changes in species richness and abundance of rodent and shrew assemblages on cattle, pineapple and former cattle farms surrounding PPGR, and used cluster analyses to compare the species composition of rodents and shrews at farm and PPGR study sites. Small mammal assemblages exhibited a heterogeneous distribution and species composition patterns changed between seasons. Sample-based rarefaction curves showed that rodent and shrew abundance and richness varied among seasons and study sites. Species richness estimators indicated that inventories for the rodents (91%) and shrews (100%) on the farms were essentially complete. Rodent and shrew species composition patterns did not group study sites according to land use, nor could species composition patterns be explained by vegetation characteristics. My results suggest that complex biotic and abiotic processes other than competition, nestedness, land use and vegetation characteristics operate at different spatial and temporal scales to structure rodent and shrew assemblages.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2013.

In South Africa, conservation and tourism planning that incorporate local communities, has a greater significance today than before given the historical Apartheid legacy, which marginalised the majority of the population from democratic processes and economic opportunities. Community participation in the critical facets of conservation and tourism, that is planning, decision-making and management has been an object of research discourse for a long time. Issues around sustainability, governance, employment opportunity and equity, cost and benefit-sharing, land rights, capacity-building, active participation and conflicts have received great attention from scholars throughout the world. Externally-generated (observer) views on the nature and extent of local community participation in conservation and tourism management, more often than not, fail to depict the perceptions of the local residents. Explanations tend to be more prescriptive and are forced onto the stakeholders, who are directly affected by the circumstances around them. The voice of the local residents clearly articulates their views and attitudes much more than any other external views. The goal of this research study is to investigate the perceptions of local community on their participation in wildlife conservation, ecotourism and social development and the information gathered will be used to develop a new model for enhanced private sector-community collaboration and communication for sustainability. The study interrogates factors constraining collaboration, which include organisational culture, power differentials and communication, from the perspectives of stakeholders, especially the grassroots community. It engages with the community for its views and opinions and as a result, delivers valuable criticisms of and suggestions for the improvement of the process followed. A qualitative approach was adopted. Data collection and analysis methods were identified, explained, justified and implemented. This project is a Case Study, carried out in Umkhanyakhude District of KZN, in which Phinda Game Reserve and the surrounding local communities are located. Makhasa and Mnqobokazi are situated about 30-40 kilometres north-east of Hluhluwe, on the R22 Road that links the town with Sodwana Bay. Semi-structured individual and group interviews allow the study participants to identify and describe concerns or concepts that may not have been expected or considered by the researcher Interviews are of particular importance to ensure honesty and impartiality. Documentary analysis allowed to generate inferences through objective and systematic identification of core elements of a written communication. Observation was used to capture situations of interest not readily volunteered by the participants due to notable different views among members of the particular community. The Adapted Nominal Group Technique workshop was prepared and conducted, to augment the other methods. A multi-method approach ensured the reliability of the findings and the validity of both the approaches and the data collected. The historical background of &Beyond, its philosophy and journey towards sustainable wildlife conservation, tourism and social development was discussed. It was evident that due to the proximity of Makhasa and Mnqobokazi, activities of Phinda directly affected the communities and the same applies to those of the communities in Phinda. There was an apparent need to carefully and properly manage the cultural, socio-economic, political and spatial relationships to build a common understanding about roles and responsibilities of stakeholders in a mutually beneficial manner. The findings of the study illustrates that the perceptions and attitudes of the local residents on their participation in decision-making and management of conservation, tourism and social development are important for sustainability. The understanding of land rights issues was restricted to a few. While there was general appreciation for the activities of Phinda and Africa Foundation, the participants expressed their unfulfilled expectations, concerns and also made suggestions for a way forward to prevent conflict and ensure sustainable conservation and tourism. Skewed power relations, lack of participation in decision-making, poor governance, employment opportunities and equity, lack of transparency and poor communication strategies were among the main issues raised by the participants. Constructive criticism and recommendations, together with the Bending the Curve Model could serve as a valuable community engagement framework for private sector tourism companies and private game reserves to involve and work with surrounding communities to ensure more sustainable private game reserves in the future. The study recommends the model with some concrete, practical measures adapted from ideas of collaborative theory, for sustainable development
School of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
Ph. D. (Environmental Management)

With the development of digital technology during the last decade and the improvement of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), it has become easier for various scientific fields to predict and extrapolate data. Various organisations and institutions continuously develop algorithms and software to assist with specific challenges in multiple fields of science. These technologies and principles have also been effectively applied in the soil science field of pedology. Traditional soil mapping, although effective, is time consuming, arduous and expensive. It is thus important to develop methods whereby the soil forms of an area can be identified faster while providing accurate information to the reader/ user. Conservation areas, such as Phinda Private Game Reserve (Phinda), which covers a large area (greater than 28 000 ha) can benefit from a soil map. The importance of a proper soil map has a great many uses in conservation, but not every organisation or individual can afford it. This is where digital soil mapping (DSM) or Predictive Soil Mapping (PSM) comes into its own. Substantial research and development have been done in the form of methodology and software systems for DSM although it has not been effectively applied to conservation management. By applying these techniques, accurate and interactive soil maps were developed without the burdensome expenses or dangers associated with traditional soil observations in a conservation area. The application of DSM and the use of the soil land inference model (SoLIM) at Phinda resulted in maps based on the Fey soil-form classification as well as a soil sensitivity index (SSI). The SSI was developed based on the various soil forms present at Phinda and the factors that determine its sensitivity to various types of degradation. These digital maps indicated accuracies of 71% (Fey classification) and 72% for the SSI. The kappa values indicated a substantial agreement (0.63) for the Fey classification map and a moderate agreement (0.57) for the SSI map. The SSI was then combined with the predator sightings and the location of infrastructure and commercial lodges to derive the agreement of activities, game drives, which includes off-road driving (ORD) on sensitive soils. As erosion is a concerning problem, predominantly caused by human activities within Phinda, it was necessary to use the SSI map as a base of comparison. This digitally produced soil map will be presented to the conservation management at Phinda whereby planning can be conducted, literally, from the ground up. Proper planning will thus prevent a loss of soil and consequently a loss of biodiversity. All the information was then combined to developed recommendations for Phinda as to improve the overall road network by upgrading, removing and rehabilitating certain roads and provide advice concerning ORD. These decisions, in turn, prevent long-term soil and biodiversity loss while still providing clients with a true African bush experience.
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Knowledge of habitat use and selection is essential to managing ungulate populations. This study assesses habitat use by elephant (Loxodonta Africana), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) and impala (Aepyceros melampus) in Thanda Private Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal. Firstly, I examine the effects of body size dimorphism, sexual segregation and predation on habitat selection and resource partitioning by ungulates. The mechanisms driving resource partitioning strategies were studied at three environmental scales, namely broader habitat (using habitat preference ratios), local environment (using Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) and Analysis of Similarity (ANOSIM)) and plant (feeding heights using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Regression analyses). At the habitat level, ungulates show distinct habitat preferences, independent of body size, which did not overlap, thus promote resource partitioning. Habitat selection, at the local environment level, varied among species but not between sexes. Therefore, body size class may influence selection for particular environmental characteristics. At the plant level, resource partitioning was evident among the larger species (giraffe and elephant) versus the smaller species (nyala and impala), but there was no apparent segregation among the sexes within species. Therefore, resource partitioning was strongest at the habitat level, bit less noticeable at the intermediate and finer plant scale. Secondly, I assessed the antipredator behaviour of multi-species assemblage in an experimental context (before vs. after lion reintroduction). I examined herbivore responses in terms of aggregation (forming safer groups), predator avoidance (selecting areas that predators avoid), and habitat selection in terms of habitat structure (selecting areas where capture is less likely), in response to lion reintroduction. Ungulates shifted habitats to avoid lion presence, i.e. into habitats least preferred by lion, and dominant species (based on body size) forced subordinate species into suboptimal habitats. However, counter predictions, ungulates did not increase their group size after lion were released. With the development of small private game reserves, intensive management is essential to maintain ecological heterogeneity, in this case through trophic cascades which promote coexistence. Managing ungulates as ecologically different according to body size will accommodate differences among herbivore populations. Long-term studies of habitat use by ungulates and predators will provide management with information to manipulate factors affecting habitat selection and predation, and thus sustainability of ungulate populations.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2008.

