Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Piezoresistiv'

Im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit stand die Darstellung sensitiver Blockcopolymere und deren Gele, die als Ausgangsmaterialien in Sensor- und Aktorsystemen einsetzbar sind. Die Vereinigung verschiedener Ansprechparameter stellt erhöhte Anforderung an die Synthese. Geringe Ansprechzeiten lassen sich mit einer Gelgröße im µm-Bereich erreichen. Hydrogele dieser Größenordnungen können durch nachträgliche Vernetzung funktioneller linearer Polymere ermöglicht werden. Die Makroinitiatormethode ermöglichte den Aufbau verschiedener linearer photovernetzbarer Blockcopolymere. Zum Einen wurde das temperatursensitive P(n-BuAc)-block-P(PNIPAAm-co-DMIAAm) erhalten, des Weiteren gelang die Darstellung der multi-sensitiven Blockcopolymere P2VP-block-P(NIPAAm-co-DMIAAm) und P4VP-block-P(NIPAAm-co-DMIAAm). Die Blockcopolymere wurden mit variierenden Blocklängen und Verhältnissen sowie mit unterschiedlichem Vernetzergehalt dargestellt. Die Charakterisierung der Blockcopolymere erfolgte mittels 1H-NMR-Spektroskopie, GPC-Messungen (Zusammensetzung) und DSC-Messungen (thermische Eigenschaften). Das Löslichkeitsverhalten in wässrigen Medien wurde durch Dynamische Lichtstreuung bestimmt. Die Beschreibung des Quellverhaltens der vernetzten Schichten erfolgte durch vornehmlich durch optische Methoden (SPR/OWS, WAMS, Ellipsometrie). Die Veränderung des E-Moduls in Abhängigkeit äußerer Parameter konnte mittels AFM untersucht werden. Die Reaktion der Schichten wurde gegenüber Temperatur, pH-Wert und Salzkonzentrationen getestet. Die charakterisierten Filme konnten im Anschluss als sensitive Schichten in piezoresistiven Sensorsystemen verwendetet werden.

Orientador: Marcelo Augusto Assunção Sanches
Resumo: Recentes estudos têm abordado o aprimoramento de sensores de pressão com a finalidade de reproduzir a sensibilidade da pele humana para ser utilizada em robôs. Dentre diversos materiais disponíveis na literatura, destaca-se o material piezoresistivo à base do elastômero Polidimetilsiloxano e Cobre Dendritico (Cu-PDMS), devido à tecnologia empregada na produção destes sensores. Este trabalho trata a síntese e a caracterizações de compósitos piezoresistivo Cu-PDMS para confecção de sensores de pressão, na forma matricial, para aplicações biomédicas, como palmilhas instrumentadas, sensor on/off, dentre outros. Com finalidade de análise do material atuando como sensor de pressão, foram fabricadas e testadas amostras com diferentes composições. Para o estudo das propriedades de cada amostra, foram realizadas caracterizações elétricas (resistência elétrica com pressão variável, condutividade ao longo do tempo e espectroscopia de impedância), mecânicas (caracterização mecânica do material, ensaio de tração e ensaio termogravimétrico) e Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV). Os resultados obtidos mostram as faixas possíveis para utilização do material como sensor de pressão, e os fatores que podem influenciar o seu emprego.
Abstract: Recent studies have addressed the improvement of pressure sensors in order to reproduce the sensitivity of human skin to be used in robots. Among the various materials available in the literature, the piezoresistive material based on the polydimethylsiloxane and Dendritic Copper (Cu-PDMS) elastomer stands out, due to the technology used in the production of these sensors. This work deals with the synthesis and characterization of Cu-PDMS piezoresistive composites for making pressure sensors, in matrix form, for biomedical applications such as instrumented insoles, on / off sensor, among others. In order to analyze the material acting as a pressure sensor, samples with different compositions were manufactured and tested. For the study of the properties of each sample, electrical characterizations (electrical resistance with variable pressure, conductivity over time and impedance spectroscopy), mechanical characterizations (mechanical characterization of the material, tensile test and thermogravimetric test) and Scanning Electron Microscopy were performed (ME V). The results obtained show the possible ranges for using the material as a pressure sensor, and the factors that can influence its use.
Mestre

The report handles the transmission of signals from piezoresistive pressuresensors and thermocouple from a rotating object.

This report also evaluates the possibility to collect data in a datalogger that rotates with the object. Telemetrics was previously used for signaltransmission in Finspång, therefore there has been no tests considering preassure measuring. One transmitting method handled in this report is transmission through a slipring connection.

One test with a slipring connection was performed for transmitting signals from a piezoresistive preassuresensor. All parts were mounted on a disc which rotated at 4000 rpm. Measurements were made of static and dynamic preassure. The report also contains a description of the equipment used for the test, and how it was constructed.

Rapporten tar upp överföring av signaler från piezoresistiva tryckgivare samt termoelement från ett roterande objekt.

I rapporten redovisas också om det är möjligt att samla in mätdata i en datalogger som roterar med objektet. Eftersom man, i Finspång, tidigare har använt telemetri för signalöverföring från termoelement så har tryckmätning inte provats. Därför har denna metod inte tagits med i rapporten. En överföringsmetod som tas upp i rapporten är överföring med släpring.

Ett prov genomfördes med en släpring för överföring av signaler från en piezoresistiv tryckgivare. Allt monterades på en skiva som roterades upp till 4 000 varv/min. Det som mättes var statiskt och dynamiskt tryck. I rapporten finns det beskrivet vilken utrustning som använts vid provet och hur den är konstruerad.

The objective of this research is to present a new model for predicting the piezoresistive effect in microflexures experiencing bending stresses. A linear model describing piezoresistivity exists for members in pure tension and compression. Extensions of this model to more complex loading conditions do not match experimental results. An accurate model of piezoresistivity in complex loading conditions would expand the design possibilities of piezoresistive devices. A new model to predict piezoresistive effects in tension, compression, and more complex loading conditions is proposed. The focus of this research is to verify a unidirectional form of this proposed model for microflexures in tension and bending. Implementation of the unidirectional form of the model involves geometric design, stress analysis, and electrical analysis. One of the ways to implement the model is with finite-element analysis (FEA). The piezoresistive FEA for flexures (PFF) algorithm is an FEA implementation of the unidirectional form of the model for flexures. A case study is then given in which the resistance curves of two test devices are predicted with the PFF algorithm. Results from the PFF implementation of the unidirectional form of the model show a close comparison between analytical prediction and experimental results. This new model could contribute to optimized sensors, feedback control of microdevices, nanopositioning, and self-sensing microdevices.

Innovative multifunctional materials are essential to many new sensor applications. Piezoresistive nano-composites make up a promising class of such materials that have the potential to provide a measurable response to strain over a much wider range than typical strain gages. Commercial strain gages are currently dominated by metallic sensors with a useable range of a few percent strain at most. There are, however, many applications that would benefit from a reliable wide-range sensor. These might include the study of explosive behavior, instrumentation of flexible components, motion detection for compliant mechanisms and hinges, human-technology interfaces, and a wide variety of bio-mechanical applications where structural materials may often be approximated as elastomeric. In order to quantify large strains, researchers often use optical methods which are tedious and difficult. This thesis proposes a new material and technique for quantifying large strain (up to 40%) by use of piezoresistive nano-composite strain gages. The nano-composite strain gage material is manufactured by suspending nickel nano-strands within a biocompatible silicone matrix. Study and design iteration on the strain gage material requires an improved understanding of the electrical behavior and conduction path within the material when strained. A percolation model has been suggested for numerical approximations, but has only provided marginal results for lack of data. Critical missing information in the percolation model is the nano-strand cluster size, and how that size changes in response to strain. These data are gathered using a dynamic technique in the scanning electron microscope called voltage contrast. Cluster sizes were found to vary in size by approximately 6% upon being strained to 10%. A feasibility study is also conducted on the nano-composite to show its usability as a strain gage. High Displacement Strain Gages (HDSGs) were manufactured from the nano-composite. HDSGs measured the strain of bovine ligament under prescribed loading conditions. Results demonstrate that HDSGs are an accurate means for measuring ligament strains across a broad spectrum of applied deformations.

