Academic literature on the topic 'Piglets – Feeding and feeds – Economic aspects'

Feed additives and means of probiotic and prebiotic action, enzyme drugs, therapeutic and prophylactic additives of complex action aimed at stimulating non-specific immunity, prevention and treatment of mixed gastrointestinal infections and digestive disorders are an alternative to antibiotics. Domestic scientists have developed a new feed probiotic, Enzymsporin, which contains a complex of lyophilized spore-forming bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis in a concentration of 5×10 9 CFU/g, which causes a wide range of product action against pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic microorganisms. The purpose of the work was to study a new probiotic complex with antibacterial and immunomodulatory properties as an alternative to the use of antibiotic-containing drugs in feeding of growing and fattening young pigs. The effectiveness and feasibility of using the probiotic complex Enzymsporin in the diets of growing and fattening young pigs in a comparative aspect with the antibiotic-containing drug Virginiamycin has been studied. It has been proved on the base of zootechnical, physiological, biochemical and economic research methods that the optimal dosage for the introduction of the probiotic complex Enzymsporin into compound feed for growing young pigs is 0,5 kg/t. We recommend pig breeding farms to input in the diet of growing and fattening young pigs probiotic complex Enzymsporin in the amount of 0,5 kg/t, which helps to stimulate metabolism and leads to better use of feed, increases the livability of livestock and economically justified. The use of probiotic complex has a pronounced biological effect in the growth and livability of piglets during rearing, contributes to increasing the profitability of pig production.

Of the total greenhouse gas emission from the livestock sector, 45% relates to feed production and processing. Enteric methane (35%), land-use change (9%) and manure nitrous oxide and manure methane together (9.5%) are the other sources of greenhouse gas emissions, which to a large extent depend on feed types. Inefficient use of feeds reduces profitability. Increasing future feed demand and food-feed-fuel competition have environmental and social impacts. The growth for demand in livestock products comes with social, economic and environmental challenges. This paper argues that the efficient utilisation of feed resources and application of appropriate feeding strategies are vital for strengthening the three conventional pillars of sustainability (environment, social and economic). Towards this end, it identifies and explores a series of promising innovations and practices in feed production and feeding including balanced and phased feeding; increase in the quality and level of use of forages in diets; reduction in use of grains; harvesting forages when nutrient availability per unit of land is maximum; targeted mineral feeding; reduction in feed losses; use of straw-based densified feed blocks; better recycling of human food wastes and human-inedible food components to feed; new business models for production and use of urea-ammoniated straws, urea-molasses blocks, forages and silages in smallholder farms; and use of underutilised locally available feed crops linked with strengthening of seed development and distribution infrastructure. The development of simple tools and on-site assays for correcting nutritional imbalances also offers interesting opportunities. Collection of data on feed availability at the national level, and generation of sound chemical composition and nutritional value data of feeds, are a prerequisite to innovate. The focus of the discussion will be on low-input livestock systems in developing world. A large number of livestock are found in such systems and small improvements can have high global impact. In addition to the technological aspects, policy and institutional building options required to realise large impact are also discussed.

Profitability is key in fish farming, just as it is to any other enterprise. For the farmers to actualize high-profit margins, it is imperative to have access to well-balanced nutritive and cost-effective feeds, backed by sound on-farm feed management practices. This paper auditsKenya’sfish feed industry and the on-going on-farm feed management practices, and emerging opportunities for fish farmers. The development of fish feed quality standards has boosted the aquaculture sector in Kenya, providing them hope that farmers will access high quality fish feeds. Much of the fish feed currently being used in Kenya is produced on-farm or by small-scale fish feed manufacturers within the East African region, while a few are imported directly from overseas countries, notably Israel, Netherlands, Mauritius and Denmark. Fish feeds produced by small-scale manufacturers are not closely monitored by quality standard agencies and not surprising that a majority are of poor quality. The improvement in the quality of these feeds is likely to lead to increased productivity and profitability because they are cheaper and readily available to fish farmers, compared to imported fish feeds. Besides feed quality, feed management practices markedly impact both the growth and economic performance of fish production. Adopting appropriate feed management strategies, therefore, is instrumental in the maximization of fish production and economic returns. Research has demonstrated several strategies for best feed management practices, which have not hitherto, been adopted by fish farmers in Kenya. Farmers have mainly focused on the mode of delivery of feeds to the fish. Furthermore, promoting natural pond productivity and supplementary feeding is still a common practice in the East African region. Provision of species-specific feeds and targeting the nutritional requirements of the different life stages of fish is still a major issue, although some local companies like Unga Farm Care(EA)have come up with a size and species-specific feed for catfish such as Fugro catfish®.To improve access to such information,public-private partnerships should be developed and, programmes that utilize the local media platforms such as extension service outlets must also be encouraged. Feed quality checks can also be carried out amongst fish feed suppliers. Lastly, farmers should be trained in various fish feed aspects like formulation, transportation and storage to sustain a steady fishfeed supply andsave on associated feed costs.

Voltage unbalance in power systems feeding AC traction power systems is a worldwide known problem. One of the main aspects of this problem is the negative effect of voltage unbalance on motor loads causing operating problems and economic damage. It is necessary to perform unbalanced power flow studies and calculate voltage unbalance indexes to assess this negative effect of voltage unbalance and the develop of compensating measures during the design stage. Usually, calculations of the AC traction power supply system and the distribution network feeding it are carried out separately during the design of new lines of railways electrified by alternating current (AC) and reconstructing of existing ones. This approach is a source of deviations in the power flow studies because the lack of consideration of mutual influences between the traction power system and the distribution power system. In this paper, we compare a digital model in which the traction power supply system and the distribution network are modeled separately with a model that considers mutual influences between the traction and external power supply systems, including power flows through the traction network caused by the distribution network (transit currents). For digital modeling of these processes, authors used ETAPTM software with eTraXTM package. It allows to run unbalanced power flow studies when the generation and load are being changed over time, including train movement. During a separate simulation of the traction power system and distribution network, traction network was modelled using the equivalent sources connected to traction substation buses and the distribution network was modeled taking into account the fact that traction load was given from the simulation of the traction power system. The traction load was considered as lumped loads connected to the traction substation buses.At the same time, in both cases, the unbalanced power flow study was carried out by the phase domain method. Based on the results of two models comparison, it was concluded that the combined model containing a traction power supply system and distribution network, is more effective in terms of improving the accuracy of assessment voltage unbalance in accordance with current regulatory and technical documents on power quality.