The increase of woody vegetation (also known as bush or shrub encroachment) in savannas has become of global concern to conservationists and rangeland managers alike. Bush encroachment has been associated with a decrease in rageland palatability. In addition, the increase in woody biomass has consequences for climate change, carbon sequestration, rangeland hydrology and nutrient cycling. As a result of these large changes in ecosystem functioning with bush encroachment, biodiversity may be threatened. Fire is considered to be one of the most important management tools used to control woody biomass in savannas. However, despite the use of fire in Ithala Game Reserve, areas have become encroached. This thesis assesses the role of fire in bush encroachment in Ithala Game Reserve. I start this thesis with a discussion of the bottom-up (water, nutrients, and light) and topdown (fire and herbivory) ecosystem components in the literature review. This sets the foundation for an understanding of the factors that affect savanna tree:grass ratios for the rest of this thesis. In addition the review discusses the potential effects of climate change on savanna tree:grass ratios. Recently, it has been proposed that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations result in an increased competitive ability for C3 woody plants against C4 grasses. Many models have been produced to explain savanna dynamics. By assessing the role of fire in Ithala Game Reserve, its functioning is assessed in light of the current issues of bush encroachment. Textural analysis is a remote sensing technique that has been used to detect changes in woody vegetation using aerial photographs. Textural analysis was used to assess changes in woody vegetation cover and density from 1943 (earliest period for which aerial photographs were available for the study area) to 1969, 1990 and 2007 in Ithala Game Reserve (IGR). Field surveys were performed to assess the effects of the fire regime in IGR on woody vegetation structure and composition. Transects were performed in areas with different fire frequencies. The effects of fire frequency were compared between similar vegetation communities. Textural analysis showed that woody vegetation cover (+32.5%) and density (657.9 indiv. ha-1) increased from 1943 to 2007. Importantly, in some areas of IGR, the suppression of fire led to the rapid invasion of woody plants from 1990 to 2007. Field studies demonstrated the importance of fire in controlling woody vegetation in IGR. The densities of the encroachers, Dichrostachys cinerea and Acacia karroo were resistant to annual burns. However, the height of these deciduous microphyllous woody encroachers was reduced by more frequent fires. Following the suppression of fire, these trees grew taller and their negative impact on the herbaceous layer increased. Consequently, fuel loads (grassy biomass) declined and prevented the use of frequent and intense fires by management. The reduction in fire frequency allowed the invasion of woody evergreen macrophyllous species. Continued development of fire-resistant patches of evergreen macrophyllous vegetation will further reduce the effectiveness of fire in controlling bush encroachment. To control bush encroachment in IGR and the consequential loss of biodiversity, an intermediate fire frequency (one burn every 2 to 4 years) is required. Burns also need to be hot enough to increase the current rate of topkill. Management should act to optimize the accumulation of grassy biomass to fuel fires.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-Unversity of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Contemporary and historical studies of the flora of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve (HGR), have emphasised the woody component whilst little work has been performed on the herbaceous vegetation. This is particularly true with regard to the responses of grasses to historical fire and bush clearing. This study attempted to elucidate some of these responses. Of all the variables considered in this study, woody cover, altitude, the number of fire events, geological and soil parent material are the most important affecting the abundance of grasses in this reserve. Most of these variables are not independent in their effects on grass abundance, with varying degrees of correlation between each other. Certain species appear to be restricted to particular geological substrates. Along with successional changes in the composition and cover of the woody community, due to seemingly inevitable bush encroachment, there is a parallel change in grassland communities in this reserve. In the absence of clearing, numerous fires, higher altitudes, igneous geology and soils derived from igneous parent material delays this succession, whilst sedimentary geology at lower altitudes and fire frequencies accelerates the trend to high woody cover and associated grass species. The grass communities in HGR were shown to be significantly affected by bush clearing and fire. Specifically the number of clearings and fire events, physical bush clearing during 1957 - 1963 and chemical bush clearing during 1968 - 1978. From the responses of species in relation to the various key environmental variables, viz. geological substrate, woody cover and burning and clearing, a model of species response to these variables was developed. With increased fire and bush clearing frequency, the grass communities shift from closed woodland, shade tolerant species through to more open fire climax grassland. These are also more productive communities producing palatable grasses. Validation of aspects of the model were successful - the model having a relatively high predictive capability. Further testing of the model over different substrates and under different clearing regimes is necessary. With regular fires and re-clearing in some bush cleared areas, the vegetation of this reserve should be able to be maintained as productive and diverse grasslands. In the absence of this management, the grass communities will shift towards species associated with woodlands. Bush clearing activities would appear to be most effective over sites on igneous substrate, at higher altitudes, where successional rates are slowest. This is in comparison to sites at lower altitudes over sedimentary geology.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1992.