This work describes a model of the piezoresistive behavior in nanocomposite sensors. These sensors are also called flexible sensors because the polymer matrix allows for large deformations without failure. The sensors have conductive nanoparticles dispersed through an insulative polymer matrix. The insulative polymer gaps between nanoparticles are assumed to be possible locations for electron tunneling. When the distance between two nanoparticles is small enough, electrons can tunnel from one nanoparticle to the next and ultimately through the entire sensor. The evolution of this gap distance with strain is important to understand the overall conductivity of the strain sensor. The gap evolution was modeled in two ways: (1) applying Poisson's contraction to the sensor as a homogenous material, referred to as Simple Poisson's Contraction (SPC) and (2) modeling the nanoparticle-polymer system with Finite Element Analysis (FEA). These two gap evolution models were tested in a random resistor network model where each polymer gap was treated as a single resistor in the network. The overall resistance was calculated by solving the resistor network system. The SPC approach, although much simpler, was sufficient for cases where various orientations of nanoparticles were used in the same sensor. The SPC model differed significantly from the FEA, however, in cases where nanoparticles had specific alignment, e.g. all nanoparticles parallel to the tensile axis. It was also found that the distribution used to determine initial gap sizes for the polymer gaps as well as the mean of that distribution significantly impacted the overall resistivity of the sensor.Another key part of this work was to determine if the piezoresistivity in the sensors follows a percolation type behavior under strain. The conductance versus strain curve showed the characteristic s-curve behavior of a percolative system. The conductance-strain curve was also compared to the effective medium and generalized effective medium equations and the latter (which includes percolation theory) fit the random resistor network much more closely. Percolation theory is, therefore, an accurate way to describe this polymer-nanoparticle piezoresistive system.Finally, the FEA and SPC models were compared against experimental data to verify their accuracy. There are also two design problems addressed: one to find the sensor with the largest gauge factor and another to determine how to remove the characteristic initial spike in resistivity seen in nanocomposite sensors.

This thesis examines the value of using dispersed conductive fillers as a stress/strain sensing material. The effect of the intrinsic conductivity of the filler on the ability to be effective and the influence of filler concentration on the conductivity are also examined. To meet these objectives, nanocomposites of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) with carbon nanofibers (CNFs) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were prepared by melt-blending using a twin screw extruder. Since PVDF has a potential to be piezoresistive based on the type of crystalline phase, the effect of CNFs on PVDF crystallinity, crystalline phase, quasi static and dynamic mechanical property was studied concurrently with piezoresponse. Three time dependencies were examined for PVDF/CNTs nanocomposites: quasi-static, transient and cyclic fatigue. The transient response of the strain with time showed viscoelastic behavior and was modeled by the 4-element Burger model. Under quasi-static loading the resistance showed negative pressure coefficient below yield but changed to a positive pressure coefficient after yield. Under cyclic load, the stress-time and resistance-time were synchronous but the resistance peak value decreased with increasing cycles, which was attributed to charge storage in the nanocomposite. The outcomes of this thesis indicate that a new piezoresponsive system based on filled polymers is a viable technology for structural health monitoring.

Cette étude portait sur l’évaluation des performances mécaniques et des mécanismes de défaillance des composites cousus dans différentes conditions de chargement. Des plaques stratifiées et des raidisseurs renforcés par tufting ont été fabriqués avec différents paramètres de couture afin d'évaluer leur effet sur les propriétés des composites. L'investigation a été assistée par une caractérisation multi-instrumentée pendant les tests. Les plaques cousues soumises à des tests de cisaillement à poutre courte sont utilisées dans l'analyse du comportement de la densité et de l'angle de couture dans des conditions de chargement en mode II, tandis que des tests d'impact et de compression après impact (CAI) sur la tolérance aux dommages. Des tests de fatigue en éprouvettes trouées ont également été réalisés afin d’évaluer la réponse des coutures, en particulier leur position par rapport au trou central, à la concentration de déformation générée par le trou. La suite de ce travail a consisté en des tests mécaniques sur panneau raidi oméga renforcé par tufting. La procédure a optimisé les paramètres de touffetage utilisés pour renforcer les structures du lot précédent d'échantillons jusqu'à atteindre un point optimal où les propriétés principales, principalement trouvées dans les tests d'arrachement, sont égales ou supérieures à celles des échantillons témoins. Cette amélioration tenait également compte des modifications de la forme des raidisseurs. En outre, une nouvelle approche basée sur l’effet piézorésistif des coutures en fibres de carbone lors du chargement des éprouvettes composites est réalisée. Cela peut faciliter la surveillance de l’état de santé des fils cousus et donc du composite en raison de la nature structurelle des coutures. Les résultats ont montré que les renforts par tufting sont capables d'augmenter considérablement la ténacité entre les composites et la tolérance aux endommagements des composites, principalement en raison de leurs phénomènes de pontage des fissures. Les paramètres de tufting sont des facteurs décisifs pour obtenir les meilleures propriétés mécaniques. Cependant, ces travaux ont montré que les fils de coutures sont également responsables de la création de fissures dues à la concentration de contrainte et aux défauts causés par leur insertion et, par conséquent, à la diminution de la résistance des composites. L'enquête conclut que l'insertion aléatoire des touffes n'est pas idéale pour la performance du matériau et doit donc être évitée. Le développement de l'insertion des coutures dans les raidisseurs oméga a été soutenu par la caractérisation multi-instrumentée qui a permis d'optimiser le renforcement de la structure. Bien que l’étude ait permis d’obtenir des propriétés mécaniques nettement supérieures à celles des panneaux oméga renforcés par touffetage, il est évident que la procédure employée n’est pas optimale. Le présent travail propose également un modèle préliminaire d'éléments finis pour surmonter le coût et la perte de temps des tests expérimentaux. Il vise principalement à optimiser les paramètres de tufting dans la structure. Le modèle développé était capable de prédire les mêmes endommagements que ceux observés expérimentalement, mais encore éloignés des prévisions quantitatives des résultats. Le contrôle de l’état structurel des stratifiés composites cousus par les fils de carbone semble prometteur et pourrait aider à l’avenir à fournir des informations sur l’état de santé des coutures sous chargement qui ne sont pas atteintes par les méthodes de caractérisation classiques utilisées dans ce travail
This study focused mainly on the assessment of the mechanical performance and the failure mechanisms of tufted composites under divers loading conditions. Laminated plates and stiffened panels reinforced by tufting was manufactured with different tufting parameters to evaluate their effect in the properties of the composites. Multi-instrumented characterization carried out during the tests assisted the investigation. The tufted plates subjected to short-beam shear tests aided especially in the behavior analysis of tufting density and angle in mode Il loading condition, while impact and compression after impact (CAI) tests on the damage tolerance. Open-hole fatigue tests were also performed to evaluate the tufts response, especially regarding their position to the center hole, to the strain concentration factor generated by the hole. The following part of this work consisted of the mechanical tests on omega stiffened panel reinforced by tufting. The procedure optimized the tufting parameters employed for reinforcing the structures from the previous batch of specimens until reaching an optimal point that the main properties, primarily found in pull-off tests, are equal or superior to those of the control specimens. This improvement also considered the modifications in the shape of the stiffeners. Furthermore, a novel approach based on the piezoresistive effect of carbon tufts under loading of the composite specimens is performed. This may support the monitoring of the health status on the tufted threads and therefore of the composite because of the structural nature of the tufts. The results showed that tufting reinforcements are capable of increasing the interlaminar fracture toughness and damage tolerance of the composites considerably owing mainly to their crack bridging phenomena. The tufting parameters are decisive factors for achieving the best mechanical properties. However, this work reported that tuft threads are also responsible for generating cracks due to the strain concentration and defects caused by their insertion and consequently, can decrease the strength of the composites. The investigation concludes that the random insertion of the tufts is not ideal for the performance of the material and thus must be avoided. The development of the tufting insertion in the omega stiffeners was supported by the multi-instrumented characterization that led to optimizing reinforcement in the structure. Although the study achieved the goal of obtaining mechanical properties significantly superior to the omega panels reinforced by tufting, it is noticeable that the procedure employed is not optimal. The present work also proposes a preliminary finite element model to overcome the costly and time consuming of the experimental tests. It intends primarily optimizing the tufting parameters in the structure. The model developed was capable of predicting the same damage events as observed experimentally, but it still distant from the quantitative predictions of the results. The structural health monitoring of the tufted composite laminates by the carbon threads seems promising and could help in the future for supplying data about the tufts health status under loading that are not achieved by the conventional characterization methods employed in this work

Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Entwicklung selektiver Si1-xCx-Prozesse, die eine mechanische Zugspannung im Kanal von NMOS-Transistoren erzeugen, und so durch eine gezielte Änderung der Bandstruktur die Elektronenbeweglichkeit und damit auch die Leistungsfähigkeit der Bauteile erhöhen soll. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die wichtigsten Fragestellungen zum Wachstum der Si1-xCx-Schichten näher beleuchtet. Dabei werden zwei Methoden zum Wachstum der Schichten charakterisiert. Neben einem disilanbasierten UHV-CVD-Verfahren wird ein LP-CVD-Verfahren unter der Verwendung von Trisilan herangezogen. Für beide Prozessvarianten konnten mithilfe einer zyklischen Prozessführung selektive, undotierte und in-situ phosphordotierte Abscheidungen realisiert werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass die Disilanprozesse aufgrund ihrer geringen Wachstumsraten einen hohen Anteil interstitiellen Kohlenstoffs bedingen. Durch FT-IR-Analyse konnte belegt werden, dass sich während des Wachstums Siliziumkarbid-präzipitate bilden, die das epitaktische Wachstum nachhaltig schädigen können. Erweiterte man das Wachstum infolge der Zugabe von German zum ternären System Si1-x-yCxGey (y=0,05…0,07) wurde ein starker Anstieg der Wachstumsraten festgestellt. Die Aktivierungsenergie für das epitaktische Wachstum sinkt durch die Zugabe von German und der substitutionelle Kohlenstoffgehalt kann erhöht werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass German nicht nur für die Unterstützung des Ätzprozesses hilfreich ist, sondern im LP-CVD-Verfahren zur Unterstützung des HCl-basierten Ätzprozesses dienen kann. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt der Arbeit liegt in der Abscheidung und Charakterisierung in-situ phosphor-dotierter Schichten. Es wird nachgewiesen, dass Phosphor die Wachstumsrate erhöht und dass Phosphor und Kohlenstoff in Konkurrenz um substitutionelle Gitterplätze stehen. Phosphor ist außerdem auch die Spezies, für die die größte Anisotropie hinsichtlich des Einbaus auf Si(110) im Vergleich zu Si(001) beobachtet wurde: Je nach Prozessführung wird auf Si(110)-Ebenen nahezu doppelt so viel Phosphor eingebaut wie auf Si(001). Dieser Effekt ist insofern von großer Relevanz, als dass ein steigender Phosphoranteil auch die thermische Stabilität der Schichten herabsetzt. Die Relaxationsvorgänge basieren bei Si1-xCx-Schichten auf Platzwechselvorgängen substitutioneller Kohlenstoffatome zu interstitiellen Silizium-Kohlenstoff-Hanteldefekten unter der Bildung einer Leerstelle. Es wurde ein Modell vorgeschlagen, nach dem Phosphor durch die Entstehung von PV-Komplexen diese Reaktion begünstigt, wodurch die Relaxationsvorgänge beschleunigt werden. Infolge einer dreidimensionalen Atomsondenanalyse kann der Endzustand der Relaxation – die Bildung stöchiometrischen Siliziumkarbids – belegt werden. In-situ phosphordotierte Si1-xCx-Schichten mit ca. 4*1020 at/cm³ Phosphorgehalt und 1,8 at.% Kohlenstoff wurden erfolgreich in NMOS-Transistoren der 45 nm Generation integriert und mit ebenfalls im Rahmen der Dissertation entwickelten Si:P-Rezepten verglichen. Die höchste Leistungssteigerung von 10 % konnte durch die Kombination aus beiden Prozessen erzielt werden, bei dem auf die spannungserzeugende Si1-xCx-Schicht zur Senkung des Silizidwiderstandes eine Si:P-Kappe aufgebracht wird. Die Einprägung einer Zugspannung in den Transistorkanal wurde mittels Nano beam diffraction nachgewiesen und wurde auf Basis des piezoresistiven Modells mit SiGe-PMOS-Transistoren verglichen.

Depuis 1954, où l’effet piézorésistif a été découvert dans Silicium, la démarche pour mesurer la pression a changé et de nouveaux dispositifs avec des performances remarquables sont apparus sur le marché. Grâce au développement des microtechnologies, une nouvelle famille de capteurs de pression piézorésistifs miniatures s’est ainsi progressivement imposée pour de nombreuses applications. Même si le principe de fonctionnement des capteurs de pression piézorésistif en silicium reste le même depuis de nombreuses années, l’optimisation des capteurs pour une application donnée reste toujours une étape couteuse. C’est pourquoi de nombreux travaux ont été effectués pour développer des outils de conception les plus performants possibles afin de limiter les phases de validation expérimentales. Il existe ainsi sur le marché des logiciels de simulation 3D multiphysiques qui permettent de prendre en compte aussi bien les phénomènes thermomécaniques qu’électriques qui sont nécessaires pour ce type de capteurs. Malgré les progrès constants dans la puissance de calcul des ordinateurs, l’optimisation de ces capteurs par des méthodes de simulation élément fini peut s’avérer couteuse en temps si on veut prendre en compte l’ensemble des caractéristiques du capteur. C’est notamment le cas pour les jauges de contraintes en silicium dont le profil de dopage n’est pas constant dans l’épaisseur car les caractéristiques électriques et piézoélectriques dépendent du niveau de dopage. Les travaux de cette thèse portent donc sur le développement d’un outil de simulation analytique qui permet d’une part une optimisation rapide du capteur par une technique multi-objectif semi-automatique et d’autre part une analyse statistique des performances pour estimer le rendement de fabrication potentiel. Le premier chapitre décrit le contexte de ces travaux de thèse. Le second chapitre présente le principe de fonctionnement du capteur ainsi que tous les modèles analytiques mis en oeuvre pour modéliser le capteur. Ces modèles analytiques sont validés par des simulations élément finis. Le troisième chapitre porte sur l’outil d’optimisation et d’analyse statistique développé dans un environnement MATLAB. Le quatrième chapitre décrit la fabrication et la caractérisation des cellules de tests dont le comportement est ensuite comparé aux modèles analytiques. Ces caractérisations ont permis de montrer notamment que les modèles utilisés généralement pour décrire la dérive thermique des piézorésistances présentaient des erreurs notables. Des structures de tests spécifiques ont ainsi été mise en oeuvre pour avoir des données plus fiables. Finalement la dernière partie du manuscrit donne les conclusions générales ainsi que les perspectives de ce travail
Since 1954, when the piezoresistive effect in semiconductors was discovered, the approach to the pressure measurement has changed dramatically and new devices with outstanding performances have appeared on the market. Along with the development of microtechnologies for integrated circuits, a new branch of MEMS called devices have stormed our world. One of the biggest branches of today’s microsystems are pressure transducers which use the synergy of the piezoresistivity phenomenon and microfabrication technologies. While the main idea of strain gauge-based pressure measurement has not changed over the last few decades, there has been always a need to develop the design methodology that allows the designer to deliver the optimized product in the shortest possible time at the lowest possible cost. Thus, a lot of work has been done in the field in order to create tools and develop the FTR (first time right) methodology. Obviously, the design of the device that best fulfills the project requirements needs an appropriate simulation that have to be performed at the highest possible details level. Such an approach requires the detailed model of the device and, in case of its high complexity, a lot of computing power. Although over the last decade the most popular approach is the FEM analysis, there are some bottlenecks in such an approach like the difficulty of the implanted layers modeling where the doping profile shape has to be taken into account especially in the coupled electromechanical analysis. In this thesis, we try to present the methodology of the pressure sensor design which uses the analytical model of such a sensor that takes into consideration the nonuniform doping profile of the strain gauge, deals with the basic membrane shapes as well as with thermal and noise issues. The model, despite its limitations in comparison to the FEM one, gives trustworthy results which may be used for the reliable pressure sensor design in an extremely short time. In order to be quantitative, the analysis showing the drawbacks and advantages of the presented method in comparison to the FEM analysis using specialized tools like ANSYS ® and SILVACO-ATHENA® packages is also presented. Then, the model is used in a multi-objective optimization procedure that semi-automatically generates the design of a sensor, taking into account project requirements and constraints. At the end, the statistical analysis that may be helpful to estimate the production yield is performed. All three steps are included in the dedicated design and optimization tool created in a MATLAB ® environment and successfully tested. In the last section, the experimental results of fabricated samples are compared to those obtained by the developed tool

Thesis (Ph.D)--Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008.
Committee Chair: Hesketh, Peter; Committee Member: Bottomley, Lawrence; Committee Member: Degertekin,Levent; Committee Member: Hu, Zhiyu; Committee Member: Janata, Jiri; Committee Member: Zhang, Zhoumin. Part of the SMARTech Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Collection.

