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1
Jianming, Chen. "Map of the Mount Gongga Glacier: A Combination of Terrestrial and Aerial Photogrammetry." Annals of Glaciology 8 (1986): 34–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500001099.
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For use in glaciological research, between 1982 and 1984, we succeeded in surveying and mapping the Mount Gongga Glacier, on a scale of 1:25 000, by means of a combination of terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry. This paper describes the method in detail. In the survey area, we set up an independent, triangulation network, with microwave distance measurement, and two, independent, straight-line traverses, for basic control. Control points were observed by intersection. The terrestrial, photogrammetric baselines were projected and corrected into distances on the. plane of the map. Terrestrial photography accounted for the majority of the photographs of the survey area. Surveying and mapping of planimetrie and topographic features were completed on a stereo-autograph, using plates mainly from terrestrial photogrammetry. Where these data were insufficient, they were supplemented by aerial photography, plotted on a photographic plotting instrument. Orientation points of the aerial photographs were established by terrestrial, photogrammetric analysis and located on the map by an optical, mechanical method. The practical result showed that a combination of terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry, in mapping a high, mountain, glacier area, on a large scale, is more feasible and flexible than other methods and more economical as well.
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Jianming, Chen. "Map of the Mount Gongga Glacier: A Combination of Terrestrial and Aerial Photogrammetry." Annals of Glaciology 8 (1986): 34–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500001099.
Full textAbstract:
For use in glaciological research, between 1982 and 1984, we succeeded in surveying and mapping the Mount Gongga Glacier, on a scale of 1:25 000, by means of a combination of terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry. This paper describes the method in detail.In the survey area, we set up an independent, triangulation network, with microwave distance measurement, and two, independent, straight-line traverses, for basic control. Control points were observed by intersection. The terrestrial, photogrammetric baselines were projected and corrected into distances on the. plane of the map.Terrestrial photography accounted for the majority of the photographs of the survey area. Surveying and mapping of planimetrie and topographic features were completed on a stereo-autograph, using plates mainly from terrestrial photogrammetry. Where these data were insufficient, they were supplemented by aerial photography, plotted on a photographic plotting instrument. Orientation points of the aerial photographs were established by terrestrial, photogrammetric analysis and located on the map by an optical, mechanical method.The practical result showed that a combination of terrestrial and aerial photogrammetry, in mapping a high, mountain, glacier area, on a large scale, is more feasible and flexible than other methods and more economical as well.
3
Pisetskaya, Olga, Yanina Isayeva, and Maksim Goutsaki. "Application of Unmanned Flying Vehicle for Obtaining Digital Orthofotomaps." Baltic Surveying 11 (November 20, 2019): 60–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.22616/j.balticsurveying.2019.018.
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Nowadays, surveys using unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming popular. The resulting orthophotomap is the final product for creating digital plans and cardboard. The objectives of the study are to study the possibilities of obtaining orthophotomaps from survey materials using unmanned aerial vehicles based on the results of the experiment. The article describes various types of aerial photography. Some types of unmanned flying vehicles to conduct aerial photography for the purpose of monitoring, engineering surveys, inventory of agricultural land, and crop forecasts are considered. A description of aerial photography surveying is given on the example of the city of Dzerzhinsk, Minsk Region, which is performed taking into account the unmanned flying vehicles of GeoScan 201 and the Republican agricultural aero-geodesic unitary enterprise BelPSHAGI. A description of the GeoScan Planner software and basic pre-flight preparation is given. The stages of the preparatory work before the aerial photography, the creation of the planning and high-altitude geodetic justification, the implementation of aerial photography procedures, the steps of the aerial photograph anchorage procedure are considered. Agisoft Photoscan, which allows to get clouds of points, surfaces, 3D models and orthophotomaps using digital raster images are presented. The map of heights (DEM) of the terrain and the orthophotomap was made on the basis of a dense points cloud. According to the results of the research, a conclusion was made on the possibility of using aerial photography materials obtained using unmanned flying vehicles to get orthophotomaps of the required accuracy.
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Cai, Z., W. Liu, G. Luo, and Z. Xiang. "STUDY ON PRACTICAL TECHNOLOGIES OF AERIAL TRIANGULATION FOR REAL SCENE 3D MOELING WITH OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAPHY." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-3 (April 30, 2018): 119–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-3-119-2018.
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The key technologies in the real scene 3D modeling of oblique photography mainly include the data acquisition of oblique photography, layout and surveying of photo control points, oblique camera calibration, aerial triangulation, dense matching of multi-angle image, building of triangulation irregular network (TIN) and TIN simplification and automatic texture mapping, among which aerial triangulation is the core and the results of aerial triangulation directly affect the later model effect and the corresponding data accuracy. Starting from this point of view, this paper aims to study the practical technologies of aerial triangulation for real scene 3D modeling with oblique photography and finally proposes a technical method of aerial triangulation with oblique photography which can be put into practice.
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Bryn, Mikhail Y., and Dinara R. Bashirova. "COMPARATIVE EVALUATION EFFICIENCY OF MOBILE LASER SCANNING AND AERIAL SURVEYING FROM UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES FOR ROAD SURVEY." Vestnik SSUGT (Siberian State University of Geosystems and Technologies) 26, no. 3 (2021): 20–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.33764/2411-1759-2021-26-3-20-27.
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The application of mobile laser scanning and aerial photography from unmanned aerial vehicles for shooting highways is considered. The aim of the research was to compare the results of shooting using mobile laser scanning systems and aerial photography from an unmanned aerial vehicle to de-termine the preferred option for shooting a highway. The experimental part of the research was carried out using the following equipment: scanning was performed using the Topcon IP - S2 Compact sys-tem, aerial photography was carried out from the GEOSCAN 201 unmanned aerial vehicle. Based on the comparative tests performed on the section of the A - 121 "Sortavala" highway, a comparative analysis of the data obtained for various indicators was carried out: the speed of the shooting stages, the cost of a set of equipment, the cost of shooting, and the accuracy of the results was evaluated. Practical recommendations for the application of these methods are given, their advantages and disad-vantages are indicated.
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Ma, De Ying, and Hong Bin Lai. "Designing and Development of the Aerial Surveying Digital Data Management Information System Based on Two-Tier C/S Structure Model." Advanced Materials Research 610-613 (December 2012): 3702–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.610-613.3702.
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It’s necessary for surveying and mapping departments to manage aerial surveying digital data. How to manage increasing data automatically has become an urgent problem to be settled.The framework designing of the aerial digital data management information system is deeply dissertated and discussed in this paper. Then the system based on two-tier C/S structured model, using the Borland's Delphi development tool, Microsoft’s SQL Server 2000 ultra-large databases and SuperMap Objects graphical components is established, using parts of present data collecting from the aerial photographic surveying department.Compared with traditional systems, this aerial digital data management system has a good nature.It realize the automation management and operation easily.
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Rylskiу, Ilya, Evgeniy Eremchenko, and Tatiana Kotova. "Elimination of cloud shadows on materials of aviation shooting in the visible range." InterCarto. InterGIS 26, no. 2 (2020): 286–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.35595/2414-9179-2020-2-26-286-297.
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Aerial photography is often impossible due to the presence of high clouds with contrasting shadows that do not allow to obtain materials suitable for decryption. At the same time, in a significant proportion of projects in Russia, the snowless season suitable for surveying is very short. The inability to perform aerial photography while flying below the clouds leads to cost increasing. In some cases, projects cannot be completed. Existing software does not allow to solve the problem of equalizing the brightness in the shadows for several reasons. The main reason is the inability to identify the boundaries of the shadows using only the spectral characteristics of the images, the inability to determine the amount of correction for shaded areas. To solve this problem, it is proposed to use reference images of the worse resolution obtained from the satellites. Reference images are used to localize and determine the magnitude of the spectral correction of aerial photographs. The work is performed with single orthophotographs or orthophotomosaics in the same coordinate system. To determine the boundaries of the shaded zones and the values of the corrections in brightness, methods of cartographic algebra on regular data arrays are used. Further, the obtained correction matrices are subject to filtering and are used to correct high-resolution aerial photographs. The paper gives an example of the use of free (or cheap) satellite images to eliminate or reduce the contrast of shadows on aerial photographs with a detail of 20 cm. The created prototype software allows to perform additive or multiplicative correction of an array of individual aerial photographs. The proposed approach requires more time for data processing, but gives much more acceptable results for visual (manual) decryption. The method is not recommended for use when working with images in more than 10 cm, when solving monitoring tasks with frequent repeated surveys, and also, if necessary, to carry out automated decoding using spectral standards.
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Kuznetsov, Evgeniy, Galina Koretskaia, and Asmelash Abay. "Comparative Analysis of Aerial Photography with Instrumental Survey." E3S Web of Conferences 174 (2020): 01031. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202017401031.