Background: Diarrhoeal infections are the second leading cause of death worldwide in under-five children covering 9% of the total deaths. The objective of the study was to assess and compare mothers’ knowledge, attitude and practice regarding prevention and management of diarrhoea in children.Methods: A cross-sectional hospital-based observational study was conducted in a tertiary centre amongst all 356 children between age group 2 months to 60 months admitted with acute watery diarrhea. A pre-tested questionnaire and face-to-face interviews with the mothers was used as a data collection tool.Results: Most of the mothers 282 (79.2%) were 20-30-year-old, 51.4% were illiterate, 57.3% were unemployed and 27.2% were daily wage labourers. 44.6% people came from rural background and 78.9% belonged to lower socio-economic strata. 30.3% were exclusively breastfed and 69.7% were on top feeds. Animal milk was taken by 62.1%, 46.6% had dilution and 50.6% used bottles for feeding. 70.5% of mothers washed their hands at the time of feeding of their child, 93.8% mother covered food in their houses while only 26.7% of mothers gave freshly cooked food. Mother’s outlook on various aspects of diarrhea was sought. Very few mothers considered poor sanitation (2.5%) andcontaminated water (12.6%) as a source of diarrhea. Only 8.7% mothers knew about the role of ORS in diarrhea and maximum (53.4%) considered that diarrhea could not be avoided by any measure.Conclusions: Mother’s knowledge regarding causes, management and prevention of diarrhea needs to be upgraded to allow better utilisation of health resources by the families.

We aimed to assess whether the environmental impacts in terms of global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), and land occupation (LO) of beef can be decreased when ecosystem and cultural/provisioning services are included in the evaluation. We used four Italian production systems: Fat, with beef imported calves kept in confinement; CoCaI, with beef cows and calves kept in confinement; SpEx, with beef cows and calves kept on pasture and finishing conducted in confinement; and Pod, with Podolian cows and calves kept on pasture and finishing conducted in confinement. After the economic allocation, the GWP of system Pod decreased considerably and showed values lower than those computed for systems CoCaI and SpEx (P < 0.05 and P < 0.001, respectively). System Pod showed the lowest AP and EP as compared with all the other systems (P < 0.01). Systems Fat and CoCaI showed the smallest LO, with values lower than systems Pod (P < 0.05) and SpEx (P < 0.001). We conclude that the environmental impacts of extensive and local beef production systems in terms of GWP, AP, and EP was markedly reduced when the provision of accessory services was included in the calculation. Conversely, LO did not markedly change due to the high absolute values needed to allow pasture-based feeding. The estimation of additional positive aspects linked to the use of natural pastures, such as removal of carbon dioxide, increased biodiversity, and exploitation of feeds nonedible by humans, may allow a further reduction of LO.

The majority of small-holder pig farmers in Mpumalanga had between 1- and 10-sow herds. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the current government agricultural intervention (supply of 10 sows and a boar) in terms of technical and economic feasibilities and ascertain whether the small-scale pig value chain system alleviates poverty. Data were obtained from 220 randomly selected small-holder pig farmers using a semi-structured questionnaire. The results showed that 58% farrowed ≤ 10 piglets/born/sow/litter, 44.2% practiced no weaning method and many fed swill and leftovers alone (41.6%). Pair-wise association revealed that the feeding of commercial feeds had a relationship with pigs in relatively good to very good body condition. Pigs in poor body condition were positively correlated with the feeding of swill alone. The economic models for the 10-sow unit proved that pig farming is unprofitable if the current management and feeding systems that operate in the commercial industry are utilised. However, only through a combination of cooperative systems, benefits of economies of scale, reduction of preweaning mortalities and structured government inputs can pig production be profitable at this scale of production.Keywords: piglets; market; profit; economics; feeds