Entirely soft robots with animal-like behavior and integrated artificial nervous systems will open up totally new perspectives and applications. To produce them we must integrate control and actuation in the same soft structure. Soft actuators (e.g. pneumatic, and hydraulic) exist but electronics are hard and stiff and remotely located. We present novel soft, electronicsfree dielectric elastomer oscillators, able to drive bioinspired robots. As a demonstrator we present a robot that mimics the crawling motion of the caterpillar, with integrated artificial nervous system, soft actuators and without any conventional stiff electronic parts. Supplied with an external DC voltage, the robot autonomously generates all signals necessary to drive its dielectric elastomer actuators, and translates an in-plane electromechanical oscillation into a crawling locomotion movement. Thereby, all functional and supporting parts are made of polymer materials and carbon. Besides the basic design of this first electronic-free, biomimetic robot we present prospects to control the general behavior of such robots. The absence of conventional stiff electronics and the exclusive use of polymeric materials will provide a large step towards real animal-like robots, compliant human machine interfaces and a new class of distributed, neuron-like internal control for robotic systems.

Multifunctional "self-sensing" materials at the frontiers of current research are generally designed to gather only a single type of information (such as quasi-static strain data). This project introduces a new sensor that is both multifunctional and dual-response, indicating its ability to not only perform in mechanical and sensing functions but also in its ability to sense multiple types of response. The proposed new class of sensing materials, comprised of nanocomposite polymer foams, exhibits measurable piezoresistive and quasi-piezoelectric phenomena in the form of change in resistance and voltage generation in response to deformation, respectively. An initial sampling of the envelope of dual-response nanocomposite foam sensors is mapped. The sensing materials can also be tailored to provide desired mechanical compliance and damping. Nanocomposite foam sensors decrease in resistance with increased strain in both static and cyclic compression environments. The quasi-piezoelectric voltage response of nanocomposite foam sensors increases linearly with compression frequency. A circuit and signal demodulation system was developed enabling simultaneous capture of a dual-response foam sensor's change in resistance and voltage generation. Measuring the two responses provides both long-term and immediate performance and health status of mechanical systems, enabling improved monitoring and decreased risk of failure.

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A calibration of two Endevco piezoresistive microphones was carried out under static and dynamics pressures. The dynamic pressure calibrations were done by comparison with a B&K condenser microphone. The calibration was carried out in a small closed volume in air and helium. In helium, the codes volume was pressurized to atmospheric pressure and then 10 Atm. The dynamic calibration would determine the "flatness" of the calibration curve, as well as determine a sensitivity value over the range of frequencies used. The results showed that the calibration curve for the piezoresistive microphones are flat from static pressures to about 300 Hz and then begin to fall off. The value of the sensitivity of the "flat" region of the calibration curve for one microphone was within 0.4% of the value for sensitivity calculated under the static pressure calibration. For the other microphone the static and dynamic sensitivities were within 1.3% of each other. Then, the static calibration of one microphone may be used under dynamic conditions with a less than 1% error while using the other microphone similarly will produce an error of greater than 1%.