Msinsi Holdings (Pty) Ltd are considering the introduction of nyala to Shongweni Dam and Game Reserve in KZN. This reserve has a naturally resident population of bushbuck and is located beyond the natural distribution of nyala. Concerns for competition between these two species causing declines in bushbuck numbers elsewhere prompted the present study. The main aim of the present study was to determine some aspects of the ecology of bushbuck within the reserve to assist with decision-making regarding the introduction of nyala and species specific-management of bushbuck at the study site. Bushbuck home range and habitat utilisation was investigated with the aid of radio telemetry and Geographical Information Systems. Estimates of total home range size for males using minimum convex polygons (MCPs) and fixed kernels (FKs) were 33.9 ha and 32.1 ha respectively. Estimates of total home range size for females using MCPs and FKs were 12.0 ha and 13.5 ha respectively. A significant difference between total home range size for gender (male and female) was found but there was no significant difference for age (adult and subadult). Bushbuck typically utilised one core area within their home ranges in which 50 % of their time was spent in approximately 17 % and 11.7 % of their total home range for males and females respectively. A substantial overlap in total home range and core areas between animals was found. Bushbuck showed preference for short thickets and avoidance of low closed grasslands. High reedbeds were utilised in proportion to their availability and tallwoodlands were not utilised by the study animals, but were observed to be utilised by other non radio-collared bushbuck. Habitat preference was a consequence of favourable cover being provided by the structure of the vegetation and the occurrence of favourable foraging species. Bushbuck utilisation of topographical aspect was largely determined by the vegetation type that occurred on the respective slopes. Estimations of bushbuck density and abundance were made using sighting efforts, drive counts, and mark-resightings. Sighting efforts using distance sampling during spring were found to be the most effective in terms of accuracy and man-hour costs, however, these were still not considered to be precise estimations of the total bushbuck population at SDGR, but would be useful for monitoring population trends as a result of the high repeatability and simplicity of the method. Sex, age ratios and nocturnal activity were determined using field classification. The field classification method of age and sex ratio determination used during the present study was found to be very subjective and was therefore suggested to have produced ratios which may be largely biased towards the female component of the population. This in turn also effected the determination of social organization and was evident when compared to previous studies. Bushbuck activity determined from radio telemetry and sighting efforts produced results that corresponded with all previous studies, showing bushbuck to be largely nocturnal, moving much larger distances at night than during the day, and spending most of their time walking and feeding at night. The status and management of synoptic bushbuck and nyala in KwaZulu-Natal was also investigated by means of a questionnaire survey. From the opinions of landowners and reserve managers, the status of bushbuck sharing a sympatric relationship with nyala in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) appeared to be stable to declining, whereas nyala status was increasing. This trend was suggested to be a result of competition for resources between the two species. Northern KZN recorded a higher frequency of this trend (57.7%, n = 26) compared to the Midlands (35.7%, n = 14), as did Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Reserves (85.7%, n = 7) compared to privately owned properties (42.4%, n = 33). Very little species-specific management for nyala and bushbuck occurred in reserves that participated in the present survey.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu- Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

With the purpose of improving the conservation management of Ithala Game Reserve and other similar reserves, the aims of this study were to determine the reserve's large mammalian herbivores' habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics, to investigate the feasibility of road strip counts as a census method for the same herbivores and to establish what environmental factors influence their habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics. Four years of demographic data were collected by vehicle transects on giraffe, kudu, wildebeest and impala. During the final two years additional positional data, using GPS, were collected on these and the reserve's other large herbivores. Sightings were recorded on the basis of habitat type occupied, a GIS was then used to define area sampled and hence derive habitat occupancy densities. GIS was further used to determine both absolute population sizes and, by over-laying other available GIS data, the relevance of distance to surface water, soil type and degree of slope to species' habitat preferences. Species showed non-random, significant habitat selections broadly in line with established preferences. Deterioration in habitat quality in winter generally lead to changes in habitat selection and the extent and nature of these changes related to the severity of resource pressure for individual species. This in turn was influenced by the species digestive strategy i.e. ruminant versus non-ruminant, grazer versus browser. Generally species showed a dry season move down the slope, moving, in some cases, onto heavier soils. Hartebeest, warthog, wildebeest and impala were strongly attracted to winter grass flushes. Lack of predation may be influencing the habitat selection decisions of impala and giraffe and kudu females, as well as allowing giraffe, wildebeest and impala to attain comparatively high densities. Giraffe density (effectively 1.8 km - 2) was abnormally high and their habitat quality poor, leading to a decline in numbers and low fecundity-related demographics. Wildebeest density (6 km -2) was also abnormally high and this may be instrumental in the poor performance of the rare tsessebe population, which is in decline and shows low fecundity-related demo graphics, increased dry season pressure on other grazers in general and impala 111 unexpectedly preferring browse habitats, rather than grasslands, in the wet season. Wildebeest fecundity declined in response to lower rainfall over the early period of lactation. Herbivores with an open social structure generally showed a dry season decrease in group size, although wildebeest and hartebeest showed, atypically, an Increase. Giraffe, zebra and impala adult sex ratios were comparatively less female biased, probably due to minimal predation. Territorial behaviour, virtually year round by wildebeest bulls and over the rut by impala bulls, imposed spatial sexual segregation between breeding and bachelor herds in these species. Outside of these periods, and generally in species not exhibiting territoriality, social sexual segregation was maintained and appeared to relate to differing activity budgets. Areas of concern for management are highlighted. Numbers results were generally acceptable and the method is proposed as a cost effective alternative in reserves with diverse topography. Underlying environmental determinants of habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics, together with associated annual or seasonal changes, were habitat quality, competition and predation.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

A dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, for the Degree of Master of Science. .
The cyclone Domoina floods of 1984 were responsible for the large scale destruction and devastation of riverine vegetation in the Umfolozi Game Reserve. This event highlighted the need to gain an understanding af the structure and dynamics of riverine vegetation and to use this knowledge to develop a management strategy directed at the future recovery and maintenance of riverine vegetation in the Umfolozi Game Reserve. (Abbreviation abstract)
Andrew Chakane 2018

There is an increasing recognition that conservation projects need to provide tangible benefits to the communities involved in them. In Africa a common method of providing economic benefits to communities is to sell the right to hunt wildlife in conservation areas. The Makasa Nature Reserve is a joint project between a conservation body and a community. The reserve is a conservation project that aims to provide economic benefits to the community involved. There are a number of possible income generating strategies for the Makasa Nature Reserve. This study is an examination of the revenue that the reserve could generate from game hunting. There are a number of wildlife species on the reserve that can be hunted but buffalo are the most attractive to hunters and the most lucrative for the reserve. In order to determine the number of buffalo that can be harvested a two-stage approach was used. Firstly, a deterministic mathematical model of the buffalo population was developed in the study. This model was used to establish age structures of the buffalo population which will maximise a given objective function. An age structure that has a harvest level that will maximise the revenue of the reserve was selected as being the most appropriate for the buffalo population at Makasa. In the second stage a stochastic model of the buffalo population was developed which incorporated environmental and demographic stochasticity. A management policy for the buffalo population, which was based on the age structure that maximises revenue, was developed. The stochastic model was used to aid the development of the management policy and to determine the average harvesting rate of buffalo from the Makasa reserve. Using the information gathered on the harvesting rate of buffalo and combining it with the likely harvesting rate of other species from the reserve, it is possible to get a broad picture of the likely economic potential of game hunting on the Makasa Nature Reserve. This approach of determining the offtake of the economically dominant species in the reserve and then combining this information with the likely offtake of other species in the reserve can be generalised and applied to similar reserves.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