Introduction Taste is considered a gustatory and physiological sense. It is also something that can be developed over time. In Bourdieu’s work taste is a matter of distinction, and a means of drawing boundaries between groups about what constitutes “good” taste. In this context it is necessary to perform or display tastes over and over again. This then becomes part of a cultural habitus, a code that can be read and understood. In the field of “feeding the family” (DeVault) for respondents in my study, healthy food prepared from scratch became the symbol of appropriate mothering, a means of demonstrating a middle class habitus, distinction, and taste. I use the term “family foodways” to emphasize how feeding the family encapsulates more than buying, preparing, cooking, and serving food, it incorporates the ways in which families practice, perform, and “do” family food. These family foodways are about the family of today, as well as an investment in the family of the future, through the reproduction and reinforcement of cultural values and tastes around food. In the UK, there are divisions between what might be considered appropriate and inappropriate family foodways, and a vilification of alternatives that lack time and effort. Warde identifies four antinomies of taste used by advertisers in the marketing of food: “novelty and tradition,” “health and indulgence,” “economy and extravagance,” and “convenience and care” (174). In relation to family foodways, there are inherent tensions in these antinomies, and for mothers in my study in order to demonstrate “care”, it was necessary to eschew “convenience.” Indeed, the time and effort involved in feeding the family healthy meals prepared from scratch becomes an important symbol of middle class taste and investment in the future. The alternative can be illustrated by reference to the media furore around Jamie Oliver’s comments in a Radio Times interview (that coincided with a TV series and book launch) in which Deans quotes Oliver: "You might remember that scene in [a previous series] of Ministry of Food, with the mum and the kid eating chips and cheese out of Styrofoam containers, and behind them is a massive f****** TV.” Oliver uses cultural markers of taste to highlight how “mum” was breaking the rules and conventions associated with appropriate or aspirational class based family foodways. We assume that the “mum and kid” were using their fingers, and not a knife and fork, and that the meal was not on a plate around a table but instead eaten in front of a “massive f****** TV.” Oliver uses these cultural markers of taste and distinction to commit acts of symbolic violence, defined by Bourdieu and Wacquant, as “the violence which is exercised upon a social agent with his or her complicity” (67), to confer judgement and moral approbation regarding family foodways. In this example, a lack of time and effort is associated with a lack of taste. And although this can be linked with poverty, this is not about a lack of money, as the mother and child are eating in front of a big television. Oliver is therefore drawing attention to how family foodways become cultural markers of taste and distinction. I argue that appropriate family foodways have become significant markers of taste, and draw on qualitative data to emphasise how respondents use these to position themselves as “good” mothers. Indeed, the manner of presenting, serving, and eating food fulfils the social function of legitimising social difference (Bourdieu 6). Indeed, Bourdieu claims that mothers are significant as the convertors of economic capital into cultural capital for their children; they are “sign bearing” carriers of taste (Skeggs 22). In taking time to prepare healthy meals from scratch, sourcing organic and/or local ingredients, accommodating each individual household members food preferences or individual health needs, being able to afford to waste food, to take time over the preparation, and eating of a meal around the table together, are all aspects of an aspirational model of feeding the family. This type of intensive effort around feeding becomes a legitimate means of demonstrating cultural distinction and taste. Research Background This paper draws on data from a qualitative study conducted over nine months in 2011. I carried out a series of asynchronous on-line interviews with seventy-five mostly middle class women and men between the ages of twenty-seven and eighty-five. One third of the respondents were male. Two thirds were parents at different stages in the life course, from those who were new to parenting to grand parents. There was also a range of family types including lone parents, and co-habiting and married couples with children (and step-children). The focus of the inquiry was food over the life course and respondents were invited to write their own autobiographical food narratives. Once respondents agreed to participate, I wrote to them: What I’m really after is your “food story.” Perhaps, this will include your earliest food memories, favourite foods, memorable food occasions, whether your eating habits have changed over time and why this may be. Also, absolutely anything food related that you'd like to share with me. For some, if this proved difficult, we engaged in an on-line interview in which I asked a series of questions centred on how they developed their own eating and cooking habits. I did not set out to question respondents specifically about “healthy” or “unhealthy” foodways and did not mention these terms at all. It was very much an open invitation for them to tell their stories in their words and on their terms. It was the common vocabularies (Mills) across the narratives that I was looking to discover, rather than directing these vocabularies in any particular way. I conducted several levels of analysis on the data and identified four themes on the family, health, the body, and the foodie. This discussion is based on the narratives I identified within the family theme. A Taste for “Healthy” Family Foodways When setting out on this research journey, I anticipated a considerable shift in gender roles within the home and a negotiated family model in which “everything could be negotiated” (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim xxi), especially “feeding the family” (De-Vault). Considering the rise of male celebrity chefs such as Jamie Oliver and the development of a distinct foodie identity (Naccarato and LeBesco, Johnston and Baumann, Cairns et al.), I envisaged that men would be more likely to take on this role. Given women’s roles outside the home, I also envisaged the use of convenience food, ready meals, and take-away food. However, what emerged was that women were highly resistant to any notion of relinquishing the responsibility for “feeding the family” (DeVault). Indeed, the women who were parents were keen to demonstrate how they engaged in preparing healthy, home-cooked meals from scratch for their families, despite having working identities. This commitment to healthy family foodways was used as a means of aligning themselves with an intensive mothering ideology (Hays) and to distance themselves from the alternative. It was a means of drawing distinctions and symbolising taste. When it comes to feeding the family, the “symbolic violence” (Bourdieu and Wacquant 167) afforded to mothers who transgress the boundaries of appropriate mothering by feeding their children unhealthy and/or convenience food, meant that mothers in my study only fed their children healthy food. It would be inconceivable for them to admit to anything else. This I consider a consequence of dualist and absolutist approaches to food and foodways, whereby “convenience” food continues to be demonised in family food discourses because it symbolises “lack” on many levels, specifically a lack of care and a lack of taste. This was not something I had anticipated at the beginning of the study; that mothers would not use convenience food and only prepared “healthy” meals was a surprise. This is indicative of the power of healthy food discourses and inappropriate family foodways, as symbolised by the mum feeding her kid “cheese and chips out of a Styrofoam container,” in informing respondents’ food narratives. I gained full ethical approval from my university and all respondents were given pseudonyms. The quotes I use here are taken from the narratives within the family theme and are representative of this theme. I cannot include all respondents’ narratives. I include quotes from Faye, a forty-six year-old Secretary married with one child; Laura, a thirty-five year-old Teaching Assistant, married with two children; Zoe, a forty-four year-old Recruiter, married with two children; Gaby, a fifty-one year old Architect Designer, married with two children; Ophelia, a fifty-three year-old Author, married with two children; Valerie, a forty-six year-old Website Manager, single with one child; and Chloe, a forty-six year old Occupational Health Sex Advisor, co-habiting with two children at home. Cooking “proper” healthy family meals is a skilled practice (Short) and a significant aspect of meaningful family-integration (Moiso et al.). It has symbolic and cultural capital and is indicative of a particular middle class habitus and this relates to taste in its broadest sense. Hence, Faye writes: My mum was a fabulous, creative cook; she loved reading cookery books and took great pride in her cooking. We didn't have a lot of money when we were young, but my mum was a very creative cook and every meal was completely delicious and homemade. Faye, despite working herself, and in common with many women juggling the second shift (Hochschild and Machung), is solely responsible for feeding her family. Indeed, Faye’s comments are strikingly similar to those in DeVault’s research carried out over twenty years ago; one of DeVault’s participants was quoted as saying that, “as soon as I get up on the morning or before I go to bed I’m thinking of what we’re going to eat tomorrow” (56). It is significant that cultural changes in the twenty years since DeVaults’ study were not reflected in respondents’ narratives. Despite women working outside of