Aquesta tesi ha estat realitzada al Centre Nacional de Microelectrònica, Institut de Microelectrònica de Barcelona (CNM-IMB) que és un institut d'investigació que forma part del Consell Superior d'Investigacions Científiques (CSIC). La memòria és un recull de la feina realitzada per en Luis Guillermo Villanueva Torrijo sota la direcció del Professor d'Investigació Joan Bausells Roigé al període comprès entre setembre de 2002 i octubre de 2006. El treball queda dividit en tres apartats, tots tres relacionats amb el disseny i la fabricació de bigues de mida micromètrica (micro-cantilevers en anglès) per a diferents aplicacions. Al segon capítol es descriu la feina realitzada amb bigues piezoresistives. L'objectiu fonamental d'aquesta part del treball consistia en la fabricació d'un element sensor capaç de detectar forces dins del rang de 10 a 100 pN. Per això, en primer lloc, es va realitzar una anàlisi teòrica del comportament d'aquestes estructures mecàniques quan se les hi aplica una força al seu extrem lliure. També es va estudiar el soroll (tant electrònic com mecànic) que presentaven. D'aquesta manera, es van establir uns criteris per a la maximització de la sensibilitat i la resolució del sensor. Els resultats analítics es van comparar amb els resultats de simulacions per elements finits, obtenint divergències molt baixes. Això va ser interpretat com una validació dels resultats analítics. Es van dissenyar i fabricar unes bigues piezoresistives de polisilici amb forma de "U". Les dimensions i la resta de paràmetres es van determinar mitjançant els criteris obtinguts per l'optimització del comportament de les bigues. Aquestes es van fabricar a la Sala Blanca del CNM i també fent servir una tecnologia CMOS comercial (0.8 m de AustriaMicroSystems). Els processos de fabricació dins de la Sala Blanca del CNM es van optimitzar per augmentar el rendiment de les oblies. Així, finalment, es va arribar a un rendiment que estava a prop del 95% (aproximadament 95 de cada 100 dispositius es van obtenir correctament). Es va optimitzar el post procés dels xips CMOS al CNM per obtenir un alt rendiment. En aquest cas no només es va considerar la supervivència de les estructures, sinó també la dels circuits CMOS integrats al costat de les bigues. Aquests circuits, dissenyats al ETH de Zürich, consisteixen en un filtre i un amplificador per a millorar la resolució del sensor. Una vegada fabricats, els dispositius es van caracteritzar. La part principal d'aquesta caracterització recollia dos aspectes: la mesura del soroll del senyal de sortida del circuit i la determinació de la sensibilitat dels dispositius. Considerant tots dos resultats es va calcular la resolució dels sensors. Els millors resultats obtinguts van ser aproximadament 30 nN per a les bigues fabricades al CNM i 30 pN per les bigues fetes amb tecnologia CMOS. Aquesta diferència de tres ordres de magnitud a la resolució és deguda als circuits amplificadors i ens permetria mesurar forces al rang requerit.
Per altra banda, amb l'objectiu de realitzar mesures de conducció en un ambient líquid, es van fabricar unes bigues conductores però aïllades. La capa conductora en aquestes bigues (una capa d'or) ha d'estar aïllada del exterior per una capa dielèctrica (nitrur de silici) per disminuir d'aquesta manera les capacitats paràsites. Al extrem lliure, s'ha de situar una punta de polisilici afilada per poder escanejar superfícies. La punta ha d'estar coberta per or i, sobre l'or, tenir nitrur a tot arreu menys al vèrtex. Per obtenir aquests dispositius, es va optimitzar el gravat de puntes de polisilici obtenint finalment puntes amb un diàmetre de vèrtex més petit que 20 nm (fent servir un atac sec en un equip DRIE seguit d'unes oxidacions per esmolar). A més, es va realitzar un estudi dels esforços interns per intentar obtenir bigues planes. A l'última part del treball, es va dur a terme la fabricació de sondes per AFM (bigues amb una punta esmolada al seu extrem lliure). Aquests dispositius es fan servir moltíssim actualment per caracteritzar superfícies i realitzar experiments que requereixen molta precisió i/o resolució. L'objectiu fonamental d'aquesta feina era el possibilitar la fabricació de sondes per AFM al nostre centre de manera que els dissenys poguessin ser triats pels investigadors d'acord amb les necessitats de cadascú d'ells. Per això, es van considerar diferents materials i processos de fabricació de puntes. La millor opció va ser el gravat sec amb un equip DRIE d'unes puntes "tipus coet" amb una part superior afilada, situada al cim d'una columna cilíndrica. Els processos de gravat es van optimitzar per així obtenir una alta uniformitat arreu de l'oblia, així com uns perfils de puntes apropiats per poder fer-les servir en un AFM. A continuació, es van fabricar sondes completes. Per comprovar com de bona era la tecnologia de fabricació que havíem dissenyat, es van fabricar dispositius de dos tipus diferents: per fer-les servir en mode contacte (constant elàstica baixa) i per fer-les servir en mode dinàmic (constant elàstica alta). Aquests dispositius es van utilitzar per escanejar unes mostres d'alumini i es van comparar amb els resultats obtinguts amb sondes comercials, obtenint resultats similars en ambdós casos.
Finalment, es van fabricar sondes per a aplicacions específiques: sondes amb puntes amb la part superior plana per l'estudi de la elasticitat de polímers i materials biològics (molt baix mòdul de Young) i sondes amb bigues d'una geometria especial per a que les freqüències de ressonància del mode fonamental i del primer harmònic transversal estiguessin més juntes, per així millorar la detecció del potencial de superfície en la tècnica KPFM. Amb la fabricació d'aquestes puntes, es va demostrar que el disposar d'una tecnologia que permetés la fabricació de sondes pot ser molt útil per al desenvolupament de noves aplicacions de l'AFM.
Este trabajo queda dividido en tres apartados, todos ellos relacionados con el diseño y fabricación de vigas en voladizo de tamaño micrométrico (micro-cantilevers en inglés) para diferentes aplicaciones. En el segundo capítulo se describe el trabajo realizado con vigas piezorresistivas. El objetivo fundamental de esa parte del trabajo consistía en la consecución de un elemento sensor capaz de detectar fuerzas en el rango de 10 a 100 pN. Para ello, en primer lugar, se realizó un detallado análisis teórico del comportamiento de estas estructuras mecánicas cuando se les aplica una fuerza en su extremo libre. Se estudió asimismo el ruido (tanto eléctrico como mecánico) presente en ellas. De esta manera se establecieron unos criterios para la maximización de la sensibilidad y la resolución del sensor. Los resultados analíticos se compararon con los resultados de simulaciones por elementos finitos, obteniendo divergencias muy bajas, lo cual fue interpretado como una validación de los primeros. Se diseñaron y fabricaron unas vigas piezorresistivas de polisilicio con forma de U. Las dimensiones y demás parámetros se fijaron mediante los criterios obtenidos para la optimización del comportamiento de las vigas. Las vigas se fabricaron tanto en la Sala Blanca del CNM como usando una tecnología CMOS comercial (0.8 m de AustriaMicroSystems). Los procesos de fabricación dentro de la Sala Blanca del CNM se optimizaron para aumentar el rendimiento de las obleas. De esta forma, finalmente, se alcanzó un rendimiento cercano al 95% (aproximadamente 95 de cada 100 dispositivos se obtuvieron correctamente). Se optimizó asimismo el post proceso de los chips CMOS en el CNM para obtener un alto rendimiento. En este caso, se consideró la supervivencia de las estructuras mecánicas así como de la circuitería CMOS integrada junto con las vigas. Esta circuitería, diseñada en el ETH de Zürich, consistía en un filtro y un amplificador para mejorar la resolución del sensor. Una vez fabricados, los dispositivos se caracterizaron. La parte central de esta caracterización englobó dos aspectos: la medida del ruido de la señal de salida del circuito y la determinación de la sensibilidad de los dispositivos. Teniendo en cuenta ambos resultados se calculó la resolución de nuestros sensores. Los mejores resultados obtenidos fueron de unos 30 nN para las vigas fabricadas en el CNM y de unos 30 pN para las provenientes de la tecnología CMOS. Esta diferencia de tres órdenes de magnitud en la resolución es debida a la circuitería adjunta a los dispositivos transductores (vigas) y nos permitiría medir fuerzas del orden de magnitud requerido.
Por otro lado, con el objetivo de realizar medidas de conducción en medio líquido, se fabricaron unas vigas conductoras pero aisladas. La capa conductora en dichas vigas (capa de oro) ha de estar aislada del exterior por medio de una capa dieléctrica (nitruro de silicio) para así disminuir las capacidades parásitas. En el extremo libre, se ha de situar una punta de polisilicio afilada para poder escanear superficies. Dicha punta ha de estar cubierta por oro y, sobre el oro, tener nitruro en todas partes salvo en el vértice. Para obtener estos dispositivos, se optimizó el grabado de puntas de polisilicio, obteniendo finalmente puntas con un diámetro de vértice menor que 20 nm (usando un ataque en un equipo DRIE seguido por unas oxidaciones para afilar). Además, se realizó un estudio de los esfuerzos internos para intentar obtener vigas lo más planas posible. En la última parte del trabajo, se llevó a cabo la fabricación de sondas para AFM (vigas con una punta afilada en su extremo libre). Estos dispositivos son ampliamente usados en la actualidad para caracterizar muestras y para realizar experimentos en los que se requiere una alta precisión y/o resolución. El objetivo fundamental de este trabajo era el posibilitar la fabricación de sondas para AFM en nuestro centro de manera que los diseños pudieran ser elegidos a voluntad y acordes con las necesidades de cada
investigador. Para ello se consideraron diferentes materiales y procesos de fabricación de puntas. La mejor opción fue la definición por medio de un equipo DRIE de puntas "tipo cohete" con una parte superior afilada, situada sobre una columna cilíndrica. Los procesos de grabado se optimizaron para así obtener una alta uniformidad a lo largo y ancho de la oblea así como unos perfiles de puntas apropiados para poder ser usadas después en un AFM. A continuación, se fabricaron sondas completas. Para comprobar cómo de buena era la tecnología de fabricación que habíamos diseñado, se fabricaron puntas de dos tipos diferentes: para ser usadas en modo contacto (constante elástica baja) y para ser usadas en modo dinámico (constante elástica alta). Dichos dispositivos se usaron para escanear algunas muestras y se compararon con algunos disponibles comercialmente, obteniendo resultados similares tanto para modo contacto como para dinámico.
Finalmente, se fabricaron sondas para aplicaciones específicas: sondas con puntas con la parte superior plana para el estudio de la elasticidad de polímeros y materiales biológicos (con bajo módulo de Young) y sondas con vigas de una geometría especial para que las frecuencias de resonancia del modo fundamental y del primer harmónico transversal estuvieran más juntas, para así mejorar la detección del potencial de superficie en la técnica KPFM. Con la fabricación de estas puntas, se demostró que el disponer de una tecnología que permita la consecución de puntas puede ser muy útil para el desarrollo de nuevas aplicaciones del AFM.
The main objective of this thesis has been the research in the design and fabrication of micro-cantilevers that are one of the most used mechanical transducers because of their versatility. The use of polysilicon piezoresistive cantilevers has been explored in order to detect binding forces between biomolecules. Force resolution under 100 pN was required. A detailed analytical study has been performed in order to calculate sensitivity and resolution when applying a force at their free end. The results obtained with this analysis have been confirmed by the use of FEM simulations and hence used to determine the optimum design of the piezoresistive sensor. U-shaped polysilicon cantilevers have been fabricated at CNM clean room facilities using a novel and dedicated technology. Designs were made following the criteria imposed by the previously obtained analytical results. The high force resolution required implied the fabrication of some cantilevers among the softest piezoresistive cantilevers reported up to date (elastic constants down to 0.5 mN/m). With the final optimized fabrication process, a yield of 95% has been achieved. Using a commercial CMOS technology (0.8 m from AustriaMicroSystems), polysilicon piezoresistive cantilevers have been designed and fabricated following again the criteria imposed by the theoretical analysis and, in this case, also design rules from the CMOS technology. Cantilevers were integrated with a filtering and amplifying circuitry to reduce noise. The softest piezoresistive CMOS integrated cantilevers have been obtained with a high yield and with an undamaged circuitry. In order to determine the actual sensitivity of such soft sensors and their gauge factor, a characterization method (consisting in AFM actuation) has been developed. Gauge factor for polysilicon deposited at CNM and at AustriaMicroSystems was -12 and -9 respectively. The maximum force sensitivity and force resolution obtained for CNM fabricated sensors have been 11 V/nN and 28 nN respectively. The maximum force sensitivity and force resolution obtained for CMOS fabricated sensors have been 11 V/pN and 27 pN respectively. In both cases, resolution is limited by the noise in the circuit, whose main contributions are Hooge noise (or 1/f) and Johnson noise (or thermoelectric). Conductive, but isolated, nitride cantilevers (with a wrapped gold layer) with a sharp tip (that has an opened contact) have been designed and fabricated to be used in conductive measurements in liquid environments. Polysilicon tips definition has been optimized to improve the whole probes fabrication process, achieving apex radii smaller than 20 nm using a dry etching by means of a DRIE equipment followed by sharpening oxidation.
A complete and novel technological process has been developed for the fabrication of AFM cantilevers. Different tip materials and machining processes have been analyzed, obtaining the best results for crystalline silicon tips defined using a DRIE equipment to machine rocket tips. Isotropic processes with low cross-wafer dispersion and anisotropic processes with low cross-wafer dispersion and low scalloping have been achieved. After a sharpening oxidation, apex radii smaller than 5 nm have been achieved. Complete AFM probes have been fabricated. In order to test the developed technology, probes with similar characteristics to commercial ones were fabricated and used to raster scan some samples (in contact and non-contact mode) yielding results similar to those obtained with commercial probes. In addition, some special probes have been fabricated for nanoindentation over polymers and also to improve Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) performance. Thus, the availability of a technology that allows
the fabrication of customized cantilevers is very useful for the development of new SPM applications.