White rhinos in the Umfolozi Game Reserve (UGR) are managed with a 'Sink Management Policy' which utilises natural dispersal patterns of white rhinos from an area of high density (the core), to areas of low density (vacuum zones). This study was initiated to determine how white rhinos utilised the vacuum zones, as the management staff of the UGR felt that white rhinos were not dispersing into them but utilising them only as areas of trophic resources. Significantly different white rhino densities were established in the Makhamisa and Masinda vacuum zones by removing white rhinos from Masinda. Changes in the density of white rhinos were monitored and the age and sex compositions determined. No significant changes in the density of white rhino groups were recorded during the study, however, the density of individuals in Makhamisa increased significantly in the dry season, while the density in Masinda did not change. The reason for this increase could not be determined, however, the most likely explanation was that rhinos moved toward the Makhamisa study area in search of surface water which was present in the White Umfolozi River. During the dry season the water level in the Umfolozi River was low so the white rhinos where able to cross into the study area. However, owing to the above average rainfall, resources were not limited in either study area, and most likely in most of the reserve. Thus, it could not be determined why white rhinos would need to enter the Makhamisa study area. Changes in grass height, grass colour, and the availability of water in pans and streams were monitored throughout the study. The grassland community compositions of the two study areas were found not to be significantly different. The total utilisation of the different grassland communities by white rhinos during the study were determined for both study areas. White rhinos in the two study areas utilised the grassland communities in a similar pattern throughout the study. During the wet and dry seasons, white rhinos primarily foraged in the short grassland community (Panicum coloratum & Themeda-Urachloa), their staple grassland community, and were not observed to switch and start foraging in the tall grassland community (Themeda & Themeda-Panicum). their reserve community. White rhinos in both study areas were able to forage in their stable grassland community throughout the dry season because of the above average rainfall experienced during the study The results of the study suggest that white rhinos outside the study areas did not utilise the vacuum zones for trophic resources. However, as the study was conducted in a year with above average rainfall, these findings may not represent how white rhinos utilise the vacuum zones in years with average or below average rainfall.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.

The uMkhuze Game Reserve in South Africa is a key biodiversity asset which protects diverse natural resources of regional, national and international importance. The park has a notorious history of poaching, which is considered to be the second most important threat to biodiversity. Paramilitary patrol operations are crucial to regulating poaching in the park, and to the collection of data important for the monitoring of the state of biodiversity. The effectiveness of the patrol system as a whole is gauged primarily from enforcement-related data, and it was the intention of this study to present a landscape level perspective that would bolster current evaluation metrics. Home range and use-availability analyses of patrol data collected in 2009 and 2010 were used to construct area coverage boundaries, and to understand whether the distribution of patrol effort within patrol areas was influenced by habitat type. Results suggest that average monthly patrol area coverage ranged from 8.38 km² to 23.15 km². This indicates that although designated patrol areas could be covered with relative ease within a few months, information gaps were consistently occurring in the system. To determine how differences in the amount of area covered by patrol units influenced the quantity of information collected, annual area coverage was correlated with the number of biological sightings, illegal incidents and snares reported. Results show that differences in the size of the area covered did not necessarily influence the quantity of information collected in the field. However, certain areas of the park remained unpatrolled annually. All patrol units visited habitats differently than expected based on the proportion of habitat types that were available to them. The preferential use of habitat types could result in incorrect inferences being made about information outputs generated by the patrol system. The number of biological sightings, illegal incidences and snares reported were associated with the total area of each habitat emphasizing the importance of covering habitats proportionately to their availability in the park.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

Terracettes are a widely occurring form of micro-relief found throughout regions displaying various climatic and environmental conditions. Much speculation surrounds the processes responsible for their formation and development. An investigation of these micro-forms, their associated soil physical properties, sustaining mechanisms, and their relationship to slope stability was undertaken in Giant's Castle Game Reserve, KwaZulu - Natal Drakensberg, South Africa. The study showed that relationships between terracette morphology and soil physical properties within the Reserve are few, and that current soil conditions cannot be used to infer process related to terracette formation. However dry bulk density data indicated that soil creep is the dominant formative mechanism within the Reserve. Throughflow at riser surfaces was the dominant sustaining mechanism, with needle ice growth, wind, surfacewash and animal disturbance contributing minor retreat at both treads and risers. Aspect played an important role in determining soil physical characteristics. It was inferred that terracettes imparted stability to the slopes on which they are found, and with continued retreat at both treads and risers the slope was again placed under conditions of instability.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.