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At present, in Kuzbass, various methods of automation of plane surveys in open mining are used. In most cases, the choice of method depends on the material base of the enterprise and the professionalism of the performers. Typically, the work on the surveying automation consists in using electronic tachometers, which reduce time and simplify field and office work. However, the use of electronic tachometers remains the human factor and does not allow solving the problem of displaying the situation throughout the open pit at one physical moment of time. Aerial photography (AP) significantly increases the performance of plane surveys and makes it possible to most fully and reliably display the information about the surface and ensure the safety of fieldwork. The article presents a comparative analysis of the accuracy of constructing a digital terrain model obtained during aerial photography by AN-2 aircraft and instrumental survey performed with electronic tachometer Leica TS 06 plus, by example of surveying a trench of section № 1 at Olzherassky open pit in the Kemerovo region. The advantages and disadvantages of AP from an airplane and prospects of using AP from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) are given.
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Jamieson, A., I. E. Bassett, L. M. W. Hill, S. Hill, A. Davis, N. W. Waipara, E. G. Hough, and I. J. Horner. "Aerial surveillance to detect kauri dieback in New Zealand." New Zealand Plant Protection 67 (January 8, 2014): 60–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.30843/nzpp.2014.67.5723.
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The causal agent of kauri dieback Phytophthora taxon Agathis (PTA) poses a significant threat to kauri (Agathis australis) in northern New Zealand Groundbased field surveys have previously confirmed PTA presence at several locations across Auckland and Northland However ground surveys are limited to areas adjacent to tracks because of difficulty and cost associated with offtrack access in steep terrain along with concern about furthering spread of PTA A methodology for aerial photographic surveillance of kauri dieback was developed and implemented in Wait257;kere Ranges Hunua Ranges and adjacent forest areas Using recently developed GPS technology photographs were embedded with position data so unhealthy trees were easily located later for groundtruthing Aerial survey was found to be a time and costeffective method for surveying large inaccessible areas of forest for kauri dieback The methodology would also be applicable for detection of visible disease or damage symptoms in other canopy tree species
10
Martínez-Carricondo, Patricio, Francisco Agüera-Vega, and Fernando Carvajal-Ramírez. "Use of UAV-Photogrammetry for Quasi-Vertical Wall Surveying." Remote Sensing 12, no. 14 (July 10, 2020): 2221. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12142221.
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In this study, an analysis of the capabilities of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry to obtain point clouds from areas with a near-vertical inclination was carried out. For this purpose, 18 different combinations were proposed, varying the number of ground control points (GCPs), the adequacy (or not) of the distribution of GCPs, and the orientation of the photographs (nadir and oblique). The results have shown that under certain conditions, the accuracy achieved was similar to those obtained by a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS). For this reason, it is necessary to increase the number of GCPs as much as possible in order to cover a whole study area. In the event that this is not possible, the inclusion of oblique photography ostensibly improves results; therefore, it is always advisable since they also improve the geometric descriptions of break lines or sudden changes in slope. In this sense, UAVs seem to be a more economic substitute compared to TLS for vertical wall surveying.
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Thompson, Scott, Graham Thompson, Jessica Sackmann, Julia Spark, and Tristan Brown. "Using high-definition aerial photography to search in 3D for malleefowl mounds is a cost-effective alternative to ground searches." Pacific Conservation Biology 21, no. 3 (2015): 208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc14919.
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The threatened malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata) constructs a large (often >3 m) incubator mound (nest) that is considered a useful proxy for surveying its presence and abundance in the context of an environmental impact assessment. Here we report on the effectiveness and relative cost of using high-definition aerial photography to search in 3D for malleefowl mounds by comparing results to those of earlier ground-based searches. High-definition colour aerial photography was taken of an area of ~7014 ha and searched in 3D for malleefowl mounds. All 24 active (i.e. in use) malleefowl mounds known before the examination of aerial photography were detected using the new assessment technique. Of the 108 total mounds (active and inactive) known from earlier on-ground surveys, 94 (87%) were recorded using the new technique. Mounds not detected were all old and weathered, many barely above ground level and some with vegetation growing in the crater. Approximately 6.3% of the identifications considered ‘confident’ and ~35.0% considered ‘potential’ based on the aerial photography proved to be false positives. The cost of detecting malleefowl mounds using the interpretation of high-definition 3D colour aerial photography and then subsequently examining these areas on the ground is appreciably cheaper than on-ground grid searches.
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Hlotov, Volodymyr, Alla Hunina, Ihor Kolb, Vadim Kolesnichenko, and Ihor Trevoho. "THE STUDY OF THE “CETUS” UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE FOR TOPOGRAPHIC AERIAL SURVEYING." Geodesy and cartography 47, no. 2 (August 16, 2021): 96–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/gac.2021.12120.
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The work aims to analyze and study the possibilities of using “Cetus” unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) for performing topographic aerial surveys. The authors developed and tested aircraft-type UAV for topographic aerial photography. The studies were conducted on a specialized landfill, at which there is an appropriate number of situational points whose coordinates are determined with high accuracy. These points were used as both reference and control points. The obtained UAV aerial survey materials were subjected to a phototriangulation process to determine the orientation elements and to analyze, first and foremost, the angular orientation elements. The surveying was carried out on a mountainous territory, where the spatial coordinates of 37 situational points were determined by the method of ground-based GPS survey with an average accuracy of up to 0.05 m. These points were used as reference and control points. Aerial photography was performed in such a way that the scale of the images was as uniform as possible. The design solutions implemented in the Cetus UAV provide all the possibilities to perform aerial surveys of territories in strict compliance with the projected flight parameters. UAV equipment provides the necessary real-time correction of the position of the aerial camera. At the same time the optimum straightness of routes, stability of scales and mutual overlapping of pictures is reached. Regarding the accuracy of obtaining the spatial coordinates of the points of terrain objects, using “Cetus” UAV surveys, plans can even be made on a scale of even 1: 1000. As a result of the creation of the UAV “Cetus”, it became possible to perform the topographic aerial survey of the territories and to create large-scale orthophotos that fully meet the instructions. As a result of testing the “Cetus” UAV, it can be used in production processes when drawing up topographic plans for a large-scale series: 1: 1000 – 1: 5000, which will significantly save the cost of performing topographic work.
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Dolotov, Vyacheslav V., Yuri N. Goryachkin, and Andrey V. Dolotov. "Analysis of the current state of unstable geomorphological structures with modern methods." GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY 13, no. 1 (April 1, 2020): 195–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.24057/2071-9388-2019-20.
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The paper gives results of the digitization of the status and spatial position of a cliff in the Western Crimea coastal zone. The modern equipment and methods accelerate the survey from the time perspective and improve the quality of the outcomes; namely a high precision GNSS receiver in RTK mode and PHANTOM-3 PRO copter. The digital terrain model was generated with used the Agisoft Photoscan software. The paper shows that the precision of the mathematical model of the relief constructed by aerial photographs provides more detailed data in comparison to those obtained in the field observations. Furthermore, aerial photography makes it possible to calculate the number of spatial characteristics of hazardous for surveying and latent natural objects out of reach for an on-location investigation. As a result, the very detailed data about current condition of dangerous cliff were obtained. The paper also evaluates the linear and volumetric characteristics of cleavages that are prone to collapse.
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Dragomir, Lucian Octavian, Roxana Claudia Herbei, and Mihai Valentin Herbei. "The use of modern technologies in the surveying field." MATEC Web of Conferences 342 (2021): 02016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202134202016.
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In order to achieve or complete the 1: 1.000 scale situation plan and the digital terrain model for the Timişoara - Sibiu highway section, and given the difficult access conditions in the project area, it was decided to use photogrammetric techniques for extraction of spatial information needed for mapping. In order to achieve the mapping requirements at a scale of 1: 1.000, the following activities were performed: Realization of the geodetic support network; Realization of the aerial photography project; Making pre-marking points in areas without clear details or other location possibilities; Simultaneous aerial photography of sub-blocks at different flight heights to ensure a 12 cm pixel and simultaneous laser scanning with LiDAR system; Identification of marking and pre-marking points on the subblock frames; Performing GPS measurements to determine the coordinates of landmarks and photogrammetric pre-marking; LIDAR data processing using permanent GPS stations to obtain coordinates in the ETRS89 system and transform them into the STEREO70 system and Black Sea reference plan 75; Calibration of LIDAR data; Filtering LIDAR data; Realization of aerotriangulation on subblocks or bands; Stereo restitution of planimetric and altimetric details for 1: 1.000 scale (3D mode); Transforming 3D plans into 2D plans; Editing and elaborating topographic plans.
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Darwin, Norhadija, and Anuar Ahmad. "Fast Data Acquisition of Aerial Images Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle System." International Journal of Informatics and Communication Technology (IJ-ICT) 3, no. 3 (December 1, 2014): 162. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijict.v3i3.pp162-170.