Carbon nanotubes have attracted considerable attention since their discovery due to their exceptional electrical, mechanical, and optical properties. Piezoresistance of carbon nanotubes is promising, and can be utilized to enable various types of devices. This work investigates devices functionalized with vertically aligned multi-walled carbon-nanotube forests, with a focus on pressure and strain sensors. A fabrication process based on Si-micromachining techniques that overcomes the challenges associated with using carbon-nanotube forests was developed for the devices construction. A pressure sensor is fabricated to have a multi-walled carbon-nanotube forest supported by a deflectable 8-µm-thick Parylene-C membrane suspended by a silicon frame. The responses of the fabricated sensors are experimentally characterized. The sensitivities to positive and negative gauge pressures are found to be comparable in magnitude with the average values of -986 ppm/KPa and +816 ppm/KPa, respectively. The measurement also reveals that the temperature coefficient of the resistance for a forest suspended with a Parylene membrane is -515 ppm/ºC, ~3x smaller than that for a forest fixed onto a silicon substrate. A strain gauge is also fabricated to have a multi-walled carbon-nanotube forest supported by an 8-µm-thick Parylene-C membrane that is supported by two silicon substrates at both ends. The response of the fabricated strain gauge is experimentally characterized. The experiments show that the fabricated device has two sensitivity regions: a sensitive region with a gauge factor of 4.52, about 3.76x more than that for a previously reported carbon-nanotube forest/PDMS based strain gauge, and a less sensitive region with a gauge factor of 0.87. Moreover, the response to gradual strain decreases is very similar to that for gradual strain increases, and the measured gauge factors are 4.4 and 0.77 for both sensitivity regions. The results are analyzed and the source of piezoresistance is explained. Finite element analysis is performed for the strain gauge. The results show that the change in lateral separations between the carbons nanotubes, which are transversal to the direction of the applied force, are not equal in the center region, whereas the change in longitudinal separations between the carbon nanotubes, which are parallel to the applied force, are more equal.

Thesis (M. S.)--Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009.
Committee Chair: Brand, Oliver; Committee Member: Adibi, Ali; Committee Member: Allen, Mark G.; Committee Member: Bottomley, Lawrence A.; Committee Member: Degertekin, F. Levent.

Este projeto de pesquisa apresenta o desenvolvimento de protótipos de transmissores industriais de pressão do tipo diferencial piezoresistivo com saída analógica a dois fios 4-20 mA. Os dispositivos usam um DSSP (processador digital de sinal do sensor) para realizar compensação térmica nas temperaturas de 0°C até 80°C e a calibração de pressão diferencial na faixa de 0-25 bard e de pressão de linha de 0-7 barg. Os transmissores permitem a leitura de diversas variáveis industriais: pressão diferencial, pressão relativa e pressão absoluta em fluidos. Os transmissores têm um TEB (total error band) menor que 0,15 de porcentagem de escala plena. A saída analógica dos transmissores diferenciais de pressão é caracterizada utilizando como base normas internacionais BS (British Standards). Os parâmetros avaliados nos transmissores de pressão são: a exatidão, o coeficiente térmico do offset, o coeficiente térmico do span, o total error band, e os desvios no tempo a curto e longo prazo. Esse trabalho é resultado da parceria dada entre o Laboratório de Sistemas Integráveis da Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo (LSI/EPUSP) e a empresa MEMS Microssistemas Integrados Híbridos de Pressão.
This research project presents the prototypes development of piezoresistive differential pressure transmitters with analog two-wire output of 4-20 mA. The devices use a DSSP (Digital Signal Processor Sensor) to achieve temperature compensation at temperatures from 0°C to 80°C and differential pressure calibration range from 0 bard to 25 bard and line pressure range from 0 barg to 7 barg. The transmitters measure several industrial variables: differential pressure, relative pressure and absolute pressure at fluids. The transmitters have a TEB (total error band) less than 0.15 percent of full scale. The analog output of the differential pressure transmitters is characterized using British Standards-BS. The parameters evaluated in the pressure transmitters are: the accuracy, the thermal coefficient of the offset, the thermal coefficient of the span, the total error band, the start-up drift and long-term drift. This work is the result of the academic and technological partnership between the Laboratory of Integrated Systems of the Polytechnic School of the University of São Paulo (LSI / EPUSP) and the MEMS company - Microssistemas Integrados Híbridos de Pressão Ltda.

Aquest treball descriu el desenvolupament d'un sistema Smart Sensor per a acceleròmetres piezoresistius emprant la tecnologia de mòduls multixip de tipus D (MCM-D).
En el camp dels Smarts Sensors existeixen dues aproximacions bàsiques: l'aproximació monolítica que integra el sensor i els circuits en el mateix xip, i la versió multixip, que integra de forma híbrida tant el sensor com els circuits, fabricats per separat. Les dues tecnologies emprades en aquest treball han estat, la dels acceleròmetres piezoresistius en oblies BESOI i la dels mòduls multixip, silici sobre silici, mitjançant la tècnica de muntatge flip-chip. Aquesta tècnica proporciona a l'encapsulat de sensors nivell d'integració més elevat, a la vegada que redueix els problemes termo-mecànics pel fet d'emprar un substrat de silici.
En aquest estudi s'ha treballat en el desenvolupament d'aquest Smart Sensor per tal, principalment, d'aconseguir un encapsulat robust i lliure d'estrès. En aquest sentit, s'ha dut a terme el disseny d'una cavitat hermètica per a la protecció de les parts mòbils de l'acceleròmetre. L'hermeticitat s'obté mitjançant la pasta de soldadura que s'aplica en el mateix moment en que es fan les connexions elèctriques o solder bumps. Aquest fet ha requerit d'una modificació en la tecnologia de pads del sensor. Per altra banda, s'han dut a terme una sèrie de simulacions per elements finits per tal d'avaluar en les etapes de disseny l'estrès que podia aportar l'encapsulat a aquests dispositius sensibles a esforços mecànics. Els resultats de les simulacions demostren que si bé es dóna un cert grau d'estrès, aquest no arriba a perjudicar el comportament del sensor.
Les caracteritzacions tant elèctriques com mecàniques realitzades a l'encapsulat multixip, demostren que aquest encapsulat no modifica els paràmetres elèctrics més importants, com ara la sensibilitat o la tensió d'offset. La caracterització dinàmica demostra, però, que l'encapsulat multixip afegeix un més elevat grau d'esmorteïment modificant així la resposta del sensor. Aquesta variació es tradueix en una disminució de la freqüència de ressonància i del guany del sensor a aquesta freqüència. Aquest fet, en aplicacions DC, és una característica apreciada doncs evita una eventual ruptura del sensor.
This work describes the development of a Smart Sensor system for piezoresistive accelerometers using Multi Chip Module type D (MCM-D) technology.
There are two main approaches in the Smart Sensors field: The monolithic integration of the process circuitry with the sensor itself in the same chip, and the multichip approach, where both parts are independently fabricated and connected using hybrid integration. Two technologies have been used in the present work: CNM's piezoresistive accelerometers technology based on BESOI wafers and silicon-on-silicon multichip module technology, based on the flip-chip interconnection. This technique provides higher levels of integration for the packaging of sensors. In addition, the inclusion of a silicon substrate reduces thermo-mechanical problems.
The development of the Smart Sensor has been mainly oriented to obtain a robust and unstressed package. In this sense, mobile parts of the accelerometer have been protected with an specifically designed hermetic cavity. This cavity is built using solder paste, and is defined simultaneously with the electrical connections or solder bumps. This point required modifications of the sensor's pad technology. Furthermore, finite element simulations have been performed in order to evaluate the package induced stresses on the sensor, which is extremely sensitive to mechanical efforts. The simulation results showed that even if small stress appear, they don't adversely affect the behaviour of the sensor.
Electrical and mechanical characterisation of the multichip Smart Sensor, showed that the packaging process doesn't modify the main electrical parameters, such as sensitivity and off-set voltage. Vibration tests showed that multichip package increases mechanical damping, modifying the dynamic response of the sensor. In this sense, the resonance frequency and the gain of the sensor at this frequency decrease. This behaviour is useful for DC applications, preventing the failure of the sensor.

