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1

Point process models of cavity radiation and detection: A statistical treatment of photon population point processes. London: Griffin, 1988.

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2

Bradshaw, John. Development of a two photon/laser induced fluorescence technique for the detection of atmospheric OH radicals: Final report. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1990.

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3

Rieke, G. H. Detection of light: From the ultraviolet to the submillimeter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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4

Detection of light: From the ultraviolet to the submillimeter. 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

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5

Szczygieł, Robert. Szybkie, wielokanałowe układy scalone pracujące w trybie zliczania pojedynczych fotonów w systemach detekcji niskoenergetycznego promieniowania X: Fast, multichannel ASICs working in the single-photon-counting mode in soft X-ray detection systems. Kraków: Wydawnictwa AGH, 2012.

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6

The detection of human remains. 2nd ed. Springfield, Ill: Charles C Thomas, 2004.

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7

The detection of human remains. Springfield, Ill., U.S.A: Thomas, 1990.

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8

Photo Finished. New York: Penguin USA, Inc., 2009.

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9

Copyright Paperback Collection (Library of Congress), ed. Photo Finished (A Scrapbooking Mystery, #2). New York: Berkley Prime Crime, 2004.

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10

Photo finished. Waterville, Me: Wheeler Pub., 2004.

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11

Rabley, Stephen. Photo of the tall man. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2000.

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12

Bugeja, Michael J. Nancy Drew, the case of the photo finish. New York: Pocket Books, 1990.

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13

Fontenay, Charles L. Kipton on Phobos. Unionville, N.Y: Royal Fireworks Press, 1999.

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14

Fan, Xudong. Advanced Photonic Structures for Biological and Chemical Detection. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag New York, 2009.

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15

Photo, snap, shot: A Kiki Lowenstein mystery. Woodbury, Minn: Midnight Ink, 2010.

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16

Phillips, Hywel Thorburn. Track reconstruction in the forward muon subdetector and investigations concerning the Photon remnant in theH1 detector at HERA. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1994.

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17

Gale, D. C. The evaluation of Youngs modulus via a laser based optical system for the detection of photo-acoustic waves in rods. Manchester: UMIST, 1990.

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18

Migdall, Alan, Sergey V. Polyakov, Jingyun Fan, and Joshua C. Bienfang. Single-Photon Generation and Detection: Physics and Applications. Elsevier Science & Technology Books, 2013.

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19

Uncooled Infrared Photon Detection: Concepts, and Devices. VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, 2010.

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20

Wright, A. G. Measurement of low light flux. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199565092.003.0007.

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There are three experimental methods for quantifying the flux of light incident on a photocathode: counting the anode output pulses initiated by photoelectrons—known as photon counting; measuring the DC current flowing at the anode—referred to as analogue detection, or charge integration; and determining the rms noise in the anode current—known as shot noise power detection. The statistical performances of the three methods, based on weighting factors, are compared, revealing the theoretical superiority of the photon-counting method. Optimal time allocation between signal and background measurement is derived for photon counting. An amplifier discriminator is the simplest and preferred instrumentation for photon counting, but setting the optimal counting threshold is ultimately a matter of judgement. This is because the plateau has a different slope for signal, background, and afterpulses. Rudiments of signal recovery instrumentation covering boxcar integrators, lock-in detection, and synchronous signal averaging are given.
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21

Wright, A. G. Signal-induced background. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199565092.003.0011.

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Signal-induced background has a time dependence that distinguishes it from the sources discussed in Chapter 6. These events refer to a progression in which a signal generates a subsequent one, correlated in time to the initial detection. The timescale for correlated background ranges from nanoseconds to days. The earliest signal is a prepulse generated by a photon incident on d1. Late pulses relate to the k-to-d1, and k-to-anode transit time. The next category, the afterpulses, spans ~100 ns to 10 μ‎s, with a peaked time distribution. There is a long-lived source of photons, extending to days and caused by exposure of a photomultiplier to bright light or to nuclear radiation. Afterpulses contribute to the slope of a photon-counting plateau characteristic, distort fluorescent decay, and pulse shape discrimination measurements. They also affect resolution, and processes of a statistical nature.
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22

Point Process Models of Cavity Radiation and Detection: A Statistical Treatment of Photon Population Point Processes. A Charles Griffin Book, 1988.

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23

Towe, E., and D. Pal. Intersublevel quantum-dot infrared photodetectors. Edited by A. V. Narlikar and Y. Y. Fu. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199533060.013.7.