the home, men moving into the kitchen, and easy access to a whole range of convenience foods, women in my study adhered to “healthy” family foodways as markers of taste and distinction. Two decades later, Faye comments: Oh my goodness! I wake up each morning and the first thing I think about is what are we going to have for supper! It's such a drag, as I can never think of anything new or inspirational, despite the fact that we have lots of lovely cookery books! In many ways, these comments serve to reinforce further the status of “feeding the family” (DeVault) as central to maternal identity and part of delineating distinction and taste. Faye, in contrast to her own mother, has the additional pressure of having to cook new and inspirational food. Indeed, if preparing and purchasing food for herself or her family, Faye writes: I would make a packed lunch of something I really enjoyed eating, that's healthy, balanced and nutritious, with a little treat tucked in! […] I just buy things that are healthy and nutritious and things that might be interesting to appear in [my daughter’s] daily lunch box! However, by “just buying things that are healthy”, Faye is contributing to the notion that feeding the family healthily is easy, natural, care work and part of a particular middle class habitus. Again, this is part of what distinguishes cultural approaches to family foodways. Health and healthiness are part of a neo-liberal approach that is about a taste for the future. It is not about instant gratification, but about safeguarding health. Faye positions herself as the “guardian of health” (Beagan et al. 662). This demonstrates the extent to which the caringscape and healthscape can be intertwined (McKie et al.), as well as how health discourses seep into family foodways, whereby a “good mother” ensures the health of her children through cooking/providing healthy food or by being engaged in emotion (food) work. Faye reiterates this by writing, “if I have time [my cooking skills] […] are very good, if I don't they are rumbled together! But everything I cook is cooked with love!” Hence, this emotion work is not considered work at all, but an expression of love. Hence, in terms of distinction and taste, even when cooking is rushed it is conceptualised in the context of being prepared with love, in opposition to the cultural symbol of the mother and child “eating cheese and chips out of a Styrofoam container.” Convenience “Lacks” Taste In the context of Warde’s care and convenience antinomy, food associated with convenience is considered inappropriate. Cooking a family meal from scratch demonstrates care, convenience food for mothers symbolises “lack” on many levels. This lack of care is interwoven into a symbolic capital that supposes a lack of time, education, cultural capital, economic capital, and therefore a lack of taste. Hence, Laura writes: We never buy cakes and eat very few convenience foods, apart from the odd fish finger in a wrap, or a tin of beans. Ready meals and oven chips don’t appeal to me and I want my kids to grow up eating real food. It is notable that Laura makes the distinction between convenience and “real” food. Similarly, Zoe claims: We eat good interesting food every day at home and a takeaway once in a blue moon (2–3 times a year). Ready meals are unheard of here and we eat out sometimes (once a month). In Gaby’s account she makes reference to: “junk food, synthetic food and really overly creamy/stodgy cheap calorie foods” and claims that this kind of food makes her feel “revolted.” In James’s research she makes connections between “junk food” and “junk families.” In Gaby’s account she has a corporeal reaction to the thought of the type of food associated with cheapness and convenience. Ophelia notes that: After 15 years of daily cooking for my family I have become much more confident and proficient in food and what it really means. Today I balance the weekly meals between vegetarian, pasta, fish and meat and we have a lot of salad. I have been trying to cook less meat, maybe twice or sometimes including a roast at weekends, three times a week. Teens need carbs so I cook them most evenings but I don’t eat carbs myself in the evening now unless it’s a pasta dish we are all sharing. Here, Ophelia is highlighting the balance between her desires and the nutritional needs of her children. The work of feeding the family is complex and incorporates a balance of different requirements. The need to display appropriate mothering through feeding the family healthy meals cooked from scratch, was especially pertinent for women working and living on their own with children, such as Valerie: I am also responsible for feeding my daughter […] I make a great effort to make sure she is getting a balanced diet. To this end I nearly always cook meals from scratch. I use meal planners to get organised. I also have to budget quite tightly and meal planning helps with this. I aim to ensure we eat fish a couple of times a week, chicken a couple of times of week, red meat maybe once or twice and vegetarian once or twice a week. We always sit down to eat together at the table, even if it is just the two of us. It gives us a chance to talk and focus on each other. It is notable that Valerie insists that they sit down to eat at a table. This is a particular aspect of a middle class habitus and one that distinguishes Valerie’s family foodways from others, despite their low income. Hence, “proper” mothering is about cooking “proper” meals from scratch, even or perhaps especially if on a limited budget or having the sole responsibility for childcare. Chloe claims: I like to cook from scratch and meals can take time so I have to plan that around work [...] I use cookbooks for ideas for quick suppers [...] thinking about it I do spend quite a lot of time thinking about what I’m going to cook. I shop with meals in mind for each night of the week [...] this will depend on what’s available in the shops and what looks good, and then what time I get home. Here, food provision is ultimately tied up with class and status and again the provision of good “healthy” food is about good “healthy” parenting. It is about time and the lack of it. A lack of time due to having to work outside of the home and the lack of time to prepare or care about preparing healthy meals from scratch. Convenience food is clearly associated with low socio-economic status, a particular working class habitus and lack of care. Conclusion In an era of heightened neo-liberal individualism, there was little evidence of a “negotiated family model” (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim) within respondents’ narratives. Mothers in my study went to great lengths to emphasise that they fed their children “healthy” food prepared from scratch. Feeding the family is a central aspect of maternal identity, with intensive mothering practices (Hays) associated with elite cultural capital and a means of drawing distinctions between groups. Hence, despite working full time or part time, the blurring of boundaries between home and work, and the easy availability of convenience foods, ready-meals, and take-away food, women in my study were committed to feeding the family healthy meals cooked from scratch as a means of differentiating their family foodways from others. Dualist and absolutist approaches to food and foodways means that unhealthy and convenience food and foodways are demonised. They are derided and considered indicative of lack on many levels, especially in terms of lacking taste in its broadest sense. Unhealthy or convenient family foodways are associated with “other” (working class) mothering practices, whereby a lack of care indicates a lack of education, time, money, cultural capital, and taste. There are rigid cultural scripts of mothering, especially for middle class mothers concerned with distancing themselves from the symbol of the mum who feeds her children convenience food, or “cheese and chips out of Styrofoam containers in front of a f***ing big television.” References Beagan, Brenda, Gwen Chapman, Andrea D’Sylva, and Raewyn Bassett. “‘It’s Just Easier for Me to Do It’: Rationalizing the Family Division of Foodwork.” Sociology 42.4 (2008): 653–71. Beck, Ulrich, and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim. Individualization, Institutionalized Individualism and its Social and Political Consequences. London: Sage, 2002. Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. London: Routledge, 1984. Bourdieu, Pierre, and Loïc Wacquant. An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Cambridge: Polity, 2002 [1992]. Cairns, Kate, Josée Johnston, and Shyon Baumann. “Caring about Food: Doing Gender in the Foodie Kitchen.” Gender and Society 24.5 (2010): 591–615. Deans, Jason. “Jamie Oliver Bemoans Chips, Cheese and Giant TVs of Modern-day Poverty.” The Guardian 27 Aug. 2013: 3. DeVault, Marjorie I. Feeding the Family. London: U of Chicago P., 1991. Hays, Sharon. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1996. Hochschild, Arlie Russell, and Anne Machung, The Second Shift (2nd ed). London: Penguin Books, 2003. James, Allison. “Children’s Food: Reflections on Politics, Policy and Practices.” London: BSA Food Studies Conference, 2010. 3 Dec. 2013. ‹http://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/24962/AllisonJames.ppt‎›. James, Allison, Anne-Trine Kjørholt, and Vebjørg Tingstad. Eds. Children, Food and Identity in Everyday Life, London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009. Johnston, Josée, and Shyon Baumann. Foodies, Democracy and Distinction in the Gourmet Kitchen. London: Routledge, 2010. McKie, Linda, Susan Gregory, and Sophia Bowlby. “Shadow Times: The Temporal and Spatial Frameworks and Experiences of Caring and Working.” Sociology 36.4 (2002): 897–924. Mills, Charles Wright. The Sociological Imagination. London: Penguin, 1959. Naccarato, Peter, and Kathleen LeBesco. Culinary Capital. London: Berg, 2012. Short, Frances. Kitchen Secrets: The Meaning of Cooking in Everyday Life. Oxford: Berg, 2006. Skeggs, Beverley. Class, Self and Culture. London: Routledge, 2004. Warde, Alan. Consumption, Food and Taste. London: Sage, 1997.