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The present work discusses the technique and methodology of analysing the potential of fast data acquisition of aerial images using unmanned aerial vehicle system. This study utilizes UAV system for large scale mapping by using digital camera attached to the UAV. UAV is developed from the low-altitude photogrammetric mapping to perform the accuracy of the aerial photography and the resolution of the image. The Ground Control Points (GCPs) and Check Points (CPs) are established using Rapid Static techniques through GPS observation for registration purpose in photogrammetric process. The GCPs is used in the photogrammetric processes to produce photogrammetric output while the CP is employed for accuracy assessment. A Pentax Optio W90 consumer digital camera is also used in image acquisition of the aerial photograph. Besides, this study also involves image processing and map production using Erdas Imagine 8.6 software. The accuracy of the orthophoto is determined using the equation of Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). The final result from orthophoto is compared to the ground survey using total station to show the different accuracy of DEM and planimetric survey. It is discovered that root mean square errors obtained from UAV system are ± 0.510, ± 0.564 and ± 0.622 for coordinate x, y and z respectively. Hence, it can be concluded that the accuracy obtained from UAV system is achieved in sub meter. In a nutshell, UAV system has potential use for large scale mapping in field of surveying and other diversified environmental applications especially for small area which has limited time and less man power.
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Brecher, H. H. "Surface Velocity Determination on Large Polar Glaciers by Aerial Photogrammetry." Annals of Glaciology 8 (1986): 22–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500001063.
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Aerial photogrammetric block triangulation, a standard and well-developed technique for extending accurate control for mapping into the interior of a region from a few points of known position on its perimeter, can be readily adapted to determine surface velocities on bodies of ice which are too large, and often too crevassed, to be studied effectively by conventional ground surveying. Velocities are calculated from the changes in positions of the same natural surface features determined from photography of two (or more) epochs and the elapsed time. This method is capable of providing many uniformly-spaced measurements over the whole, moving, ice surface, thus allowing the production of maps of velocity and strain-rate, which are valuable in analyzing the ice-flow regime. Results from measurements completed some years ago on Byrd Glacier, one of the largest outlet glaciers from the East Antarctic plateau, are presented as an example of what the method can yield. By means of Doppler satellite surveying, relative positions of control points for each photography epoch can be determined with sub-meter accuracy, making the technique suitable also in regions where no fixed land features exist. A brief description of a project under way in such an area, on Ice Stream B in West Antarctica, is given.
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Brecher, H. H. "Surface Velocity Determination on Large Polar Glaciers by Aerial Photogrammetry." Annals of Glaciology 8 (1986): 22–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500001063.
Full textAbstract:
Aerial photogrammetric block triangulation, a standard and well-developed technique for extending accurate control for mapping into the interior of a region from a few points of known position on its perimeter, can be readily adapted to determine surface velocities on bodies of ice which are too large, and often too crevassed, to be studied effectively by conventional ground surveying. Velocities are calculated from the changes in positions of the same natural surface features determined from photography of two (or more) epochs and the elapsed time. This method is capable of providing many uniformly-spaced measurements over the whole, moving, ice surface, thus allowing the production of maps of velocity and strain-rate, which are valuable in analyzing the ice-flow regime. Results from measurements completed some years ago on Byrd Glacier, one of the largest outlet glaciers from the East Antarctic plateau, are presented as an example of what the method can yield. By means of Doppler satellite surveying, relative positions of control points for each photography epoch can be determined with sub-meter accuracy, making the technique suitable also in regions where no fixed land features exist. A brief description of a project under way in such an area, on Ice Stream B in West Antarctica, is given.
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Kadnichanskiy, S. A., M. V. Kurkov, V. M. Kurkov, and Aleksandr Chibunichev. "Certification testing hardware-and-software complex based on unmanned aerial vehicle “Geoscan 401”." Geodesy and Cartography 957, no. 3 (April 20, 2020): 32–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.22389/0016-7126-2020-957-3-32-38.
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The authors present the results of certification testing software-and-hardware complex on the basis of an unmanned aircraft (UAV) “Geoskan 401”, designed for aerial mapping. The substantiation of the need to assess the accuracy characteristics of the photogrammetric processing aerial photos results from the UAV is given. The composition of the complex, the parameters of the test site and the performed aerial photography are given, the order and method of testing are described. Assessment of the aerial triangulation accuracy, creation of a digital elevation model, digital orthophotos and coordinates of marked and unmarked characteristic points (natural contours) of land boundaries and building contours were carried out to confirm the compliance with the requirements of regulatory documents for the implementation of photogrammetric processing, maintenance of the state real estate cadastre and surveying. The values of the spatial data accuracy obtained with the help of a hardware-and-software complex confirm the possibility of using the “Geoskan 401” in real estate cadastre and surveying. Recommendations on the use of hardware and software complex for cadastral and mine surveying works are given.
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Sugianto, Andy. "UAV and site investigation for evaluation of landslide hazard: a case study in Cipularang Km.92 Toll Road." MATEC Web of Conferences 229 (2018): 04015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201822904015.
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Application of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) or drones to detect landslide Hazard and risk assessment becomes uncommon methodology in Indonesia. Nowadays, in Indonesia drones are still popular to use for commercial, news interest and advertisement purposes only. It is not mainly used for detecting landslide hazard or risk assessment purposes. Furthermore, the landslide in Indonesia is a common worldwide phenomenon that often occur and can have a great impact on the infrastructures and sometimes tragically result in fatalities. UAV provide a quick, safe, effective, and potentially superior means of inspecting large-scale, remote and difficult to access landforms with significant cost benefits compared to traditional inspection method by manual tracking. UAV can derive the aerial photography which represents actual condition and landslide hazard instantly. By using an aerial photograph, it can simplify the engineer to obtain viewpoint and presumption related with the mechanism of the landslide, some factors triggering the landslide (terrain and topography, drainage, river stream, logged area, slope height, structure, and community, etc). The result suggests that UAC can be one of most effective value in surveying and large-scale inspection to determine landslide hazard as well as general site condition.
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Pacina, Jan. "Geodetic surveying as part of archaeological research in Sudan." Geoinformatics FCE CTU 14, no. 1 (June 27, 2015): 47–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.14311/gi.14.1.4.
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<p>Surveying is an important part of any archaeological research. In this paper we focus on the archaeological research in north Sudan (6<sup>th</sup> Nile cataract) and the surveying methods applicable under the local conditions. Surveying in the Third World countries is affected by the political situation (limited import of surveying tools), local conditions (lack of fixed points, GNSS correction signal), inaccessible basemaps and fixed point network. This article describes the methods and results obtained during the three archaeological seasons (2011-2014). The classical surveying methods were combined with KAP (Kite Aerial Photography) to obtain the desired results in form of archaeological maps, detailed orthophoto images and other analyses results.</p>
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Wang, De Bao, Jun Feng Qu, Xue Ling Fang, and Mei Lan Yu. "Key Technology Discussion on Surveying and Mapping 1:1000 Photogrammetric Digital Topographic Map of Laicheng Industrial Zone in Laiwu City." Advanced Materials Research 846-847 (November 2013): 1166–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.846-847.1166.
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Taking use of VirtuoZos digital photogrametric workstations of Supresoft Inc., employing full digital aerophotogrammetric mapping method, according to existing aerial photographic image database, at the foundation of basic control survey, we carry out aerial photographic control survey, surveying and mapping with pile point method, digital aerotriangulation and full digital stereocompilation. When taking 1:1000 topographic map obtained by indoor edition to field work for compration, supplement and regulation, we mainly aim at the following purposes: determining the nature and quantity as well as filling vacancy for ground and land features obtained by indoor stereocompilation; positioning for habitation, wall and railing, incompletely surveyed, drop shadow-covered and trees-obstructed ground features, as well as newly-added planimetric features after aerial photogrammetry; especially measuring the solid width of a house to centimeter and making eaves correction after measuring the length of a house when needed; correcting the geomatric positioning relationand of ground features according to their solid shape and fairly drawing them in the map; afterwards, we carry out graphic edition again during indoor work. Only in this way can we guarantee the horizontal and vertical accuracy of large scale photogrammetric mapping.
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Smirnov, J. "Analytical review of remote sensing data sources suitable for mapping of land resource in Chernivtsi region." Visnyk of the Lviv University. Series Geography, no. 46 (December 26, 2013): 331–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/vgg.2013.46.1499.
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In the article described the sources of remote sensing data and analyzed their suitability for involvement in the process Chernivtsi region land resources mapping. Taken into account space surveying systems of different spatial resolution and aerial photographic surveys. As a result, have been identified the best sources of data that can be used in the Chernivtsi region land resources mapping. Key words: land resources, remote sensing, satellite imagery, mapping of land resources, sources of remote sensing data.
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Wang, Z., H. Wu, J. Zhu, R. Zhang, H. Song, J. Wang, and Z. He. "CAPACITY BUILDING FOR GEO-INFORMATION DRIVEN EMERGENCY RESPONSE IN CHINA." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-3/W8 (August 23, 2019): 447–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-3-w8-447-2019.