Esta dissertação apresenta um estudo teórico e experimental de elementos sensores piezoresistivos de filmes de grafite obtidos pelo processo de esfoliação mecânica sobre substrato de papel (GoP) visando adequar encapsulamentos a partir de diferentes materiais. Este estudo compreende levantamento bibliográfico sobre a utilização de sensores na indústria e na sociedade, faz enfoque especial à teoria da piezoresistividade, elenca diferentes tipos de sensores piezoresistivos existentes, apresenta os materiais comumente utilizados para a fabricação de piezoresistores e descreve alguns processos de deposição e encapsulamento. Em seguida é feito um estudo experimental sobre a utilização do Carbono, sob a forma alotrópica, do grafite, como material base para elemento piezoresistor usando o método da viga engastada (Cantilever) para analisar as propriedades térmicas, elétricas e mecânicas do material, com e sem a presença de encapsulamentos. Os resultados são comparados com os dados provenientes da literatura de materiais já consolidados como, Silício, DLC (Diamond-Like-Carbon) e ITO (Indium-Tin-Oxide).
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Los procesos de reconocimiento biomolecular entre receptores y ligandos son muy importantes en biología. Estas biomoléculas pueden desarrollar complejos muy específicos y tener una variedad de funciones como replicación y transcripción genómica, actividad enzimática, respuesta inmune, señalamiento celular, etc. La complementariedad inequívoca mostrada por estos componentes biológicos es ampliamente utilizada para desarrollar biosensores. Dependiendo de la naturaleza de las señales que se convierten, los biosensores pueden ser clasificados en ópticos, eléctricos o mecánicos. Entre los sensores mecánicos, los microcantilevers son los más comunes. Han sido utilizados como sensores de estrés superficial o como sensores de masa en detección de biomoléculas, desde hace más de 10 años. El enlace de las moléculas a sus superficies funcionalizadas se puede detectar midiendo la deflexión en modo estático o la variación de la frecuencia de resonancia en modo dinámico. Para lograr la máxima resolución, la deflexión es medida por un láser y un fotodetector. Este método limita las medidas en fluidos transparentes, la portabilidad del instrumento, e incrementa la complejidad de medición multiplexada. El desarrollo de cantilevers sensibles a la deflexión mediante la integración de piezoresistores o transistores de efecto de campo (MOSFET) implementados en el mismo voladizo, resuelve este problema. Sin embargo, simultáneamente se disminuye la resolución del sensor debido al incremento del ruido electrónico. Por otro lado, se puede detectar moléculas midiendo la fuerza de enlace entre una molécula y su receptor, estirando el complejo molecular, mediante espectroscopia de fuerza atómica (AFS), técnica basada en el microscopio de fuerza atómica (AFM). A pesar de la elevada resolución en fuerza, el AFM no ha logrado aún convertirse en instrumento analítico debido principalmente a la complejidad del mismo y de su uso. Un biosensor basado en cantilevers que puedan detectar su propia deflexión y que emplee la AFS, tendría resolución de una molécula, podría ser utilizado en fluidos opacos, tendría potencial de multiplexado y su integración a una celda microfluídica sería viable. Considerando esto, se desarrollaron cantilevers dotados de resolución de pN y compatibles con líquidos. Se diseñaron y modelaron cantilevers basados en silicio cristalino y se ha optimizado el proceso de fabricación para aumentar la sensibilidad y el rendimiento. Asímismo, se ha trabajado sobre el modelo, el desarrollo y la fabricación de cantilevers con un MOSFET integrado. Se concluye que el primer sensor ofrece una solución tecnológica más directa, aunque el segundo puede ser una buena alternativa. Simultáneo a la fabricación de sensores, se desarrollaron también nuevas técnicas y montajes para la rápida caracterización eléctrica y electromecánica de los sensores de manera precisa y fiable. Esto fue crucial a la hora de validar el proceso de producción y los dispositivos finales. Después de obtener muy alta resolución (<10 pN en líquido) con elevado rendimiento en la producción, los sensores fueron utilizados para el estudio de procesos de reconocimiento molecular entre avidina y biotina. Para lograr este objetivo, los sensores fueron integrados en un AFM comercial para aprovechar su elevada estabilidad mecánica y el desplazamiento nanométrico del piezoactuador. Se detectaron con éxito las fuerzas de enlace relacionadas a la formación del complejo molecular biotina-avidina, resaltando de esta manera, la posibilidad de detección label-free de biomoléculas en condiciones cuasi fisiológicas con resolución de una molécula. Además de la elevada sensibilidad, estos sensores pueden utilizarse sin restricciones en fluidos opacos, se pueden integrar fácilmente en celdas microfluídicas y demuestran capacidad para el multiplexado. Este resultado abre nuevas perspectivas en detectores de marcadores biológicos con elevada sensibilidad y que puedan trabajar en condiciones fisiológicas.
Biorecognition processes between receptors and their conjugate ligands are very important in biology. These biomolecules can build up very specific complexes displaying a variety of functions such as genome replication and transcription, enzymatic activity, immune response, cellular signaling, etc. The unambiguous one-to-one complementarity exhibited by these biological partners is widely exploited also in biotechnology to develop biosensors. Depending on the nature of the transduction signals, biosensors can be classified in optical, electrical and mechanical. Among mechanical biosensors, the microcantilevers play a prominent role. They have been used as stress or mass transducers in biomolecules detection for already more than a decade. The binding of molecules to their functionalized surface is detected by measuring either the deflection in static mode or the resonant frequency shift in dynamic mode. The deflection of the cantilever is converted optically by a laser and a photodetector in order to have the highest possible resolution. This limits the measurements in transparent liquids, the portability of the instrument and increases the complexity for multiplexing. The development of self-sensing cantilevers by integrating piezoresistors or metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFET) into the cantilever solves this issue. However, at the same time, this decreases the bending and frequency shift resolution due to the higher transducer noise. On the other hand, the detection of a single molecule can be attained measuring the unbinding force between two molecules of a complex pulling them apart, using the atomic force spectroscopy (AFS) measuring approach. This technique is based on the atomic force microscope (AFM). Despite the high force resolution, AFM has still not become an analytical instrument and it is mainly due to the complexity of the instrument and of its use. A biosensor based on AFS and on self-sensing cantilever would allow single molecule resolution, working in opaque fluids, easy multiplexing capability, and relatively easy integration in microfluidics cells. In this perspective, we worked to obtain self sensing-probes endowed with pN resolution and compatible with liquid media. Cantilevers based on single crystalline silicon have been modeled and the fabrication process has been optimized to improve the force sensitivity and to obtain high fabrication yield. At the same time we worked also on the modeling, development and fabrication of cantilevers with embedded MOSFET piezoresistive transducers. It turned out that the probes with integrated piezoresistor offer a more straightforward solution, but also the MOSFET cantilever can offer a good alternative. Alongside the force sensors fabrication, new high-throughput set-ups and techniques have been developed and optimized to measure the electrical and electromechanical characteristics of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) in a precise and reliable way. This was of key importance to correctly validate the new technological processes involved in production as well as characterize the final devices. After achieving very good sensor performances (resolution < 10 pN in liquid environment) with high production yield, we used the force probes to investigate the biorecognition processes in the avidin-biotin complex. For this purpose we integrated the sensor into a commercial AFM to take advantage of the high mechanical stability of this equipment and the highly reliable displacement of the piezo actuator. We detected the forces related to the avidin-biotin complex formation, highlighting the possibility of biomolecule label-free recognition in nearly physiological conditions and at single molecule resolution. Beside the very high sensitivity attained, the sensor can be used with no restrictions in opaque media; it can be easily integrated in microfluidic cells and it displays a high multiplexing potentiality. This result opens new perspectives in highly sensitive label free biomarkers detectors in nearly physiological conditions.