Corn-based ethanol production has increased dramatically in the past ten years, causing an increase in demand for corn by ethanol producers and an increase in production of ethanol by-products such as distillers' grains. The increase in ethanol production can be attributed to ethanol policy at the state and federal levels. Because of the increase in production of corn-based ethanol, cattle producers face greater competition for a major feed source, corn, and greater supply of an emerging feed source, distillers' grains. The objective of this study is to analyze and quantify the effects of ethanol policy on cattle production. A theoretical model and an econometric model are used to fulfill the objectives of this study. The theoretical model contains an ethanol model and a general livestock model. Results of the theoretical model present the possibilities of ethanol policy affecting cattle production. The econometric model identifies the indirect and direct effects of ethanol policy on cattle production. The results of the econometric model indicate that there is a relationship between ethanol policy, specifically the Renewable Fuel Standard, and cattle production.

A computer modeling experiment showed that grouping dairy cattle based on requirements of crude protein and net energy per kilogram expected dry matter intake (Grouper) had unique characteristics relative to other grouping systems. The objective of this study was to adapt the computerized Grouper system for practical use by implementing a field trial in commercial dairy herds to determine its managerial benefits and economic merit. Ten cooperating dairy herds participated in the one year trial. Herds were grouped monthly using test day information obtained from the Dairy Records Processing Center, Raleigh, NC and reports mailed to the cooperators. Feed consumption data and a record of cows not placed according to Grouper recommendations were collected during monthly herd visits or by mail. One set of analyses examined trends in Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI) variables through trial duration while another set compared Grouper to a comparable milk production grouping program with all herd test day information grouped with both systems. No significant changes in DHI variables could be attributed to the Grouper system. Grouper retained younger, smaller cows and those with higher fat test in the high group longer and moved older, larger cows and cows with lower fat test into the low group sooner than grouping by milk production. Grouper produced higher intraclass correlations among cows in groups for percent Total Digestible Nutrients (0.59 versus 0.41) and percent crude protein (0.65 versus 0.57) than milk production grouping. Economically, Grouper was significantly more expensive when comparing systems based on average feed cost per cow per day. However, this did not consider increased income or decreased costs associated with the system or account for possible benefits such as better health and higher production resulting from feeding more precisely each individual's nutrient requirements. The Grouper program has been automated to be used through either a dairy records processing center or an individual microcomputer and can be considered a practical management tool to help the dairy manager group cows more efficiently and feed more accurately.
Master of Science