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<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Surveying and mapping technologies played a significant role in former emergency response activities. Despite remarkable progress on emergency surveying and mapping has been achieved in China, there are still some limits to meet the quick and smart response requirements. Aiming to fill the gaps, Chinese government has proposed a capacity building project for geo-information driven emergency response. In this paper, the business process and data flow of emergency surveying and mapping are analysed firstly. Then, the major design of this project is introduced through 4 parts. These are capacity of UAV aerial photography, capacity of field surveying, capacity of smart service and capacity of data integration. Finally, the preliminary progress and prospective achievement are discussed. The implementation of this project could be an example for comprehensive application of advanced surveying and mapping technologies, and could also be a basis to improve our national emergency response framework.</p>
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Kurkov, V. M., T. N. Skripitsina, and A. Yu Sozonova. "METHODS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR AERIAL SURVEYING AND GROUND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL PURPOSES." ECOLOGY ECONOMY INFORMATICS. GEOINFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND SPACE MONITORING 2, no. 5 (2020): 75–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.23885/2500-123x-2020-2-5-75-82.
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This article we consider methods and technologies of unmanned aerial surveying and close-range photogrammetric survey as applied for archeological research. We summed up the practical experience of the specialists of the Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK), obtained with the participation in the Bosporus archaeological expedition of the State Historical Museum on the Taman Peninsula in 2018–20. During the 3 expeditions, 18 archaeological sites were surveyed by aerial methods using UAV Geoscan 101 Geodesy and UAS DJI Phantom 4 Pro. In addition to aerial surveying, the Canon 30D digital camera with 50 mm and 14 mm focal lengths was used for groundbased, close-range photogrammetric surveys of archaeological sites. Some sites were surveyed many times during different periods of archaeological research. At all surveyed archaeological sites using photogrammetric processing methods at the Agisoft Metashape software we received survey documents (orthophoto, digital terrain models, 3D models). For some artifacts, three-dimensional metric models have been obtained using digital photogrammetry methods. Various methods of aerial surveying were used to study archaeological sites. The article gives recommendations on optimization of photography process in order to obtain reliable and informative documents for archaeological excavations. Comparison and analysis of aerial and close-range survey data was performed by the QGIS geographic information system. The information obtained using geo-information technologies will improve the quality and reliability of forecasts and hypotheses in archaeological studies.
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BRYN, Mikhail Ya, Dinara R. BASHIROVA, and Artur G. BAGISHYAN. "Comparative evaluation of mobile laser scanning, aerial photography from an unmanned aircraft system and surveying from an integrated road laboratory when performing diagnostics of highways." Proceedings of Petersburg Transport University 2021, no. 2 (June 2021): 211–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.20295/1815-588x-2021-2-211-221.
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Objective: To compare the possibilities of using mobile laser scanning (MLS) and aerial photography (AFS) from an unmanned aircraft system (UAS) and to make a survey from an integrated road laboratory when performing diagnostics of highways. Methods: For the analysis, a section of the regional road in the Kursk region was selected, on which the survey was carried out using considered methods. The main characteristics were identified when performing the diagnostics, their values were obtained on the basis of data from the integrated road laboratory, aerial photography with UAS, as well as ILS, and the accuracy of the results obtained, the compliance of the data with the requirements of regulatory documents were assessed. Results: Based on the work performed, the following conclusions were made: the determination of identified diagnostic parameters by the methods of ILS and APS with UAS is correct and aerial photography with UAS at the cost of equipment, the cost of shooting is the most profitable when drawing up topographic road plans. It is noted that in terms of accuracy, the APS method meets the requirements for plans at a scale of 1:500, MLS – 1:1000. Practical importance: Not all indicators required for diagnostics can be obtained with APS with ALS and MLS, since they require specialized equipment and direct interaction with the road surface, however, the range of application of the selected methods can be significantly expanded. Adhesion coefficient is measured using an integrated mobile road laboratory, so it is not advisable to abandon it. It was noted that the equipment of the laboratory, depending on the cost, may be different
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Tian, Z., M. Li, L. Lv, and J. Zhou. "RESEARCH ON KEY POINTS OF QUALITY INSPECTION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY RESULTS AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT MEASURES." International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLIII-B4-2021 (June 30, 2021): 141–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xliii-b4-2021-141-2021.
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Abstract. With the development of surveying and mapping geographic information technology, digital aerial photogrammetry technology has been widely developed and applied. Based on the research on the applicability of existing quality inspection standards, this paper has completed the analysis of the key points of the quality inspection of surveying and mapping aerial photography results on the current technological development level, and combined with the quality inspection work of related projects for many years, selecting 15 real cases in the industry from the technology, it completed the analysis of common quality problems in four aspects: flight quality, data quality, image quality, and accessory quality, and put forward relevant quality evaluation standards and suggestions for improving production quality. The research content of the article can provide a reference for the production and quality inspection of corresponding projects in the later period, and provide a basis for industry supervision and promote the improvement of the overall quality level of the industry.
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Dorozhynskyy, O. L. ,., I. Z. Kolb, L. V. Babiy, and L. V. Dychko. "GEODESY, CARTOGRAPHY AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY." GEODESY, CARTOGRAPHY AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 92,2020, no. 92 (December 24, 2020): 15–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.23939/istcgcap2020.92.015.
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Aim. Determination of the elements of external spatial orientation of the surveying systems at the moment of image acquisition is the fundamental task in photogrammetry. Principally, this problem is solving in two ways. The first way is direct positioning and measuring of directions of camera optical axis in the geodetic space with the help of GNSS/INS equipment. The second way is the analytical solution of the problem using a set of reference information (often such information is a set of ground control points whose geodetic positions are known with sufficient accuracy and which are reliably recognised on aerial images of the photogrammetric block). The authors consider the task of providing reference and control information using the second approach, which has a number of advantages in terms of reliability and accuracy of determining the unknown image exterior orientation parameters. It is proposed to obtain additional images of ground control points by the method of their auxiliary aerial photography using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) on a larger scale compared to the scale of the images of the photogrammetric block. The aim of the presented work is the implementation of the method of creating reference points and experimental confirmation of its effectiveness for photogrammetric processing. Methods and results. For the entire realization of the potential of the analytical way to determine the elements of external orientation of images, it is necessary to have a certain number of ground control points (GCP) and to keep the defined scheme of their location on the photogrammetric block. As the main source of input data authors use UAV aerial images of the terrain, which are obtained separately from the block of aerial survey, and have a better geometric resolution and which clearly depict the control reference points. Application of such auxiliary images gives the possibility of automated transferring of the position of ground control point into images of the main photogrammetric block. In our interpretation, these images of ground control points and their surroundings on the ground are called "control reference images". The basis of the work is to develop a method for obtaining the auxiliary control reference images and transferring of position of GCP depicted on them into aerial or space images of terrain by means of computer stereo matching. To achieve this goal, we have developed a processing method for the creation of control reference images of aerial image or a series of auxiliary multi-scale aerial images obtained by a drone from different heights above the reference point. The operator identifies and measures the GCP once on the auxiliary aerial image of the highest resolution. Then there is an automatic stereo matching of the control reference image in the whole series of auxiliary images in succession with a decrease in the resolution and, ultimately, directly with the aerial images of photogrammetric block. On this stage there are no recognition/cursor targeting by the human operator, and therefore there are no discrepancies, errors or mistakes related to it. In addition, if to apply fairly large size of control reference images, the proposed method can be used on a low-texture terrain, and therefore deal in many cases without the physical marking of points measured by GNSS method. And this is a way to simplify and reduce the cost of photogrammetric technology. The action of the developed method has been verified experimentally to provide the control reference information of the block of archival aerial images of the low-texture terrain. The results of the experimental approbation of the proposed method give grounds to assert that the method makes it possible to perform geodetic reference of photogrammetric projects more efficiently due to the refusal of the physical marking of the area before aerial survey. The proposed method can also be used to obtain the information for checking the quality of photogrammetric survey for provision of check points. The authors argue that the use of additional equipment - UAV of semi-professional class to obtain control reference images is economically feasible. Scientific novelty and practical relevance. The results of approbation of the "control reference image" method with obtaining stereo pairs of aerial images with vertical placement of the base are presented for the first time. There was implemented the study of the properties of such stereo pairs of aerial images to obtain images of reference points. The effectiveness of including reference images in the main block of the digital aerial triangulation network created on UAV’s images is shown.
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Gao, Z., Y. Song, C. Li, F. Zeng, and F. Wang. "RESEARCH ON THE APPLICATION OF RAPID SURVEYING AND MAPPING FOR LARGE SCARE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP BY UAV AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY SYSTEM." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-2/W6 (August 23, 2017): 121–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-2-w6-121-2017.