High performance and low cost sensors based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have become commonplace in today's world. MEMS sensors, such as accelerometers, gy- roscopes, pressure sensors, and microphones, are routinely used in consumer electronics, automobiles, industrial and aerospace applications. Basically, all these devices mea- sure tiny displacements of micromachined mechanical structures in response to external stimuli. One of the widely used techniques to detect these displacements is piezoresistive sensing. Piezoresistive sensors are popular in MEMS due to their simplicity and robustness. Traditionally, silicon has been the material of choice for piezoresistors due to its high strain sensitivity or gauge factor. Whereas metal lm piezoresistors typically have low gauge factor that puts them out of favour when compared to silicon. But metal lm piezoresistors have several advantages compared to their semiconductor counterparts, including simple and low-cost fabrication, low resistivity and generally low noise. Low resistance sensors become desirable particularly when the devices are scaled down to nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), where signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) performance becomes crucial. Enhancing the gauge factor of metal lms while keeping their low resistance advantage can dramatically improve their SNR performance for NEMS. This thesis reports a simple method we have developed to enhance the gauge factor of metal lm piezoresistors. We demonstrate this method on specially designed micro- cantilever devices. Using controlled electromigration, we are able to engineer the microstructure of gold lm and transform it into a locally inhomogeneous conductor which resembles a percolation network. This results in more than 100 times higher gauge factor at low to moderate sensor resistance. The SNR possible with our piezoresistor at high frequencies exceeds that of most available systems by at least an order of magnitude. Our locally inhomogeneous metal lm piezoresistor is a promising candidate for high-performance NEMS-based sensors of the future.

碩士
國立清華大學
動力機械工程學系
87
Piezoresistors have been used widely for various microsensors, such as accerlerometers and pressure sensors. Conventionally, piezoresistive sensors are fabricated by placing the piezoresistors on the regions where largest strain would occur. In order to satisfy the measurement sensitivity as well as the fabrication processes, the substrate underneath the microstructures are usually removed through the back-sided etching. Hence, the fabrication processes are complex and time consuming. To solve this problem, this article intends to propose an alternative design for piezoresistive sensors. The approach is to form the piezoresistors behind the boundary of the microstructure by diffusion. Therefore this piezoresistive sensor is compatible with front-side etch process and without an additional polysilicon layer deposited. The proposed design also provides the capability of integrating with various microactuators. In this research, the concept is proved by both simulation and experiment. A finite element model was established to analyze the stress at the region 2 to 5 mm away from the microstructure and its boundary. According to the results from the finite element analysis, the stress at the studied region is approximate one order of magnitude smaller than that at the end of the microstructure. In other words, a reasonable signal is still available at this region. During the experiment, silicon dioxide microcantilevers were fabricated, and piezoresistors were formed by diffuse n+ on silicon substrate 3 mm away from the micorcantilever's fixed end. An experimental setup containing micropositioner and piezo actuator was constructed. The output of piezoresistors is then measured when microcatilevers bend or vibrate.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
應用力學研究所
84
Surface micromachined piezoresistive pressure sensor has been designed, modeled, and fabricated. The optimal position, orientation, and length of effective resistors on circular and square plate have been found. The sensitivity of 0.15 mV/V/psi could be achieved by the optimization design. The linearity error of pressure sensor is dominated by the large deflection of plates. The strain under large deflection of circular and square plates could be solved by the methods of S. P. Timoshenko and A. Foppl respectively. Experimental measurements showed consistent agreement. Because the solutions are analytic, they could be used in the linearity compensation circuitry. The output voltage of pressure sensor and temperature relationships have been predicted by Y. Kanda's theory and verified by experimental measurements. It could be used in the temperature compensation circuitry. We conquer some difficulties to fabricate surface micromachined piezoresistive pressure sensor in the Semi Conductor Research Center, NCTU. It shows the possibility of fabricating surface micromachined pressure sensor in Taiwan.

Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Eletrónica Industrial e Computadores
O principal material utilizado na construção dos acelerómetros é o silício, porém, o seu processo é bastante dispendioso quando produzido em pequenas quantidades. Assim, a utilização de polímeros na construção de acelerómetros pode ser uma opção interessante, pois os custos destes processos de produção são menores. Esta dissertação tem como principal objetivo a caracterização de um acelerómetro polimérico piezoresistivo. Foram testadas configurações com dois e quatro extensómetros, através da sua inserção em meia ponte e ponte completa de Wheatstone, respetivamente. Esta caracterização engloba a construção de uma bancada de testes automática, bem como, a instrumentação necessária para a leitura do sinal do acelerómetro. Os resultados obtidos do acelerómetro foram: uma frequência de ressonância de 270Hz, um ruído de 72.5µV/ Hz, uma sensibilidade a temperatura de 0.21mV/ºC e uma gama dinâmica de +-80g. O fator de qualidade deste acelerómetro é muito elevado, fazendo variar a sensibilidade ao longo da largura de banda. Do trabalho desenvolvido resultou uma bancada de testes que poderá ser utilizada para caracterizar outros sensores inercias.
The main material used in the construction of the accelerometers is silicon, however, the process is quite expensive when produced in small quantities. Thus, the use of polymers in the construction of accelerometers can be an interesting option, as the costs related to the production processes of this type of sensors are smaller. The main objective of this thesis is the characterization of a polymer piezoresistive accelerometer. Configurations with two and four strain gauges were tested through their inclusion in a half and full Wheatstone bridge, respectively. This characterization includes the construction of an automatic test bench, as well as the necessary instrumentation to read the the signal from the accelerometer. The tested accelerometer has the following characteristics: a resonant frequency of 270Hz, a noise of 72.5µV/ Hz, a temperature sensitivity of 0.21mV/ºC and a dynamic range of +-80g. The quality factor of the accelerometer is very high, varying the sensitivity over the bandwidth. The work resulted in a test bench which can be used to characterize other inertial sensors.

博士
國立臺灣大學
機械工程學系研究所
86
The piezoresistor has been admired for the large effect of stresses on the resistivity since 1954. Traditionally, the size of piezoresistor with regular shape has to be kept small enough to preserve the assumption of uniform stress distribution. In general, the electric potential of a piezoresistor subject to a non-uniform stress field can not be determined algebraically. Moreover, the assumption of uniform stress distribution may be questionable due to the miniaturization of transducer. The electric potential of a piezoresistor is dependent on the geometric shape, boundary conditions and stress distribution. The governing equation of electric potential with coefficients of electric conductivity and its derivatives is developed in this thesis. The electric conductivity is also formulated as an explicit form of specific resistivity, piezoresistity and temperature coefficients of resistivity. In order to investigate the electric potential numerically, a piezoresistive finite element is developed by variational scheme. Then the finite-element method can be employed to calculate the distribution of electric potential for the determination of output electrodes location. Since the distribution of impurity concentration is not uniform along the thickness of a piezoresistor as a consequence of doping method, the concept of equivalent conductivity is presented. The equivalent conductivity is expressed as an integral combination of electric conductivity developed previously. Based on the equivalent conductivity, the complex 3-dimensional analysis can be simplified to 2-dimensional analysis under the proper assumptions. The sensitivity of pressure sensors similar to Motorola X-ducer is investigated as an example. It is found that the algebraic solutions overestimate the sensitivity up to 49% under uniform low-doped concentration. The case of different impurity distributions is also studied. Finally, the method of shape optimization is applied to increase the sensitivity by fully taking the advantage of stress distribution in the available location of microsensors. The result of analysis indicated that the optimal shape of the four-terminal p-type piezoresistor would follow the maximum shear stress contour with extrusive output electrodes.

Cocaine is a well-known, illegal, recreational drug that is addictive due to its effects on the mesolimbic reward pathway in the human body. Accurate and real-time measurement of the concentration of cocaine in the body as a function of time and physiological factors is a key requirement for the understanding of the use of this drug. Current methods for such measurements involve taking samples from the human body (such as blood, urine, and hair) and performing analytical chemistry tests on these samples. This techniques are relatively expensive, time consuming, and labor intensive. To address this issue, a new implantable sensor for the automated detection and measurement of the relative cocaine concentration is presented here. The device is more economical and provides for higher sampling frequencies than the current methods. The active sensor elements consist of piezoresistive microcantilever arrays, which are coated with an oligonucleotide-based aptamer, i.e. a short sequence of RNA with high affinity for specific target molecules, as the cocaine receptor. A Wheatstone bridge is used to convert the biosensor signal into an electronic signal. This signal is transmitted wireless at an operating frequency of 403.55 MHz, which complies with the US Medical Implant Communication System (MICS) FCC 47CFR Part 95. The limit of detection for the in vitro experiment is found to be 1 ng/ml. The device has successfully measured the relative concentration of cocaine upon implantation in the subcutaneous interstitial fluid of male Wistar rats.