Thesis (PhD (Agric))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is generally accepted that feed intake and growth (gain) are the most important economic components when calculating profitability in a growth test or feedlot. Feeding cost of animals is a major determinant of profitability in livestock production enterprises. Genetic selection to improve feed efficiency aims to reduce the cost of feeding in beef cattle production and thereby improve profitability. The objective of this study was to define a clear selection objective to enable South African beef breeders and especially the feedlot industry to select for post-weaning growth or feedlot performance and to identify factors influencing profitability in a feedlot environment. Because of the recording of individual feed intake and weight gain values in the South African Agricultural Research Councils' centralized growth tests, it was also possible to calculate a phenotypic value for feedlot profitability (R-value) for each bull tested in a centralized growth test. (Co)variances, using multitrait as well as random regression models, for and between feedlot profitability, weaning weight and other production, reproduction and efficiency traits were estimated. Residual feed intake (RFI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) as efficiency traits were also compared to growth (average daily gain (ADG), weaning weight (WW) and shoulder height (SHD)), reproductive (scrotum circumference (SCR)) and profitability (feedlot profitability) traits measured in growth tests of young Bonsmara bulls. Consequently, a single post-weaning growth selection index value based on the economic and breeding values of different selection criteria related to feedlot profitability was composed. (Co)variance components, heritabilities and genetic correlations for and between initial weight (lW), final weight (FW), total feed intake (FI) and shoulder height (SHD) were estimated through the use of multitrait restricted maximum likelihood (REML) procedures. These breeding values (EBV s) were then used in a selection index to calculate a single economical value for each animal. This economical value is an indication of the gross profitability value or gross test value (GTV) of the animal in a post-weaning growth test. The heritability estimate of 0.36 for R-value, obtained from the multitrait analysis, shows that this trait is genetically inherited and that it can be selected for. The heritability for R-value obtained from the single trait random regression model varied between 0.57 and 0.62. The genetic correlations between the R-value and the other traits, obtained from the multitrait analysis, varied from negligible to high. The heritability estimated for FCR was 0.34 and for RFl 0.31 with a genetic correlation estimate of 0.75 between the traits. The estimated genetic correlation between profitability (R-value) and FCR and RFl were -0.92 and -0.59, respectively. The genetic correlation estimate of -0.92 between FCR and R-value is largely due to the part-whole relationship between these two traits. This is also shown in their genetic trends. The genetic correlations and expected correlated responses between RFl and FCR with R-value suggest that indirect selection for R-value through the direct selection for FCR and/or RFl will result in slower genetic progress in Rvalue than direct selection for R-value. However, where the R-value cannot be calculated and/or where direct selection for R-value is not possible, it would be better to select indirectly for R-value through the use of FCR rather than RF!. Consequently, a regression equation was developed (with an R2 of 0.82) to estimate a feed intake value for all performance-tested Bonsmara bulls which were group fed and whose feed intakes were unknown. These predicted feed intake values made it possible to calculate a feedlot or post-weaning growth profitability value (R-value) for all tested bulls even where individual feed intakes were unknown. Subsequently, an R-value for each bull was calculated in a favourable economic environment (FEE), an average economic environment (AEE) and in an unfavourable economic environment (VEE). The high Pearson and Spearman correlations between the EBV s based on AEE and the other two environments suggested that the average economic environment could be used to calculate EBVs for R-value or feedlot growth profitability. It is therefore not necessary to change the carcass, weaner or feed price on a regular basis to account for possible re-rankings based on R-value EBVs. Heritabilities for lW, FW, Fl and SHD were 0.41, 0.40, 0.33 and 0.51, respectively. The highest genetic correlations between these traits were the 0.78 (between lW and FW) and 0.70 (between Fl and FW). GTV values varied between -R192.l7 and R231.38, with an average of R9.31. The Pearson correlations between EBVs (for production and efficiency traits) and GTV range from -0.51 to 0.68. The lowest correlation (closest to zero) was 0.26 between the Kleiber ratio (KLB) and GTV. Correlations of 0.68 and -0.51 were estimated between average daily gain (ADG) and GTV and feed conversion ratio (FCR) and GTV, respectively. The heritabilities of the different traits included in the selection index suggest that it is possible to select for a GTV. The selection index can benefit feedlotting In selecting offspring of bulls with high GTV values to maximize profitability. The Pearson and Spearman correlations between the R-value EBVs and the index values (GTV) were very high (0.97). This high correlation of 97% indicates that it is not important which method is used to calculate a genetic post-weaning growth of feedlot profitability value. The selection index value is, however, more simplified than the feedlot profitability with less assumption. Therefore, it is recommended that the post-weaning selection index value be used as a selection objective in breeding programmes to improve post-weaning growth profitability rather than the more complex feedlot profitability value.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'N GENETIESE ANALIESE VAN DIE BIOLOGIESE EN EKONOMIESE DOELTREFFENTHEID VAN NASPEENSE GROEI IN VLEISBEESTE IN DIE VOERKRAAL: Dit word algemeen aanvaar dat voerinname en groei die twee ekonomies mees belangrike komponente in die berekening van 'n naspeense groei- of voerkraalwinsgewindheidswaarde is. Voerkostes is 'n bepalende faktor van winsgewindheid in enige lewendehawe boerderypraktyk. Seleksie om voerdoeltreffendheid te verbeter, verminder dus die voerkostes in vleisbeesproduksie en gevolglik 'n verhoging in die winsgewindheid. Die doelwit van die studie was om faktore te identifiseer wat 'n invloed op winsgewindheid in die voerkraaiomgewing het asook om 'n duidelike seleksiedoelwit te formuleer wat die Suid- Afrikaanse vleisbeesteiers en veral die voerkraalbedryf instaat sal kan stelom vir naspeense groeidoeltreffendheid ofvoerkraalwinsgewindheid te selekteer. As gevolg van die aantekening en rekordhouding van weeklikse individuele voennnames en gewigstoenames van alle prestasiegetoetsde bulle, in 'n gesentraliseerde groeitoets deur die Suid- Afrikaanse Landbou Navorsingsraad getoets, was dit moontlik om vir elk van hierdie bulle 'n fenotipiese voerkraalwinsgewindheidswaarde (R-waarde) te kon bereken. (Ko)variansies is vir en tussen voerkraalwinsgewindheid, speengewig en ander produksie-, reproduksie- en doeltreffendheidseienskappe bereken deur van meereienskap en ewekansige regressie modelle gebruik te maak. Twee doeltreffendheidseienskappe naamlik residuele voerinname (RFI) en voeromsetverhouding (FCR) is ook met groei (gemiddelde daaglikse toename (ADG), speengewig (WW) en skouerhoogte (SHD)), reproduksie (skrotumomvang (SCR)) en winsgewindheidseienskappe (voerkraalwinsgewindheid (R-waarde)) vergelyk, om sodoende te bepaal watter een die mees geskikte eienskap is om indirek vir voerkraalwinsgewindheid of groei, gebaseer op teeltwaardes en ekonomiese waardes vir die verskillende eienskappe, wat 'n invloed op naspeense groei winsgewindheid het, gestruktueer. (Ko)variansiekomponente, oorerflikhede en genetiese korrelasies vir en tussen begingewig (lW), eindgewig (FW), voerinname (FI) en skouerhoogte (SHD) is bereken deur van 'n meereienskap (REML) ontleding gebruik te maak. Hierdie teelwaardes (EBVs) is vervolgens in 'n seleksie-indeks gebruik om 'n enkele ekonomies of voerkraal-winsgewindheids seleksie-indekswaarde (GTV) vir elke dier te bereken. Hierdie ekonomiese waarde is 'n aanduiding van die bruto winsgewindheidswaarde ofbruto toetswaarde (GTV) van die dier in 'n naspeentoets. Die oorerflikheid, vanuit die meereienskapontleding vir R-waarde beraam, was 0.36. Hierdie oorerflikheid dui daarop dat die eienskap oorerflik is en dat dit wel moontlik is om daarvoor te selekteer. Die ooreflikhede van R-waarde, voorspel vanuit die enkeleienskap ewekansige regressieontleding varieer tussen 0.57 en 0.62. Die genetiese korrelasie tussen R-waarde en ander eienskappe, vanuit die meereienskap ontleding beraam, varieer tussen weglaatbaar klein tot hoog. Die oorerflikheid van FeR was 0.34 en van RFI 0.31 met 'n genetiese korrelasie van 0.75 tussen die twee eienskappe. Die genetiese korrelasie tussen R-waarde en FeR, en R-waarde en RFI was onderskeidelik -0.92 en -0.59. Die rede vir die hoë negatiewe genetiese korrelasie tussen R-waarde en FeR van -0.92 is omdat dieselfde komponente in die berekening van die twee eienskappe gebruik is. Dit word ook in die genetiese tendense weerspeël. Die genetiese korrelasies en verwagte gekorreleerde responsies tussen R-waarde en FeR, en tussen R-waarde en RFI dui daarop dat stadiger genetiese vordering verkry sal word in R-waarde deur direkte seleksie vir beide FeR en RFI as wat verkry sal word deur die direkte seleksie vir R-waarde. Wanneer 'n R-waarde egter nie bereken kan word nie of waar dit nie moontlik is om direk vir R-waarde te selekteer nie, sal vinniger genetiese vordering in R-waarde gemaak word deur die direkte seleksie vir FeR as vir RF!. 'n Regressievergelyking is geformuleer (met 'n R2 van 0.82) om vir alle prestasiegetoetsde bulle, waar bulle in 'n groep gevoer is en individuele voerinnames onbekend is, 'n voerinnamewaarde te voorspel. Hierdie voorspelde voerinnames maak dit moontlik om vir elke prestasiegetoetsde bul ,'n naspeengroei- of voerkraalwinswaarde (R-waarde) te bereken, al is hulle individuele voerinnames onbekend. Vervolgens is drie verskillende R-waarde vir vleisproduksie vir elke bul bereken naamlik, in 'n gunstige ekonomiese omgewing (FEE), 'n gemiddelde ekonomiese omgewing (AEE) en 'n ongunstige ekonomiese omgewing (VEE). Die hoë Pearson en Spearman korrelasies tussen die EBVs vir R-waarde, bereken in die AEE en die EBVs in die ander twee ekonomiese omgewings, dui daarop dat die AEE gebruik kan word om EBVs vir naspeense groeiof voerkraalwins te bereken. Dit is dus nie nodig om op 'n gereelde grondslag die karkasprys, lewendige speenkalfprys of die voerprys te verander nie. Oorerflikhede, vanuit die meereienskap ontledings VIr lW, FW, FI en SHD verkry, was onderskeidelik 0.41, 0.40, 0.33 en 0.51. Die hoogste genetiese korrelasies tussen die eienskappe was 0.78 tussen lW en FW en 0.70 tussen FI en FW. GTV indekswaardes varieer tussen -Rl92.17 en R231.38 met 'n gemiddelde waarde van R9.31. Die Pearson korrelasies tussen die EBVs van produksie- en doeltreffenheidseienskappe en GTV het tussen -0.51 en 0.68 gevarieer. Die korrelasie naaste aan zero, van 0.26, was die korrelasie tussen GTV en die Kleiber-verhouding. Die korrelasies tussen GTV en ADG, en GTV en FeR was onderskeidelik 0.68 en -0.51. Die oorerflikhede van die verskillende eienskappe wat in die seleksie-indeks ingesluit is, dui daarop dat die indekswaarde weloorerflik is en dat seleksie hiervoor wel moontlik is. Hierdie indekswaarde kan deur die voerkraaiindustrie gebruik word om nageslag van diere met hoë GTV waardes te selekteer om sodoende maksimum wins uit die voerkraai te genereer. Die Pearson en Spearman korrelasies tussen R-waarde EBVs en die indekswaardes (GTV) was besonder hoog (0.97). Hierdie hoë korrelasie dui daarop dat dit geen verskil sal maak watter een van die twee metodes gebruik word in die berekeninge van 'n naspeense groei- of voerkraalwinswaarde nie. Die seleksie-indeks metode is egter minder gekompliseerd met minder aannames as in die geval van die rekeningkundige fenotipiese benadering (R-waarde). As gevolg hiervan, word die naspeense seleksie-indeks waardes (GTV) aanbeveel om te gebruik as 'n teeldoelwit in telingsprogramme om naspeense groei- of voerkraaiwins geneties te verbeter, eerder as die meer gekompliseerde fenotipiese voerkraaiwins (R-waardes) metode.