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Rapid acquisition and processing method of large scale topographic map data, which relies on the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) low-altitude aerial photogrammetry system, is studied in this paper, elaborating the main work flow. Key technologies of UAV photograph mapping is also studied, developing a rapid mapping system based on electronic plate mapping system, thus changing the traditional mapping mode and greatly improving the efficiency of the mapping. Production test and achievement precision evaluation of Digital Orth photo Map (DOM), Digital Line Graphic (DLG) and other digital production were carried out combined with the city basic topographic map update project, which provides a new techniques for large scale rapid surveying and has obvious technical advantage and good application prospect.
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Varfolomeev, A. F., E. A. Kovalenko, V. F. Manukhov, and L. G. Kalashnikova. "Special features of aerial survey technology using unmanned aircraft." Geodesy and Cartography 962, no. 8 (September 20, 2020): 58–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.22389/0016-7126-2020-962-8-58-64.
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In recent years, there have been qualitative changes in surveying associated with the use of robotic systems, such as unmanned aerial vehicles. Currently, traditional geodetic and topographic technologies are giving way to high-precision and high-performance systems using robotics. The technology of aerial photography from drones for mapping territories, operational monitoring linear structures, construction sites, as well as for engineering and underground surveys, solving cadastral matters, building realistic three-dimensional terrain models, etc., is gaining more and more popularity in the world. The transition to new technologies entails restructuring not only the methods of determining coordinates, but also the stages of pre-design and design work. The authors describes the capabilities of geographic information systems for automating some stages of field geodetic data cameral processing obtained through using unmanned aircraft. As a result of the study, it was discovered that the marks of the earth’s surface, read from the constructed digital map, are in good agreement with those obtained as a result of the ground-based geodetic survey.
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Anikeeva, Irina A. "FACTORS, CRITERIA AND REQUIREMENTS FOR FINE QUALITY OF AERIAL IMAGERY, OBTAINED FOR MAPPING PURPOSES." Vestnik SSUGT (Siberian State University of Geosystems and Technologies) 25, no. 4 (2020): 104–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.33764/2411-1759-2020-25-4-104-119.
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Fine image quality assessment of aerial imagery, obtained for mapping purposes, is a relevant problem today. The purpose of this article is development the criteria system of fine image quality assessment of aerial topographic imagery and set requirements to them. The article discusses a set of factors that determine the fine image quality - natural surveying conditions, its technical and technological conditions and parameters. The article carries out the analysis of how these factors influence on aerial imagery and shows the main defects of images caused by them – such as blurring, haze, loss of information in highlights and shadows, high random noise, color disbalance. The article defines the ways for identifying these defects and assessing their influence on the fine quality of aerial imagery both visual and automatic methods. It is shown that image fine quality assessment must be carried out in terms of structural and gradation (photographic) characteristics. It is also shown that, in addition to the above characteristics, fine quality of aerial images can be influenced by random factors, the appearance of which cannot be predicted. Defects caused by these factors are revealed by operator’s visual inspection. The requirements for several fine image quality criteria, which allow to establish this research phase, are given.
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Stearns, Leigh A., Gordon S. Hamilton, and Niels Reeh. "Multi-decadal record of ice dynamics on Daugaard Jensen Gletscher, East Greenland, from satellite imagery and terrestrial measurements." Annals of Glaciology 42 (2005): 53–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756405781812565.
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AbstractThe history of ice velocity and calving front position of Daugaard Jensen Gletscher, a large outlet glacier in East Greenland, is reconstructed from field measurements, aerial photography and satellite imagery for the period 1950-2001. The calving terminus of the glacier has remained in approximately the same position over the past ∼50 years. There is no evidence of a change in ice motion between 1968 and 2001, based on a comparison of velocities derived from terrestrial surveying and feature tracking using sequential satellite images. Estimates of flux near the entrance to the fjord vs snow accumulation in the interior catchment show that Daugaard Jensen Gletscher has a small negative mass balance. This result is consistent with other mass-balance estimates for the inland region of the glacier.
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Murphy, Kenneth. "A Prehistoric Field System and Related Monuments on St David's Head and Cam Llidi, Pembrokeshire." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 67 (2001): 85–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00001626.
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This short paper describes the remains of prehistoric settlements, chambered tombs, a promontory fort, a prehistoric defensive wall, a rectilinear field system, and other field systems on marginal land at St David's Head. Antiquarians and archaeologists have known of these remains for over two centuries, but it is only through modern surveying techniques and aerial photography that their true nature can be appreciated. The defensive wall and associated rectilinear field system could have originated from the 2nd millennium BC through to the 1st millennium BC. Other field systems and settlements are likely to be of later prehistoric or Romano-British origin. Elements of the field systems have influenced and are preserved in the modern ‘Pembrokeshire’ landscape which borders the headland.
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Duffy, James, Jamie Shutler, Matthew Witt, Leon DeBell, and Karen Anderson. "Tracking Fine-Scale Structural Changes in Coastal Dune Morphology Using Kite Aerial Photography and Uncertainty-Assessed Structure-from-Motion Photogrammetry." Remote Sensing 10, no. 9 (September 18, 2018): 1494. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs10091494.
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Coastal dunes are globally-distributed dynamic ecosystems that occur at the land-sea interface. They are sensitive to disturbance both from natural forces and anthropogenic stressors, and therefore require regular monitoring to track changes in their form and function ultimately informing management decisions. Existing techniques employing satellite or airborne data lack the temporal or spatial resolution to resolve fine-scale changes in these environments, both temporally and spatially whilst fine-scale in-situ monitoring (e.g., terrestrial laser scanning) can be costly and is therefore confined to relatively small areas. The rise of proximal sensing-based Structure-from-Motion Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS) photogrammetric techniques for land surface surveying offers an alternative, scale-appropriate method for spatially distributed surveying of dune systems. Here we present the results of an inter- and intra-annual experiment which utilised a low-cost and highly portable kite aerial photography (KAP) and SfM-MVS workflow to track sub-decimetre spatial scale changes in dune morphology over timescales of between 3 and 12 months. We also compare KAP and drone surveys undertaken at near-coincident times of the same dune system to test the KAP reproducibility. Using a Monte Carlo based change detection approach (Multiscale Model to Model Cloud Comparison (M3C2)) which quantifies and accounts for survey uncertainty, we show that the KAP-based survey technique, whilst exhibiting higher x, y, z uncertainties than the equivalent drone methodology, is capable of delivering data describing dune system topographical change. Significant change (according to M3C2); both positive (accretion) and negative (erosion) was detected across 3, 6 and 12 months timescales with the majority of change detected below 500 mm. Significant topographic changes as small as ~20 mm were detected between surveys. We demonstrate that portable, low-cost consumer-grade KAP survey techniques, which have been employed for decades for hobbyist aerial photography, can now deliver science-grade data, and we argue that kites are well-suited to coastal survey where winds and sediment might otherwise impede surveys by other proximal sensing platforms, such as drones.
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Faltýnová, M., and P. Nový. "Airborne Laser Scanning and Image Processing Techniques for Archaeological Prospection." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XL-5 (June 6, 2014): 231–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-xl-5-231-2014.
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Aerial photography was, for decades, an invaluable tool for archaeological prospection, in spite of the limitation of this method to deforested areas. The airborne laser scanning (ALS) method can be nowadays used to map complex areas and suitable complement earlier findings. This article describes visualization and image processing methods that can be applied on digital terrain models (DTMs) to highlight objects hidden in the landscape. Thanks to the analysis of visualized DTM it is possible to understand the landscape evolution including the differentiation between natural processes and human interventions. Different visualization methods were applied on a case study area. A system of parallel tracks hidden in a forest and its surroundings – part of old route called "Devil's Furrow" near the town of Sázava was chosen. The whole area around well known part of Devil's Furrow has not been prospected systematically yet. The data from the airborne laser scanning acquired by the Czech Office for Surveying, Mapping and Cadastre was used. The average density of the point cloud was approximately 1 point/m<sup>2</sup> The goal of the project was to visualize the utmost smallest terrain discontinuities, e.g. tracks and erosion furrows, which some were not wholly preserved. Generally we were interested in objects that are clearly not visible in DTMs displayed in the form of shaded relief. Some of the typical visualization methods were tested (shaded relief, aspect and slope image). To get better results we applied image-processing methods that were successfully used on aerial photographs or hyperspectral images in the past. The usage of different visualization techniques on one site allowed us to verify the natural character of the southern part of Devil’s Furrow and find formations up to now hidden in the forests.
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Fuldain González, Juan, and Félix Varón Hernández. "NDVI Identification and Survey of a Roman Road in the Northern Spanish Province of Álava." Remote Sensing 11, no. 6 (March 26, 2019): 725. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11060725.