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This article describes the basic principles of semiconductor quantum-dot infrared photodetectors based on conduction-band intersublevel transitions. Sufficient background material is discussed to enable an appreciation of the subtle differences between quantum-well and quantum-dot devices. The article first considers infrared photon absorption and photon detection, along with some metrics for photon detectors and the detection of infrared radiation by semiconductors. It then examines the optical matrix element for interband, intersubband and intersublevel transitions before turning to experimental single-pixel quantum-dot infrared photodetectors. In particular, it explains the epitaxial synthesis of quantum dots and looks at mid-wave and long-wave quantum-dot infrared photodetectors. It also evaluates the characteristics of quantum-dot detectors and possible development of quantum-dot focal plane array imagers. The article concludes with an assessment of the challenges and prospects for high-performance detectors and arrays.
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24

United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., ed. Development of a photon counting system for differential lidar signal detection: Final progress report for NCC-1-219. [Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1997.

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25

Wright, A. G. The Photomultiplier Handbook. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199565092.001.0001.

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This handbook is aimed at helping users of PMTs who are faced with the challenge of designing sensitive light detectors for scientific and industrial purposes. The raison d’être for photomultipliers (PMTs) stems from four intrinsic attributes: large detection area, high, and noiseless gain, and wide bandwidth. Detection involves a conversion process from photons to photoelectrons at the photocathode. Photoelectrons are subsequently collected and increased in number by the action of an incorporated electron multiplier. Photon detection, charge multiplication, and many PMT applications are statistical in nature. For this reason appropriate statistical treatments are provided and derived from first principles. PMTs are characterized by a range of photocathodes offering detection over UV to infra-red wavelengths, the sensitivities of which can be calibrated by National Laboratories. The optical interface between light sources and PMTs, particularly for diffuse or uncollimated light, is sparsely covered in the scientific literature. The theory of light guides, Winston cones, and other light concentrators points to means for optimizing light collection subject to the constraints of Liouville’s theorem (étandue). Certain PMTs can detect single photons but are restricted by the limitations of unwanted background ranging in magnitude from a fraction of a photoelectron equivalent to hundreds of photoelectrons. These sources, together with their correlated nature, are examined in detail. Photomultiplier biasing requires a voltage divider comprising a series of resistors or active components, such as FETs. Correct biasing provides the key to linear operation and so considerable attention is given to the treatment of this topic. Electronic circuits and modules that perform the functions of charge to voltage conversion, pulse shaping, and impedance matching are analysed in detail.
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26

Rieke, G. H. Detection of Light: From the Ultraviolet to the Submillimeter. Cambridge University Press, 1996.

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27

Rieke, George Henry, and G. H. Rieke. Detection of Light: From the Ultraviolet to the Submillimeter. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

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28

Wright, A. G. Why photomultipliers? Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199565092.003.0001.

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Photon detectors transform information, carried by light, to an electrical analogue. Signals contain information on the time of occurrence and the intensity in terms of the number of photons involved. Photon rates may be constant with time, slowly varying, or transient in the form of pulses. The time response is specified in terms of some property of the pulse shape, such as its rise time, or it may be expressed in terms of bandwidth. Light detector applications fall into two categories: imaging and non-imaging; however, only the latter are considered. Detectors can be further divided into vacuum and solid state devices. Vacuum devices include photomultipliers (PMTs), microchannel plate PMTs (MCPPMTs), and hybrid devices in which a silicon device replaces the discrete dynode multiplier. PIN diodes, avalanche photodiodes (APDs), pixelated silicon PMTs (SiPMs), and charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are examples of solid state light detectors.
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29

Family Photo Detective. Family Tree Books, 2013.

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30

Wright, A. G. Statistical processes. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199565092.003.0004.

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Two statistical processes affect performance: one concerns photon detection at the photocathode (binomial); and the other, gain at each dynode (Poisson). The combined statistical processes dictate resolution, both timing and pulse height. They are best examined using generating functions that are both elegant and capable of providing answers more efficiently than traditional approaches. The requirement for steady and pulsed light sources is an important one for testing and setting up procedures. The use of moments to test the quality of performance is illustrated for a steady DC light source. Amplification provided by a dynode stack is a cascade process, leading to dispersion in gain, and is also ideally handled with generating functions. Theory is developed for essentially continuous pulse height distributions, such as those produced by a multichannel analyser. Arrival time statistics for scintillators are investigated analytically and by Monte Carlo simulation. Treatment is given for dead time and scaling.
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31

United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., ed. Final report for the joint NASA/Goddard-University of Maryland research program in charged particle and high energy photon detector technology. College Park, MD: Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maryland, 1990.