Accelerated soil erosion is drawing a growing attention with the recognition that the rate of soil loss is too great to be met by soil formation rate. Weenen Game Reserve (WGR) is an area with an unfortunate history of prolonged soil erosion due to excessive overgrazing that led to severe land degradation with prominent visible scars. This problem triggered the general objective of estimating and mapping potential soil erosion in WGR. Assessing soil loss in the area objectively has important implications for the overall management plans as it is reserved for ecological recovery. The most important variables that affect soil erosion are considered as inputs in soil loss estimation models. In this study the RUSLE model, which uses rainfall, soil, topography, and cover management data, was employed. From the rainfall data, an erosivity factor was generated by using a regression equation developed by relating EI30 index and total monthly rainfall. The soil erodibility factor was calculated using the soil erodibility nomograph equation after generating the relevant data from laboratory analysis of soil samples gathered from the study area. Using exponential ordinary kriging, the point values of this factor were interpolated to fill in the non-sampled areas. The topographic effect, which is expressed as the combined impact of slope length and slope steepness, was extracted from the DEM of the study area using the flow accumulation method. For mapping of the land cover factor, in situ measurements of cover from selected sites were undertaken and assigned values from the USLE table before being related with MSAVI of Landsat 7 ETM+ image. These values were then multiplied to get the final annual soil loss map. The resulting potential soil loss values vary between 0 and 346 ton ha-1 year-l with an average of 5 ton ha-1 year-l. About 58% of the study area experiences less than 1 ton ha-1 year-1 indicating the influence of the highest values on the average value. High soil erosion rates are concentrated in the central part extending as far as the south and the north tips along the eastern escarpments and these areas are the ones with the steepest slopes. The results indicate a high variation of soil loss within the study area. Nevertheless, the majority of the area falling below the average might foresee that the soil erosion problem of the area can be minimized significantly depending largely on soil management. The most important areas for intervention are the medium and low erosion susceptible parts of WGR, which are mainly found in the flatter or gently sloping landscapes. The steepest areas are mostly covered with rocks and/or vegetation and hence less effort must be spent in managing them. Overall, the reported increasing density of the vegetation community in the area that reduces the exposure of soil from the impact of direct raindrops and surface-flowing water must be pursued further.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Up until 1969 Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) were considered as vermin in South Africa and were actively persecuted throughout the country. In an effort to re-establish viable populations within protected areas in Zululand a restocking program was initiated in the late 1960‟s and early 1970‟s. Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR) in north eastern KwaZulu-Natal was one of the reserves involved in the restocking program and the Nile Crocodile population in the reserve increased from a minimum absolute abundance of 348 (SE ± 3.39; N = 3) in the early 1970‟s to a minimum absolute abundance of 992 (SE ± 58.70; N = 4) in the 1990‟s. However, in recent years there has been some concern that the NGR Nile Crocodile population may be on the decline, initiating the current investigation into the ecology and conservation of the NGR population. We examined changes in relative abundance using aerial survey data from 1971 – 2009. The precision and accuracy of population estimates was affected by water level, season, aircraft type and the use of different observers. A correction factor was applied to survey data and the current NGR Nile Crocodile population is estimated at an absolute abundance of 846 (± 263). Distribution data from the aerial surveys were also used to examine habitat use over the last 40 years and revealed that Nile Crocodiles were not evenly distributed in NGR and that crocodiles favoured the Phongola over the Usuthu floodplain systems. NGR is characterised by a floodplain mosaic landscape and crocodile distributions between the various habitat patches were influenced by landscape physiognomy and composition as well as connectivity and corridor quality. Anthropogenic disturbances influenced the functionality of the floodplain landscape negatively with impacts on habitat use and connectivity. To quantify the effects of environmental conditions on crocodile habitat use we conducted 40 diurnal counts at Lake Nyamithi between 2009 and 2012 and related changes in crocodile numbers here to temperature, rainfall and water level. Crocodile density in Lake Nyamithi was significantly and negatively related to average maximum ambient temperature and numbers increased in the lake over the cool, dry winter season. Water level and rainfall had strong but not significant (p >0.05) negative influence on crocodile density in Lake Nyamithi. Environmental variables influenced different size class of Nile Crocodiles differently and the density of crocodiles in the 1.5 – 2.5 m Total Length (TL) size class were significantly influenced by rainfall and average minimum monthly temperature. Movement patterns of 49 Nile Crocodiles between 202 – 472 cm total length (TL) were followed over 18 months using mark-resight (n = 36), radio (n = 10) and satellite (n = 3) telemetry. The duration of radio transmitter attachment (131 days, SE ± 11.35) was significantly related to TL and reproductive status. Satellite transmitters stopped functioning after 15 (SE ± 12.53) days and home range was calculated for 7 crocodiles ranging in size from 202 cm TL – 358 cm TL. Sub-adults (1.5 - 2.5 m TL) occupied smaller, more localized home ranges than adults (> 2.5 m TL). Home ranges overlapped extensively suggesting that territoriality, if present, did not cause Nile Crocodiles to maintain spatially discrete home ranges in NGR during the dry season. A single large scale migration event occurs every year between October and November whereby the majority of the NGR crocodile population leaves the reserve and enters the Rio Maputo floodplain in adjacent Mozambique and only return in April/May. Nesting effort (19 – 21 %) in NGR was comparable to other populations of Nile Crocodile in southern Africa. Nests are completely destroyed by floods once every 10 years and predation rates may range from 20 – 86 % per year. In addition to aerial surveys, nesting surveys and movement studies crocodiles (n = 103) were caught opportunistically to collect demographic data on population structure. The population structure of Nile Crocodiles in NGR is currently skewed towards sub-adults and adults suggesting an aging population that may decline naturally in the future. This could be due to low recruitment levels in NGR that are not able to sustain the artificially high population size created by the restocking program. Sex ratios were skewed towards females in the juvenile and sub-adult size classes and towards males in the adult size class while the overall sex ratio was even between males and females. It is predicted that the NGR Nile Crocodile population will decline in the future and that this decline should be considered as a natural process. However, the rate of decline will be accelerated at an unnatural speed and to an unnatural extent due to poaching, uncontrolled harvesting and destruction of nesting habitat within NGR. Based on the findings of the current study, management recommendations for the conservation of the combined NGR – Rio Maputo Nile Crocodile population were made. It is important that further research takes place in the Rio Maputo floodplain in Mozambique to better quantify the nesting ecology of the NGR Nile Crocodile population and to identify possible threats facing Nile Crocodiles in this region.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

The changes in plant quality and availability in space and time present a substantial problem to mammalian herbivores. As a result, these herbivores need to alter their foraging behaviour to maximize their energy gain at both small (plant level) and large (landscape level) scales. A megaherbivore, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), has been shown to be selective in its foraging choices at both of these scales. Furthermore, the ratio of palatability:defences (e.g. fibre and total polyphenols) has been highlighted as an important determinant of habitat selection in elephants. The elephants in Ithala Game Reserve (IGR) frequently leave IGR during the wet season and forage outside the reserve. However, they predominantly feed on the low-nutrient granite soils of the reserve and return to a high-nutrient area with dolerite soils during the dry season. In an attempt to understand these seasonal movements, I focused on how the small-scale foraging decisions of the elephants lead to large-scale seasonal movements in IGR, KwaZulu-Natal. Plant availability was determined seasonally for seven target species across four areas in the reserve. Crude protein, fibre, energy and total polyphenols as well as the ratios of palatability:digestion-reducing substances were analysed in the wet and dry seasons. All factors and their interactions were significant in a MANOVA. Consequently, I employed a dimension-reducing Principal Components Analysis (PCA) to better understand the factors of greatest importance. The PCA highlighted four of the six most important factors to be the ratios of palatability:digestion-reducing substances. The other two important variables were total polyphenols (negative effect) and crude protein (positive effect). At small spatial scales, I found that the elephants were selective in their decisions, especially during the dry season. For example, the increased inclusion of the principal tree species Acacia nilotica from 2.9% in the wet season to 39.3% during the dry season appears to be a result of a decline in total polyphenols and fibre during the dry season. At large spatial scales, the elephants moved back into IGR from the low-nutrient granite soils in the east in response to an increase in forage quality in the west as the quality declined in the east at the same time. However, it is unclear as to why the elephants are leaving the reserve during the wet season. Some possible explanations for this are discussed.Key-words: acid detergent fibre, crude protein, Loxodonta africana, neutral detergent fibre, total polyphenols, plant part quality.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

Alien plant invasions and human-induced land transformations are the two most important factors contributing to loss of biodiversity, and Chromolaena odorata (C. odorata) is one of the world’s worst invader plants. It impacts negatively on biodiversity conservation, forestry and agriculture due to its rapid rate of spread, fast growth and hence an ability to transform habitats. It was introduced into KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa in the mid-1940s, and has spread north and southwards along the coastline and adjacent interior. In 1961 it was observed in Hluhluwe Game Reserve, and has invaded and transformed large parts. In this thesis I use C. odorata distribution maps from 1978 to 2001 to investigate invasion pathways, and whether these are related to species or habitat characteristics. Invasion in the twelve vegetation types identified in the Reserve showed two patterns. In some vegetation types invasion expanded linearly, while in others there were three phases of invasion, driven by interactions between habitat suitability, habitat fragmentation and propagule pressure. Expansion of existing invasions (phalanx or wave invasion) through short distance seed dispersal was the primary mode of spread, rather than the formation of new infestations (guerrilla or diffuse invasion). Known distribution of dense stands was used to develop a spectral signature and run a supervised classification of satellite images. I utilized the dense stands and other GIS data sets of climate, altitude, solar radiation, distance from roads, distance from rivers and normalized differential vegetation index from 1973 and 2001 to determine a probability model, and assess the impact of the invasion on biodiversity conservation. The supervised classification underestimated the extent of the invasion, as C. odorata is a cryptic understory species in some habitats. Supplementation by using multiple regression to develop a probability model, and combining these into one map provided a realistic result. I used this map and GIS data sets of vegetation types and protected areas to assess the impact of the invasion on biodiversity conservation. This showed that C. odorata was preferentially impacting sensitive areas, and the conservation of threatened vegetation types is not guaranteed by including them in protected areas.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2009.