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The Iter 34 (Antonine Itinerary XXXIV) is the name of the Roman road that crosses the province of Álava from west to east. Since no specific path was officially recognized before our study, the remains of the road did not benefit from heritage protection. In 2017, we made a project to determine the course of the road through rural Álava. In addition to traditional archaeological excavation and prospecting techniques, we used UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicle) to produce NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) orthomosaic plans of ten cultivated areas through which the road is conjectured to pass. NDVI orthomosaics let us see crop marks better than with conventional photography, allowing us to detect the crop marks during times of the year and in places where conventional photography would fail to show them. Thanks to the NDVI orthomosaics, remains of the road were identified not only in places where we knew it existed, but also in previously unknown locations. Furthermore, other archaeological features were identified close to the roadway. This technique heralds a great advance in non-invasive methods of archaeological surveying. By using precision farming techniques we have identified the course of the Roman road Iter 34 in several locations in a short period of time and with few resources.
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Farah, Ashraf, and Dafer Algarni. "Positional Accuracy Assessment of Googleearth in Riyadh." Artificial Satellites 49, no. 2 (June 1, 2014): 101–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/arsa-2014-0008.
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ABSTRACT Google Earth is a virtual globe, map and geographical information program that is controlled by Google corporation. It maps the Earth by the superimposition of images obtained from satellite imagery, aerial photography and GIS 3D globe. With millions of users all around the globe, GoogleEarth® has become the ultimate source of spatial data and information for private and public decision-support systems besides many types and forms of social interactions. Many users mostly in developing countries are also using it for surveying applications, the matter that raises questions about the positional accuracy of the Google Earth program. This research presents a small-scale assessment study of the positional accuracy of GoogleEarth® Imagery in Riyadh; capital of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The results show that the RMSE of the GoogleEarth imagery is 2.18 m and 1.51 m for the horizontal and height coordinates respectively.
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Kang, C. L., Y. Cheng, F. Wang, M. M. Zong, J. Luo, and J. Y. Lei. "THE APPLICATION OF UAV OBLIQUE PHOTOGRAMMETRY IN SMART TOURISM: A CASE STUDY OF LONGJI TERRACED SCENIC SPOT IN GUANGXI PROVINCE." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-3/W10 (February 7, 2020): 575–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-3-w10-575-2020.
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Abstract. With the application of UAV Oblique photography, rapid 3D real-time modeling based on aerial image data has become a new technology in the field of 3D modeling. In view of the current poor mapping and inability to reuse the basic surveying and mapping data in the publicity and display, dynamic planning, etc., based on the UAV photogrammetry technology that is used to rapidly and accurately collect image data of the Longji terraced scenic spot in Guilin, Guangxi, this paper develops a platform by 3D real-time modeling technology with the combination of the high-tech such as digital mapping to realize the three-dimensional navigation and smart tourism of the scenic spot. The practical results show that the application can better meet the actual needs of high precision, large scale, wide audience, strong interaction, etc., which effectively alleviates the contradiction between the protection and utilization of cultural resources in cultural tourism, expands the cultural resources audience, and provides high-tech support to the cultural tourism.
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Mackovčin, Peter, and Martin Jurek. "New facts about old maps of the territory of the former Czechoslovakia." Geografie 120, no. 4 (2015): 489–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.37040/geografie2015120040489.
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The authors have searched the archives for information concerning the large-scale mapping of Czechoslovakia in the period 1921–1950, when the improvement and updating of older maps inherited from the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was carried out and new large-scale mapping was launched. Several map sets resulted from the mapping, yet they did not cover the whole territory of Czechoslovakia. Among the sets are: Czechoslovak revised topographical sections of the Austrian 3rd Military Survey, Czechoslovak preliminary maps in Beneš projection, Czechoslovak definitive maps in Křovák projection, German maps to the scale 1:25,000 called “Sonderausgabe” (Special Edition), “Karte des Sudetenlandes” (Map of Sudetenland), “Karte der Slowakei” (Map of Slovakia), and “Messtischblätter” surveyed during WWII. According to the authors’ research these maps covered 69.4% of the territory of Czechoslovakia as it was in 1938 and 75.6% of its territory in 1950. Surveying methods had improved over time and included the use of aerial photography.
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Barrile, V., G. Candela, and A. Fotia. "POINT CLOUD SEGMENTATION USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLII-2/W11 (May 4, 2019): 187–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xlii-2-w11-187-2019.
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<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Modern surveying techniques, with the combined use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) with low-cost photographic sensors, and photogrammetric techniques, allows obtaining a precise virtual reconstruction of environment and object with centimetre accuracy. Recently, the diffusion of UAV allows the survey of extensive areas significantly reducing survey time and costs. The raw output obtainable from such survey operations consists of a three-dimensional point cloud. Numerous applications in architecture, monitoring and surveying and structural analysis require objects identification in the 3d scene to classify different element in the acquired scene and extract relevant information. Point cloud analysis, and in particular segmentation and classification techniques, are actually used to identify objects within the scenes, assign to a specific class and use them for subsequent studies. These techniques represent an open research theme and the key to add value to the entire process. Actual methodologies are based on 3d spatial analysis on the point cloud. In this paper, starting from photogrammetric reconstruction, a methodology for segmentation and classification of point cloud based on image analysis is presented. The object identification on the image’s dataset is performed using a Neural Network and subsequently the identified object on dataset are transfer into the 3d environment. This classification is performed to segment structural parts of bridges and viaduct, acquire geometric information, and perform a structural analysis to preserve relevant and ancient structure. A case study for the segmentation of the point cloud acquired with an aerial survey of a Viaduct is presented. The performed segmentation allows obtaining structural elements of different type of viaduct and bridges, is propaedeutic to verify the health of the structure and schedule maintenance intervention. The methodology can be applied to different type of bridges, from reinforced concrete to ancient masonry to preserve the state of conservation.</p>
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Mather, AE, RM Fyfe, CC Clason, M. Stokes, S. Mills, and TT Barrows. "Automated mapping of relict patterned ground: An approach to evaluate morphologically subdued landforms using unmanned-aerial-vehicle and structure-from-motion technologies." Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 43, no. 2 (August 23, 2018): 174–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309133318788966.
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Relict landforms provide a wealth of information on the evolution of the modern landscape and climate change in the past. To improve understanding of the origin and development of these landforms we need better spatial measurements across a variety of scales. This can be challenging using conventional surveying techniques due to difficulties in landform recognition on the ground (e.g. weak visual/topographic expression) and spatially variable areas of interest. Here we explore the appropriateness of existing remote sensing datasets (aerial LiDAR and aerial photography) and newly acquired unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery of a test site on the upland of Dartmoor in SW England (Leeden Tor) for the recognition and automated mapping of relict patterned ground composed of stripes and polygons. We find that the recognition of these landforms is greatly enhanced by automated mapping using spectral two-dimensional imagery. Image resolution is important, with the recognition of elements (boulders) of <1 m maximised from the highest resolution imagery (UAV red-green-blue (RGB)) and recognition of landforms (10–100 m scale) maximised on coarser resolution aerial imagery. Topographic metrics of these low relief (0.5 m) landforms are best extracted from structure-from-motion (SfM) processed UAV true-colour imagery, and in this context the airborne LiDAR data proved less effective. Integrating automated mapping using spectral attributes and SfM-derived digital surface models from UAV RGB imagery provides a powerful tool for rapid reconnaissance of field sites to facilitate the extraction of meaningful topographic and spatial metrics that can inform on the origin of relict landform features. Care should be given to match the scale of features under consideration to the appropriate scale of datasets available.
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Qtiashat, Deya, Zeyad Makhmreh, Hala Abu Taleb, and Ahmed Khlaifat. "Urban Land Use Pattern and Road Network Characteristics Using GIS in Al Salt City, Jordan." Modern Applied Science 12, no. 4 (March 30, 2018): 128. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/mas.v12n4p128.
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The aim of this study is to analyze the land use pattern and roads network in relation to the population density and distribution. The GIS analysis tools was used to investigate and describe the characteristics of land use pattern. method by utilizing the methods of surveying and spatial statistical analysis, and studying the areas’ topography; which includes the optimal land use and assessment through aerial photography that determines the future urban development besides determining the role played by the roads network within the study area. The study show that the residential use is dominant in the study area with 77.19 %. The study also showed that the urban growth was random and accompanied by the increase demand on the use of land for residential purpose. The study recommended paying more attention to the agricultural activities in Al Salt city and establishing a commercial organization that attracts visitors from the capital city of Amman who would like to get out of the city busy life but still stay near the capital city of Amman.
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Vernes, Karl, Melissa Freeman, and Brad Nesbitt. "Estimating the density of free-ranging wild horses in rugged gorges using a photographic mark - recapture technique." Wildlife Research 36, no. 5 (2009): 361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr07126.