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32

Smith, Bernard. Last Photo. Pearson Education Australia, 2008.

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33

Semi-annual progress report for the joint NASA/Goddard-University of Maryland research program in charged particle and high energy photon detector technology under grant NGR 21-002-316, September 1986 to March 1987. College Park, MD: Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maryland, 1987.

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34

United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration., ed. Semi-annual progress report for the joint NASA/Goddard-University of Maryland research program in charged particle and high energy photon detector technology under grant NGR 21-002-316, April 1987 to September 1987. College Park, MD: Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maryland, 1988.

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35

Smith, B. The Last Photo. Longman, 1998.

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36

Light Trapping in Solar Cell and Photo-Detector Devices. Elsevier, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/c2012-0-07130-x.

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37

Tunable Bandwidth Quantum Well Infrared Photo Detector (TB-QWIP). Storming Media, 2003.

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38

Photon Physics At The Lhc A Measurement Of Inclusive Isolated Prompt Photon Production At Vs 7 Tev With The Atlas Detector. Springer, 2012.

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39

Hance, Michael. Photon Physics at the LHC: A Measurement of Inclusive Isolated Prompt Photon Production at √s = 7 TeV with the ATLAS Detector. Springer, 2016.

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40

Garcia, Ernest V., James R. Galt, and Ji Chen. SPECT and PET Instrumentation. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199392094.003.0003.

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Nuclear cardiac imaging is solidly based on many branches of science and engineering, including nuclear, optical and mathematical physics, electrical and mechanical engineering, chemistry and biology. This chapter uses principles from these scientific fields to provide an understanding of both the signals used, and the imaging system that captures these signals. Nuclear cardiology’s signals are the x-rays or ?-rays photons emitted from a radioactive tracer and its imaging systems are either single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET) cameras. This combination has met with remarkable success in clinical cardiology. This success is due to the combination of sophisticated electronic nuclear instruments with a highly specific and thus powerful signal. The signal is as important as or more important than the imaging system. There is a misconception that cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) cardiac computed tomography (CCT) and echocardiography are superior to nuclear cardiology imaging because of their superior spatial resolution. Yet, in detecting perfusion defects what is really necessary is superior contrast resolution. It is this superior contrast resolution that allows us to differentiate between normal and hypoperfused myocardium facilitating the visual analysis of nuclear cardiology perfusion images. Because these objects are bright compared to the background radioactivity, computer algorithms have been developed that allow us to automatically and objectively process and quantify our images. This chapter explains many of the important scientific principles necessary to understand nuclear cardiology imaging in general, i.e., how these sophisticated imaging systems detect the radiation emitted from the radiotracers.
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41

Sampson, Cortney Ross. A measurement of the total photon-proton cross section with the ZEUS detector at HERA. 1996.

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42

Fan, Xudong. Advanced Photonic Structures for Biological and Chemical Detection. Springer, 2012.

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43

Oliver, Andrew. If Photos Could Talk (A Sam & Stephanie Mystery). Adams Pomeroy Press, 2005.

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44

Fabre, Claude, Vahid Sandoghdar, Nicolas Treps, and Leticia F. Cugliandolo, eds. Quantum Optics and Nanophotonics. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198768609.001.0001.

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Over the last few decades, the quantum aspects of light have been explored and major progress has been made in understanding the specific quantum aspects of the interaction between light and matter. Single photons are now routinely produced by single molecules on surfaces, vacancies in crystals, and quantum dots. The micrometre and nanometre scale is also the privileged range where fluctuations of electromagnetic fields manifest themselves through the Casimir force. The domain of classical optics has recently seen many exciting new developments, especially in the areas of nano-optics, nano-antennas, metamaterials, and optical cloaking. Approaches based on single-molecule detection and plasmonics have provided new avenues for exploring light–matter interaction at the nanometre scale. All these topics have in common a trend to consider and use smaller and smaller objects, down to the micrometre, nanometre, and even atomic range, a region where one gradually passes from classical physics to quantum physics. The summer school held in Les Houches in July 2013 treated all these subjects lying at the frontier between nanophotonics and quantum optics, in a series of lectures given by world experts in the domain and gathered together in the present volume.
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45

Progress report for the joint NASA/Goddard-University of Maryland research program in charged particle and high energy photon detector technology: Under grant NGR21-002-316, October 1982 to August 1986. College Park, MD: Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maryland, 1986.

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