The focus of this study is the effect of environmental conditions on the social relationships among females in a free-ranging troop of chacma baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus), in a southern woodland habitat. The female dominance hierarchy, rank related differential costs and benefits to individuals, and the nature of special relationships between females, were followed. The study was conducted for a total of 18 months during three years, at Mkuzi Game Reserve, Zululand, South-Africa. The study troop occupy a rich woodland habitat with abundant food resources. Visibility under these conditions is poor and the baboons are subjected to leopard predation. Intra-troop competition for food among female primates and its effect on lifetime reproductive success, has been widely stressed to be a major cost for low ranking females. No evidence of competition for food was found among females at Mkuzi. It is suggested that the main cause for mortality may be predation by leopards, and that females compete mainly over a safe spatial position. The following characteristics of female sociality at Mkuzi may support this suggestion: 1. While no indication of rank related feeding behaviour, reproductive success, or 'attractiveness' to others was found, the higher ranking females had more access to central, and thus better protected, spatial positions in the troop. 2. The importance of social associations among females at Mkuzi seems to lie in mutual grooming and protection from predation by the vicinity to each other, and not in coalitionary support. Female associates were thus not necessarily adjacent ranking and probably not kin. 3. Although female dominance hierarchy was usually stable, the lowest ranking adult female has promoted her rank independently, following the disappearance of her only female associate and during her pregnancy, when she was probably subjected to high risk of predation. 4. Following troop fission, most females chose to improve their own rank position by adopting the AYS strategy (Abandon Your immediate Superior in rank), rather than joining associates. It is suggested that the resident males were responsible for the initiation of troop fission, in order to decrease the high cost of sexual competition to them, by reducing the number of males in each daughter troop. High intensity of competition between males was the result of the high female reproductive success. Risk of predation, and therefore the cost to individual females, increased after fission. This study may present an additional accumulating behavioural evidence on adaptations environmental conditions. the of flexibility primates example to of social and to various environmental conditions.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1993.

The thesis examines the genesis and implementation of integrated conservation development and associated projects in northern Maputaland during the 1980s and 1990s. The premise upon which this study is based is that there has been a worldwide paradigmatic shift in conservation policies and practices during the 1980s and 1990s. The extent to which initiatives in Maputaland reflected these trends is examined. In formulating a conceptual and theoretical framework for the study, the developments within the discipline of geography as well as the paradigmatic shifts within the broader sphere of conservation and development thinking, are discussed. Traditionally geography focuses on the nature of the relationship between human beings and their environment. Working within this tradition, the relationship between geography and conservation policy and practice is identified and applied to South Africa. Analysis of the process of integrating conservation and development in Maputaland is informed by both the broader international debate surrounding conservation and development and by local history and place specific conditions. The key geographical concepts of process and place are viewed as interdependent factors influencing one another. Within this framework and drawing on the concept of sustainable development, the experience of implementing the new conservation paradigm in Maputaland is recorded and analysed. The case study examples are associated with Ndumo Game Reserve. Sources of data and methodologies include primary sources (published books and journals), secondary sources (unpublished reports), participant-as-observer status with conservation liaison committees and the Ndumo Environmental Education Centre, key informant and focus group interviews and Participatory Rural Appraisal with the Ndumo Environmental Education Centre Management Committee. The study indicates that the Maputaland initiative did represent a considerable paradigm shift in the conservation policies guiding the general practice of conservation in Maputaland. The conservation agency did attempt to initiate Integrated Conservation Development Projects (ICDPs) during the 1990s, but this has been a complex process, fraught with tensions and suspicions. The practise fell short of the ideals and there is a long road to be travelled before reconciliation between conservation and community development is reached.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Savannah baboons (Papio cynocephalus) have been studied in numerous sites throughout Africa. They have been found to display a wide variety of foraging and feeding behaviours. The aim of this study was to describe and quantify these for a troop in a southern woodland habitat and to determine what factors influence these in order to understand the choices made by baboons. This was done within an optimal foraging framework. The study included the development of random walk and optimal foraging simulation models of day journeys and a comparison of feeding and foraging before and after the troop divided into two daughter troops. The troop lived in a complex mosaic of habitat types with a high tree density. The troop's foraging strategies were found to be consistent with being time minimizers. Distance from the centre of the home range and distance from the nearest sleeping site had the most significant effect on utilisation of the home range. The effect of food availability on habitat use could only be distinguished by the use of simulation models. Comparison of food encountered by the troop and that encountered in the simulations demonstrated that the troop did better than could be expected if the day journey routes were random. The troop's results approximated those of a stochastic short-term optimisation model. The troop's diet consisted of a higher proportion of fruit than previous studies. The troop distinguished between commonly utilised foods and those only occasionally used on the basis of protein/fibre ratio, however food preference between main foods was not correlated with protein/fibre ratio. Any combination of the main foods would fulfil their protein requirement. Evidence is given that, without protein being limmiting, the troop's selection amongst the main foods is based on carbohydrate content. After troop fission the daughter troops had shorter day journeys, spent less time walking, more time socialising resting. They also spent more time in food-rich habitats and were more selective in their diet. These results reinforce the important influence in group size and suggest that troop fission may be seen as a time-minimising strategy.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1994.