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Estimating the density of large, feral species such as wild horses at landscape scales can present a logistical hurdle for wildlife managers attempting to set density-based management targets. We undertook aerial surveys of wild horses by using a helicopter in Guy Fawkes River National Park in north-eastern New South Wales across 3 years to determine whether meaningful density estimates could be obtained efficiently by a mark–recapture technique based on recognition of individual horses. Horse groups photographed from the air on the first of two surveys conducted each year were ‘marked’ on the basis of a unique combination of colours and natural markings, and ‘recaptured’ if they were photographed and identified on the second survey. Population size was estimated with the program MARK using a range of population estimators; however, because horses appeared to be evading detection on the second survey of each year, we chose a final estimation model that accounted for detection shyness in the study species. In 2005, the density estimate was 3.8 horses per km2 (upper and lower 95% CL = 3.5–5.7 horses per km2). Following horse control in these catchments, the estimate in 2007 was 2.3 horses per km2 (upper and lower 95% CL = 2.1–3.4 horses per km2), and this change in density can be accounted for by the known number of horses removed from the survey area between survey periods. Overall, the technique proved useful for estimating densities of wild horses in deeply dissected gorge country where other estimation techniques (such as line transects) are not practical; however, low recapture rates in one of the years of the study shows that the technique may not always be applicable. Our technique should also be suitable for surveying other large mammals with broad ranges in open environments, provided recognition of individuals from unique marks is possible.
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Wallace, Colin Allan Bruce. "Retrospective Photogrammetry in Greek Archaeology." Studies in Digital Heritage 1, no. 2 (December 14, 2017): 607–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.14434/sdh.v1i2.23251.
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This paper addresses the advantages as well as the obstacles in practicing photogrammetry based on archival photos of archaeological sites and examines how the results can be put to use for further research, preservation, restoration and monitoring rates of deterioration. While the extensive use of historic aerial photographs has been applied to photogrammetric modeling, archaeological excavation archives have been largely ignored. Historically archaeological excavations have been vigorously documented photographically and many of these photographs are available in archives. Not all photo archives are suitable for photogrammetry as they were not photographed with the intention of overlap and other photogrammetric qualities. By selectively choosing photographs with common points and manipulating exposures, cropping and other properties to enhance commonality, 3D models of past structures and excavations can allow us to revisit them, produce accurate measurements and view angles that were never photographed. Some sites are still available for modern comparison and surveying, allowing us to quantitatively compare conditions at the time of excavation with the current state of those sites. Given the right treatment, retrospective photogrammetry will have impacts in the preservation, restoration and monitoring of the deterioration of archaeological sites. Examples from the Athenian Agora: the state prison and Omega House, and Ancient Corinth: the Fountain of the Lamps, will be used to demonstrate these possibilities.
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INABA, KAZUO. "Adoption of independent model method and bundle method to aerial triangulation. Instruction of director of photographic survey department of Geographical Survey Institute on basic map surveying." Journal of the Japan society of photogrammetry and remote sensing 24, no. 4 (1985): 22–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.4287/jsprs.24.4_22.
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Feurer, Denis, Olivier Planchon, Mohamed Amine El Maaoui, Abir Ben Slimane, Mohamed Rached Boussema, Marc Pierrot-Deseilligny, and Damien Raclot. "Using kites for 3-D mapping of gullies at decimetre-resolution over several square kilometres: a case study on the Kamech catchment, Tunisia." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 18, no. 6 (June 7, 2018): 1567–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-1567-2018.
Full textAbstract:
Abstract. Monitoring agricultural areas threatened by soil erosion often requires decimetre topographic information over areas of several square kilometres. Airborne lidar and remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS) imagery have the ability to provide repeated decimetre-resolution and -accuracy digital elevation models (DEMs) covering these extents, which is unrealistic with ground surveys. However, various factors hamper the dissemination of these technologies in a wide range of situations, including local regulations for RPAS and the cost for airborne laser systems and medium-format RPAS imagery. The goal of this study is to investigate the ability of low-tech kite aerial photography to obtain DEMs with decimetre resolution and accuracy that permit 3-D descriptions of active gullying in cultivated areas of several square kilometres. To this end, we developed and assessed a two-step workflow. First, we used both heuristic experimental approaches in field and numerical simulations to determine the conditions that make a photogrammetric flight possible and effective over several square kilometres with a kite and a consumer-grade camera. Second, we mapped and characterised the entire gully system of a test catchment in 3-D. We showed numerically and experimentally that using a thin and light line for the kite is key for a complete 3-D coverage over several square kilometres. We thus obtained a decimetre-resolution DEM covering 3.18 km2 with a mean error and standard deviation of the error of +7 and 22 cm respectively, hence achieving decimetre accuracy. With this data set, we showed that high-resolution topographic data permit both the detection and characterisation of an entire gully system with a high level of detail and an overall accuracy of 74 % compared to an independent field survey. Kite aerial photography with simple but appropriate equipment is hence an alternative tool that has been proven to be valuable for surveying gullies with sub-metric details in a square-kilometre-scale catchment. This case study suggests that access to high-resolution topographic data on these scales can be given to the community, which may help facilitate a better understanding of gullying processes within a broader spectrum of conditions.
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Elsharkawy, Ahmed S., and Ayman F. Habib. "ERROR ANALYSIS FOR THE AIRBORNE DIRECT GEOREFERINCING TECHNIQUE." ISPRS - International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLI-B1 (October 12, 2016): 1213–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-xli-b1-1213-2016.
Full textAbstract:
Direct Georeferencing was shown to be an important alternative to standard indirect image orientation using classical or GPS-supported aerial triangulation. Since direct Georeferencing without ground control relies on an extrapolation process only, particular focus has to be laid on the overall system calibration procedure. The accuracy performance of integrated GPS/inertial systems for direct Georeferencing in airborne photogrammetric environments has been tested extensively in the last years. In this approach, the limiting factor is a correct overall system calibration including the GPS/inertial component as well as the imaging sensor itself. Therefore remaining errors in the system calibration will significantly decrease the quality of object point determination. <br><br> This research paper presents an error analysis for the airborne direct Georeferencing technique, where integrated GPS/IMU positioning and navigation systems are used, in conjunction with aerial cameras for airborne mapping compared with GPS/INS supported AT through the implementation of certain amount of error on the EOP and Boresight parameters and study the effect of these errors on the final ground coordinates. <br><br> The data set is a block of images consists of 32 images distributed over six flight lines, the interior orientation parameters, IOP, are known through careful camera calibration procedure, also 37 ground control points are known through terrestrial surveying procedure. The exact location of camera station at time of exposure, exterior orientation parameters, EOP, is known through GPS/INS integration process. The preliminary results show that firstly, the DG and GPS-supported AT have similar accuracy and comparing with the conventional aerial photography method, the two technologies reduces the dependence on ground control (used only for quality control purposes). Secondly, In the DG Correcting overall system calibration including the GPS/inertial component as well as the imaging sensor itself is the limiting factor to achieve good object space.
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Brugman, Melinda M. "Mapping Recent Fluctuations of Shoestring Glacier, Mount St. Helens (Abstract)." Annals of Glaciology 8 (1986): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500001543.
Full textAbstract:
The terminus position of Shoestring Glacier, Mount St. Helens, has pulsated over the last few centuries, generally following local climate trends, but the pattern of advance and retreat has been strongly modulated by effects of local volcanic activity. In this paper, I discuss the techniques employed to map and survey fluctuations in ice velocity, thickness, and terminus position of Shoestring Glacier. Solutions to major problems in acquiring and interpreting data peculiar to an active volcano are also explained. Results show that this steep mountain glacier responds quickly and dramatically to local environmental changes. The effects of volcanic activity are distinguished from internal instabilities and local climate change by combining information obtained using a variety of techniques, including field surveying, contour-mapping using stereo-aerial photographs, photo-documentation, and published historical accounts, In this paper I will focus attention on surveying and mapping conducted since 1979 at Shoestring Glacier, but will also discuss methods used to identify historic and “prehistoric” glacier fluctuations back to the early 1800s. The field survey was conducted at the glacier from mid-1979 to late 1983, during several eruptive episodes, major earthquakes, and covering winter and summer velocity and thickness changes. (Brugman and Post, 1980; Brugman and Meier, 1981). Coordinates of glacier velocity markers and the survey reference net were monitored with several different theodolites and electronic distance meters. In addition, topographic maps of Shoestring Glacier and vicinity were made for the years between 1979 and 1982, for the purpose of characterizing the drastic changes which occurred during the volcanic eruption of Mount St. Helens of May 18, 1980. The maps were constructed with 2 m contour intervals, using three sets of vertical aerial photographs. The difference between maps results in two plots showing the surficial changes caused by the volcanic field-checked against ground survey data on thickness change, using standard techniques. Overall, this study included monitoring glacier flow, configuration, and thickness changes at Shoestring Glacier since mid-1979, and also monitoring any changes in the local survey net due to ground deformation associated with nearby volcanic activity. In addition, photographic and written documentation of recent glacier fluctuations at Mount St. Helens was compiled from a variety of sources, which included local explorers, scientists, mountaineers, aviators, and historians. From this information, I was able to obtain the general pattern of Shoestring Glacier terminus fluctuations since the early 1900s. To extend the study further back in time, I also mapped the local surficial geology surrounding Shoestring Glacier using aerial photographs and ground studies. Because Mount St. Helens is a highly active, young volcano, a major problem was to distinguish glacier moraines, built during a recent ice advance, from volcanic levees built during passage of a recent lahar. Both lahar levees and glacier moraines exist along the glacier margin and most have been dissected and scoured by later mudflows. This study required the separate identification of glacial lag-till, from mudflow and rock avalanche debris. Comparison of depositional and erosional features generated by the several major lahars which decended over the Shoestring Glacier during the 1980 eruptions to pre-1980 surficial geology shows that glacier and lahar deposits are closely intermingled, but they can be distinguished on the basis of surface morphology obtained from aerial photographs, supported by field mapping of sedimentary structures. The dominant pre-1980 surficial deposits were laid down during a time of intense volcanism dating from 1800-1857, when the Shoestring Glacier was initially at its most advanced terminus position in its limited geologic record. During the early 1900s, several minor historic eruptions deposited ash and debris as distinctive englacial debris layers, which were well preserved within the glaciers on Mount St. Helens. Rock material deposited in the early to mid-1800s from glacier advances and volcanic eruptions can be distinguished from volcanic material deposited during the early 1900s because of the minor effect these later eruptions had on the glaciers of Mount St. Helens. This study shows that, over the last few centuries, repeated eruptions of Mount St. Helens have caused important changes in the mass balance of Shoestring Glacier. During several volcanic eruptions since 1800, the Shoestring and nearby glaciers have been deeply blanketed with rock ejecta and avalanche and mudflow debris, which could have increased the glacier mass balances. In contrast, the dominant effect of major volcanic eruptions on the Shoestring Glacier has led to strongly negative mass balances due to scouring, melting, and blasting away of glacier snow and ice. Deep incision of the glacier and its surrounding topography is clearly evident from the maps produced during this study, both during and before 1980. This melting and scouring occurred as pyroclastic flows and lahars swept down the glacier-filled canyon from the summit of the volcano and has probably occurred repeatedly since the canyon holding the Shoestring Glacier was first cut, approximately two thousand years ago. The eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, when the Shoestring Glacier was beheaded, deeply incised, and covered by volcanic ejecta and mudflow debris, is the most recent example of the highly variable environment in which the glacier continues to survive.