The focus of this thesis was to analyze the least cost of producing rations for ducks in three age categories from a mixture of conventional feed ingredients and three different processed food waste products and to examine the financial and economic feasibility of establishing an industrial plant to produce these food waste products in the Montreal region. The first part of the thesis was investigated through the use of a linear programming model. The effect of recognizing the variability of protein levels in the various feed ingredients was examined through the use of chance-constrained programming.
The second part of the thesis was examined using economic and financial analyses for the investment. The basic plant requirements to produce the three processed food waste products were the same, however energy costs were different for the three products. Revenue was generated from tipping fees and the sale of the three processed food waste products. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

The objective of this study was to examine the use of technical indicators, in an econometric context, as guides in making pricing decisions relative to feeder cattle production. Technical indicators were developed for both the short and long term. Short term indicators were designed to capture divergence/convergence between the Relative Strength Index and the futures price stream to form the Price Linked to Divergence index. A long term indicator using an average difference in price over a longer period was developed to form the Price Linked to Trend index. These indicators were used in the econometric models which in conjunction with cash production costs formed a hold/price/sell decision framework. Analysis was conducted on fall-to-spring, spring-to-fall, and fall-to-fall production programs. Results for the three production programs in both the in and out-of-sample environments showed that on average a futures price in the top half of the futures price range was captured. This resulted in average improvement in returns through hedging for every program.
Master of Science