The effects of fire and mechanical clearing were investigated for their potential in assisting with the eradication of Chromolaena odorata (previously Eupatorium odoratum). The study was divided into two focus areas, the first focused on mechanical clearing of dense stands of C. odorata on three sites and the second focused on the long term influences of a single burn on C. odorata plants in the different size categories. For mechanical clearing, two key issues were investigated; namely whether this type of clearing procedure was effective in dense C. odorata stands and whether rehabilitation was necessary in these cleared areas. The study was conducted from July 2002 to June 2004. The area was subject to a severe drought throughout the duration of the study. The severe drought had a large influence on the result in both focus areas. A bulldozer was found to be a very effective at clearing dense C. odorata stands. Results from the mechanical clearing study showed that there was still a large viable grass seed population in the areas that had been covered by a dense stand of C. odorata plants for over three years. Thus, indigenous plants were able to re-colonize the area after removal of C. odorata without human intervention, even thought the area was experiencing a severe drought. The density of C. odorata seedlings emerging in the cleared areas was far lower than expected. The C. odorata density in the permanent plots, for seedlings that germinated in the first season after clearing (SeptemberOctober 2002), was only 0.25,0.03 and 0.72 per 5 m2 in the three sites respectively by the end of the study in June 2004. For the C. odorata seedlings that germinated in the second season (September-October 2003) the density was, 0.5, 0.56 and 1.06 per 5 m2 in the three sites respectively by the end of the study in June 2004. It was suspected that the drought influenced seed germination. Unfortunately the number of C. odorata seedlings was so low, that no significant relationship could be found between grass and C. odorata seedling density. By the end of the study the grass fuel mass in all the rehabilitated sites was already over 3000 kg ha-1, even though the area was experiencing a severe drought. This grass fuel load, when burnt, will assist land managers in controlling C. odorata plants, especially seedlings. Very few other alien invasive plant species emerged in the cleared areas. At the Mhlosinga site, Senna pendula made up less than one percent of the herbaceous species composition and only a single Ricinus communis plant was recorded. No alien plant species were recorded on the other two sites. Results from the burning trials revealed that plants in all the size categories were affected by fire. Greater fuel masses and fire intensities were required to kill larger C. odorata plants relative to smaller ones. Fire was found to be very effective at eliminating small and medium size C. odorata plants. Fire applied as a once off treatment had a significant long-term effect on the C. odorata population. The following fuel loads were required to achieve 80% mortality in this 11 study: for small plants a fuel load of over 4000 kg ha-I, for medium plants a fuel load over 4200 kg ha-I and for large plants a fuel load over 4600 kg ha-I. Little difference could be detected between a head or a back burn, as both fire types had their own advantages and disadvantages. Although some of the C. odorata plants in the burnt plots had not perished by the time of the first investigation, following the burn (February 2003), by the time of the second investigation (June 2004), many of these plants had eventually succumbed. These results highlighted the fact that plants which are damaged by fire were more likely to persish during an extended droughts period, than plants which were not subjected to fire. Results from the control plots, in the burning trials, for medium and large plants showed dramatic increases in density over time. Tagged individuals from the control plots did reveal that some of the medium and large plants did die during the drought, although the amount was negligible when compared to the number of new plants growing into the new size categories. A large proportion of the small plants in the control plots also survived the drought with many of them even growing into the medium category. The difference between the control plots and the burnt plots was obvious and significant, especially once the fuel mass exceeded 3783 kg ha-I. Results from this study show that fire can be used as a very effective tool in assisting land managers to control C. odorata in open savanna bushveld.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

The colonial attitude to traditional hunting practice was harsh and exclusivist and traditional hunting with dogs was therefore outlawed through legislation. This was the case throughout British African colonies and the former Natal colony was no exception. In some state game reserves, game rangers destroyed African dogs and on private farms, farmers shot dogs found there, yet traditional hunting had great cultural significance for African men. The destruction of dogs was a source of conflict and bitterness for rural people in KwaZulu-Natal. Due to the failures of colonial conservation practices to address environmental challenges of the past and present, there has been a shift of conservation philosophy. Unlike in the past, the current conservation practice has sought to address environmental problems by integrating conservation, culture and development. This has given rise to a broader discussion about linking conservation to the process of rural development and the survival of agrarian societies living adjacent to protected areas. In view of these complexities and challenges, this thesis uses the cases of iNhluzani farm and Mpembeni Community game reserve to determine and ascertain whether or not traditional hunting is still significant to rural people, and to explore the effects that either allowing or not allowing such an activity might have on attitudes towards natural resources. The thesis further explores the possibility that recognising culture, and bringing it explicitly into conservation practices, might help to reverse a history of exclusion and bring about greater sustainability. For this reason, the study draws on relevant theories of environmental and social justice, sustainable development as well as Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs. The study also assesses the nature and extent of public participation in natural resource management in the two cases. The findings of the study suggest that the majority of stakeholders agree that cultural practices could be linked to natural resource management under controlled circumstances. In the case of iNhluzani for instance, where the local people are guaranteed equitable access to wildlife resources within the farm, the people have developed a clear desire to protect wildlife within and outside the farm, even though they do not own the land. Contrary to this, in the case of Mpembeni community game reserve, incidents of poaching and illegal hunting are escalating and conflict and tension is still prevalent between the conservation authority and the surrounding community. This study therefore suggests that recognising local indigenous knowledge and cultural practice is essential for creating meaningful stakeholders in Natural Resource Management. The integration of culture should ease the tension between conservation authorities and local communities.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

This is both a critical history of the nature guiding industry in South Africa from 1902- 2007 and a subjective critique of the practical components of contemporary natureguiding. It focuses particulary on guides operating on foot in “Big Five” (dangerous game) areas. The early history and the subsequent development of “wilderness” trails in the Kruger National Park and the histories of KwaZulu-Natal Parks and Madikwe Game Reserve are examined. The influences of the Field Guides’ Association of Southern Africa (FGASA) and the Tourism, Hospitality and Sport Education and Training Authority (THETA) are discussed. Transformation of the industry (in both the demographic and in the broader sense) faces language, cultural and ethical challenges because of prevailing anthropocentric and militaristic norms. Nature guides need improved communication skills and should balance traditional and progressive skills and ethics. They should become more critical and proactive in determining the style and content of their industry

Rangers, as vanguards of wildlife conservation, are constantly fighting off armed poachers. That makes their work stressful and dangerous. In spite of this, their needs are neglected and are not considered as the focus is on saving wildlife. Undoubtedly, the African continent is not spared from the unrelenting poaching menace that threatens to drive the world’s wildlife spicies into extinction. In response to this scourge, countries, in their quest to safeguard these species from extermination, have signed various treaties, continuously come up with different strategies and pledged their support to fight illegal wildlife trading. This study was conducted at Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HIP) and Mkhuze Game Reserve, which are under the management of Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Wildlife Management. These parks have turned into a battlefield between poachers and rangers. The intrinsic case study approach, which is explorative and interpretive in perspective, was used to unravel and describe the experiences from the world view of rangers. A descriptive qualitative research design was used to gain insight from the rangers about their challenges and needs in the workplace. Furthermore, developmental research was used to design and develop a tailor- made technology – a ranger resilience-building model – to assist rangers to deal with their workplace challenges. Focus group discussions were conducted with a group of rangers, while individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with managers in order to solicit information from purposively selected sample of rangers and managers at HIP and Mkhuze Game Reserve, that assisted in the development of the model. Ethical considerations, which involve the informed consent of the participants, confidentiality and privacy, participants’ right to withdraw from the study and the management of information, were applied to ensure that the participants were protected from harm. The collected data was analysed by using codes and themes that best described the experiences of the rangers, and data verification was done before the process of model development. It was evident that rangers are faced with a variety of workplace challenges, such as poor quality of work life, unpleasant living conditions, coupled with poor amenities, inadequte wellness interventions, and the poor management and implementation of policies by the Human Resources (HR) Department. Nevertheless, teamwork and their cultural practices were positive aspects that promoted their coping capacities in dealing with their everyday challenges.
Social Work
D. Litt. et Phil.(Social Work)