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Brugman, Melinda M. "Mapping Recent Fluctuations of Shoestring Glacier, Mount St. Helens (Abstract)." Annals of Glaciology 8 (1986): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500001543.
Full textAbstract:
The terminus position of Shoestring Glacier, Mount St. Helens, has pulsated over the last few centuries, generally following local climate trends, but the pattern of advance and retreat has been strongly modulated by effects of local volcanic activity. In this paper, I discuss the techniques employed to map and survey fluctuations in ice velocity, thickness, and terminus position of Shoestring Glacier. Solutions to major problems in acquiring and interpreting data peculiar to an active volcano are also explained. Results show that this steep mountain glacier responds quickly and dramatically to local environmental changes. The effects of volcanic activity are distinguished from internal instabilities and local climate change by combining information obtained using a variety of techniques, including field surveying, contour-mapping using stereo-aerial photographs, photo-documentation, and published historical accounts, In this paper I will focus attention on surveying and mapping conducted since 1979 at Shoestring Glacier, but will also discuss methods used to identify historic and “prehistoric” glacier fluctuations back to the early 1800s.The field survey was conducted at the glacier from mid-1979 to late 1983, during several eruptive episodes, major earthquakes, and covering winter and summer velocity and thickness changes. (Brugman and Post, 1980; Brugman and Meier, 1981). Coordinates of glacier velocity markers and the survey reference net were monitored with several different theodolites and electronic distance meters. In addition, topographic maps of Shoestring Glacier and vicinity were made for the years between 1979 and 1982, for the purpose of characterizing the drastic changes which occurred during the volcanic eruption of Mount St. Helens of May 18, 1980. The maps were constructed with 2 m contour intervals, using three sets of vertical aerial photographs. The difference between maps results in two plots showing the surficial changes caused by the volcanic field-checked against ground survey data on thickness change, using standard techniques. Overall, this study included monitoring glacier flow, configuration, and thickness changes at Shoestring Glacier since mid-1979, and also monitoring any changes in the local survey net due to ground deformation associated with nearby volcanic activity.In addition, photographic and written documentation of recent glacier fluctuations at Mount St. Helens was compiled from a variety of sources, which included local explorers, scientists, mountaineers, aviators, and historians. From this information, I was able to obtain the general pattern of Shoestring Glacier terminus fluctuations since the early 1900s.To extend the study further back in time, I also mapped the local surficial geology surrounding Shoestring Glacier using aerial photographs and ground studies. Because Mount St. Helens is a highly active, young volcano, a major problem was to distinguish glacier moraines, built during a recent ice advance, from volcanic levees built during passage of a recent lahar. Both lahar levees and glacier moraines exist along the glacier margin and most have been dissected and scoured by later mudflows. This study required the separate identification of glacial lag-till, from mudflow and rock avalanche debris. Comparison of depositional and erosional features generated by the several major lahars which decended over the Shoestring Glacier during the 1980 eruptions to pre-1980 surficial geology shows that glacier and lahar deposits are closely intermingled, but they can be distinguished on the basis of surface morphology obtained from aerial photographs, supported by field mapping of sedimentary structures. The dominant pre-1980 surficial deposits were laid down during a time of intense volcanism dating from 1800-1857, when the Shoestring Glacier was initially at its most advanced terminus position in its limited geologic record. During the early 1900s, several minor historic eruptions deposited ash and debris as distinctive englacial debris layers, which were well preserved within the glaciers on Mount St. Helens. Rock material deposited in the early to mid-1800s from glacier advances and volcanic eruptions can be distinguished from volcanic material deposited during the early 1900s because of the minor effect these later eruptions had on the glaciers of Mount St. Helens.This study shows that, over the last few centuries, repeated eruptions of Mount St. Helens have caused important changes in the mass balance of Shoestring Glacier. During several volcanic eruptions since 1800, the Shoestring and nearby glaciers have been deeply blanketed with rock ejecta and avalanche and mudflow debris, which could have increased the glacier mass balances. In contrast, the dominant effect of major volcanic eruptions on the Shoestring Glacier has led to strongly negative mass balances due to scouring, melting, and blasting away of glacier snow and ice. Deep incision of the glacier and its surrounding topography is clearly evident from the maps produced during this study, both during and before 1980. This melting and scouring occurred as pyroclastic flows and lahars swept down the glacier-filled canyon from the summit of the volcano and has probably occurred repeatedly since the canyon holding the Shoestring Glacier was first cut, approximately two thousand years ago. The eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, when the Shoestring Glacier was beheaded, deeply incised, and covered by volcanic ejecta and mudflow debris, is the most recent example of the highly variable environment in which the glacier continues to survive.
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Nonami, Kenzo, and Satoshi Suzuki. "Special Issue on Cutting Edge of Drone Research and Development, and its Application." Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics 30, no. 3 (June 20, 2018): 321. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jrm.2018.p0321.
Full textAbstract:
Currently, drones have reached the stage of practical application, business, and social contribution from the stage of research and development. In fact, drones are now opening up a new market not only in the field of aerial photography and agricultural chemical spraying, which had traditionally been on the market, but also in the field of surveying. Furthermore, new markets are expected to be formed within several years in the field of infrastructure inspection and logistics. Under these circumstances, research on drone application is becoming significant, along with research on drone design and control, which have been done conventionally. However, there are still only a few studies and journals focusing not only on drone development and design but also drone application. Therefore, in this special issue, we invited papers with comprehensive contents, including research focusing on drone application, and created a space to present cutting-edge research results. By reading this special issue, we hope that readers will understand the latest information about the applications of drones and their cutting-edge technology. Furthermore, we also hope that readers will be able to proactively promote the use of drones in their own research and work, based on the information obtained from this special issue.
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Samadi, Zalina, Dasimah Omar, and Rodzyah Mohd Yunus. "On-Street Visual Analysis on Jalan Hang Jebat, Melaka." Asian Journal of Environment-Behaviour Studies 3, no. 9 (July 1, 2018): 105–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.21834/aje-bs.v3i9.27.
Full textAbstract:
Outdoor space in between heritage buildings of heritage streets defines as ‘outdoor living room’. Whether it’s impressively ‘heritage’ or ‘commercially’ character; physical and socio-cultural characteristics of the streets have great influence towards eliciting on-street pedestrian model. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between timeframe and density, activity and movement based on the on-street cultural phenomenon. For the purpose of this paper, the presentation unveiled one section of the study which shares the analysis on-street’s aerial-visual data only. Unobtrusive methods were employed through Digital Photography and Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) at Jalan Hang Jebat, Melaka. The objectives of this study are to interpret density, activity and movement analysis.
Keywords: Outstanding Value; Outdoor Living Room; Pedestrian Pattern; Street Shopping.
1394-0384 © 2013. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK.. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/aje-bs.v3i9.27