Fire is used in the management of ecosystems worldwide because it is a relatively inexpensive means of manipulating thousands of hectares of vegetation. Deciding how, where and when to apply fire depends primarily on the management objectives of the area concerned. The decision to ignite vegetation is generally subjective and depends on the experience of the fire manager. To facilitate this process, ancillary tools, forming a decision support system, need to be constructed. In this study a spatial model has been developed that is capable of simulating fire dynamics in savanna ecosystems. The fire growth model integrates spatial fuel and topographic data with temporal weather, wind settings and fuel moistures to produce a time-evolving fire front. Spatial information required to operate the model was obtained through remote sensing techniques, using Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery, and existing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) coverage's. Implementation of the simulation model to hypothetical landscapes under various scenarios of fuel, weather and topography produced fire fronts that were found to be in good agreement with experience of observed fires. The model was applied actual fire events using information for prescribed burning operations conducted in Mkuze Game Reserve during 1997. Predicted fire fronts were found to accurately resemble the observed fire boundaries in all simulations.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

As the dry season progresses across southern Africa, the availability and quality of food declines for large herbivores. Female white rhinos compensate for these declines by expanding and/or shifting their home ranges. These changes may be to incorporate habitat types that contain high quality food or quite simply more food. To determine the factors that drive these seasonal changes in home ranges, I focused on dry season changes in the availability and quality of grass in habitats utilised by white rhinos in the Ithala Game Reserve, South Africa. I expected that if food quality was the main driver, white rhinos would follow optimal foraging principles and incorporate habitat types with the highest nutritional quality into their dry season home ranges. Alternatively, due to their large body size (>1000 kg) and thus ability to survive on low quality food, they may rather incorporate habitat types with high food availability. In contrast to previous studies, I found that during the dry season female white rhinos did not increase the size of their home ranges, but rather shifted their home range boundaries. This resulted in individuals increasing the amount of Bushveld and decreasing the amount of Wooded Grasslands within their dry season home ranges. When I explored the different factors that could explain these patterns, I found that changes in the crude protein content of grass was the key factor driving the incorporation and exclusion of habitat types in the home ranges. During the dry season, white rhinos incorporated the habitat that had the smallest seasonal reduction in crude protein content, while excluding the one with the largest decrease in crude protein. As a result, my results suggest that the search for high quality best explains the seasonal home range shifts of female white rhinos in the Ithala Game Reserve.
Thesis (M.Sc.Ecology)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

The Okavango Delta is an extremely dynamic system with variable vegetation comprised of permanent swamps, seasonal swamps, dry islands, floodplains and dry grassland, savanna and woodland. The system is largely driven by the interaction between fire and the annual flood, which filters down from the Okavango River catchments in Angola. While extensive research has been conducted on the flood-driven vegetation little is known about the dry woodland and savanna regions bordering these flood-driven habitats. A taxonomic classification of woody species composition resulted in eleven vegetation types. These data were then reanalyzed in terms of woody species morphology allowing these eleven vegetation types to be grouped into four functional response groups in order to provide a platform for improving the understanding of how dry woodland and savannas interact with the environment. These four groups were the savanna group mixed thornveld and the three woodland groups; mixed broadleaf woodland, shrub mopane woodland and tall mopane woodland. Burning in mixed thornveld and mixed broadleaf woodland was found to decrease woody species density and grass fuel loads and could be used for grazing management to remove unpalatable growth and improve grass species composition, while burning in shrub mopane woodland and mixed mopane woodland merely decreased the woody understory and is not recommended. Utilization dominated by grazing livestock resulted in overutilization of the grass sward leading to bush encroachment in both mixed thornveld and shrub mopane woodland, while utilization by goats alone resulted in underutilization of the grass sward and a dominance of herbaceous annuals. Livestock utilization had no effect on the occurrence of Pecheul-loeschea leubnitziae, a shrubby pioneer previously thought to be an indicator of overgrazing, however extensive P. leubnitziae cover was associated with a sward dominated by shade-tolerant grasses with low forage quality. Shrub mopane woodland and tall mopane woodland appear to be more stable vegetation states than mixed broadleaf woodland and mixed thornveld being less vulnerable to colonization by pioneer species and alteration as a result of utilization or environmental factors. For this reason management and monitoring of mixed thornveld and mixed broadleaf woodland is essential to prevent vegetation degradation and to ensure optimal forage availability for both livestock and wildlife.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

The KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg, South Africa, is predominantly a grassland ecosystem maintained by fire. The effect of the current burning regime on invertebrate and flowering forb diversity in this ecosystem is poorly understood. The overall aim ofthis study was to contribute towards the development of an effective burning regime for the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg that will conserve invertebrates and indigenous forbs, two major components of biodiversity. The objectives were to examine the effect of fire and fire frequency on flowering forb and invertebrate species diversity, to determine whether fire frequency, time since last burn or locality were influencing species composition, and to identify potential biodiversity indicators that reflect overall species richness for use in monitoring of invertebrates and forbs. Sampling took place in March, September and November of 2002 at Giants Castle Game Reserve. Invertebrates were sampled using sweep netting and targeted netting along transects, yellow pan traps and soil quadrats. Invertebrate taxa sampled were ants (Formicidae), butterflies (Lepidoptera), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), leafboppers (Cicadellidae), bees (Apoidea), bee flies (Bombyliidae), hover flies (Syrphidae), robber flies (Asilidae), spiders (Araneae), earthworms (Oligochaeta) and millipedes (Diploda). These were identified to species level with the assistance of taxon experts. Flowering forbs were sampled using five replicates of five by five metre quadrats randomly placed in each site. Overall flowering forb and invertebrate species diversity was higher in grasslands that were burnt for two consecutive years in 2001 and 2002 than in grasslands that were not burnt during those two years. Frequently (annual) and intermediately (biennial) burnt grasslands had significantly higher invertebrate and flowering forb diversity than infrequently (five years without burning) burnt grasslands. This, together with the fact that grasslands burnt during the year of sampling had higher species richness than grasslands burnt two and five years previously suggests that invertebrates and forbs are generally resilient to fire and many forb species appear to be stimulated by fire. However, each burn frequency had its own suite of unique flowering forb and invertebrate species. Invertebrate communities were influenced mostly by locality and the length of time past since the last fire and flowering forb communities were influenced mostly by the length oftime past since the last fire. Fire frequency had the least influence on both invertebrate and forb communities. Ecological succession occurred after each fire in the invertebrate communities but forb communities appear to need more than five years without fire for ecological succession to occur. The findings of this study therefore suggest that using a combination of three fire frequencies would result in patches of grassland in various stages of ecological succession, and would conserve species unique to each burning frequency, and would therefore conserve maximum diversity. Flowering forb species richness and certain invertebrate taxa (ants, leafboppers, spiders and bees) have the potential to act as indicators of overall invertebrate species richness for use in monitoring programmes.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.