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is well-known as a destructive pest of fruit worldwide. Various control methods have been used against this insect. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is used as an important and successful technological method for controlling or eradicating this pest in many countries. A key factor to successfully apply SIT is dependent on the availability of efficient and economical rearing methods. Artificial insect diets with low cost bulking agents have been of interest to many researchers. The present study investigated the use of locally available maize meal as a bulking agent in such diets. Maize meal is used for human consumption (in South Africa) and contains small amounts of protein. This makes the reduction of imported torula yeast as an ingredient of the diet and source of protein possible, thereby reducing the cost of the diet. The larval development of the Medfly reared on artificial diets was studied in small and large-scale tests. The effect of the diets on larval production was evaluated using pupal recovery, pupal weight, flight ability, sex ratio, fecundity and egg fertility. The results of the small-scale tests showed that the diet containing maize meal could be used to produce Medfly more economically than the standard Krige diet used by the ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij Research Institute at Stellenbosch. However, in large-scale tests the ingredients quantities of the diets used were not the same as those of small scale-tests. The cost of the modified larval diet was not reduced in large-scale tests. This was ascribed to the number of eggs used in the tests to produce one million of fruit flies. The maize meal with reduced number of eggs require more diet to produce one million flies therefore, making it more expensive and less viable. When similar amounts of eggs were used, the diet appears to be a suitable alternative as the result obtained was almost similar to those of the Krige diet.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Mediterreens vrugtevlieg ("Medfly"), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is wêreldwyd 'n skadelike plaag. Die steriele insek tegniek (SIT) het in baie lande 'n belangrike en suksesvolle manier geword om die plaag te beheer en uit te roei. Die belangrikste voorvereiste vir die suksesvolle toepassing van SIT is die beskikbaarheid van doeltreffende en ekonomiese teelmetodes. Meeste navorsers is geïntereseerd in kunsmatige diëte met 'n goedkoop vulstof. Hierdie studie is ontwerp om die gebruik van plaaslik beskikbare mieliemeel as vulstof te ondersoek. In Suid-Afrika word dit vir menslike gebruik aangewend en bevat klein hoeveelhede proteïene wat 'n vermindering van die ingevoerde torula gis moontlik kan maak, en sodoende die koste van die dieët kan verminder. Die ontwikkeling van Medfly larwes op kunsmatige diëte is bestudeer In kleinskaalse en grootskaalse eksperimente. Die invloed van die diëte op larwale produksie is evalueer deur gebruik te maak van van papie-ontwikkeling, papie-gewig, vliegvermoë, geslagsverhouding, volwasse voortplantingsvermoë en eiervrugbaarheid. Die resultate van die kleinskaalse toetse het aangetoon dat die mieliemeel dieët gebruik kan word om Medfly meer ekonomies as met die standaard Krige dieët, wat in die ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij navorsings instituut by Stellenbosch gebruik word, te teel. By die grootskaalse toetse was die koste nie laer nie. Dit word toegeskryf aan die aantal eiers wat gebruik is om 'n miljoen vlieë te produseer. Die mieliemeel dieët met 'n verminderde aantal eiers benodig meer dieët om 'n miljoen vlieë te produseer, wat dit duurder en minder lewensvatbaar maak. Wanneer soortgelyke hoeveelhede eiers gebruik was, het dit geblyk dat die dieët 'n opsie is, want die resultaat was soortgelyk aan dié van die Krige dieët.

The broad objective of the study was to determine the economic value of local pigs in marketand subsistence-oriented production systems in communal areas of Southern Africa. Data were collected from 288 households to investigate farmer perceptions, effects on pig production and handling of disease outbreaks such as classical swine fever (CSF) in market- and subsistenceoriented production systems. The utilisation of local pigs in these market- and subsistenceoriented production systems in improving people‟s welfare was evaluated. Climate change was identified by farmers in these production systems as a major constraint to pig production hence an experiment was carried out in the hottest season to determine diurnal heat-related physiological and behavioural responses in Large White (LW) and South African local pigs. The same genotypes were used to determine effects of diurnal heat-related stress on their growth performance. Choice experiment was done to determine farmer preferences for local pig traits and implicit prices for these traits in CSF-affected and unaffected areas that were under subsistence- and market-oriented production systems. In this experiment, the importance of heat tolerance was assessed relative to other productive and climate change adaptation traits. Significantly more pigs were culled in the CSF-affected areas that were market-oriented (8.0 ± 1.76) than subsistence-oriented (4.1 ± 1.00) production system. The risk of parasites and disease challenges was high in subsistence-oriented production system and coastal areas. In both production systems, CSF was perceived as destructive since the culling of pigs affected pork availability and income generation. The high risk of disease outbreaks and threat of climate change caused farmers in subsistence-oriented production system to select local pigs for their adaptive traits while those in the market-oriented production system focused on productive imported pigs. Farmers (83 %) indicated that they wanted pig genotypes that were adapted to climate change effects such as hot conditions. Local pigs were found to have superior heat tolerance over LW pigs (P < 0.05) in terms of lower heart rate and skin surface temperature. Frequency per day and duration for behavioural heat loss activities such as wallowing, sleeping in a prostrate posture and sprawling in slurry were also lower (P < 0.05) for local than LW pigs. The superiority of heat tolerance of local over LW pigs was further confirmed by their uncompromised growth performance under high diurnal temperatures. The Pearson‟s product moment correlation coefficient between temperature and feed conversion ratio for LW pigs was strongly positive (r = 0.50; P < 0.001) unlike the weak and positive correlation for local pigs (r = 0.20; P < 0.05). There was a quadratic relationship between temperature and average daily gain (ADG) for both pig genotypes. The regression coefficients for ADG were higher (P < 0.001) for LW than local pigs. It was concluded that at high ambient temperatures, performance of local pigs was less compromised than for LW pigs. Although local pigs were found to be heat tolerant, results of choice experiment showed that this trait was not selected for relative to other traits. Keeping pigs that required bought-in feeds, fell sick often and produced low pork quality (eating quality based on farmer perceptions) negatively affected farmers‟ livelihoods more in subsistence- than market-oriented production system. Farmers in market-oriented production system derived more benefit from productive traits such as heavier slaughter weights and large litter size than subsistence-oriented farmers. Under the subsistence-oriented production system, farmers in CSF-affected areas placed high prices on adaptive traits than the unaffected areas. Subsistence-oriented farmers who were affected by CSF wanted a total compensation price of R10 944.00 (USD1563.43) for keeping a pig genotype with unfavourable traits when compared to R4235.00 (USD605.00) for their CSF-unaffected counterparts. Implicit prices for traits could not be determined for market-oriented production system. It was concluded that farmers in CSFaffected areas placed high economic values on pig traits than farmers from the CSF-unaffected areas. The findings suggest that adapted local pigs can be promoted in subsistence-oriented production systems while productive imported pigs and their crosses with local pigs can be kept in market-oriented production systems.

The production of forage in British Columbia plays and integral role in sustaining livestock herds within the province. Forage is an important component in the daily feed requirements of horses, sheep, and cattle. Fluctuations in the availability of forage due to drought or bad weather conditions can impose considerable costs on farmers who raise livestock. Wide—spread drought conditions can significantly limit the availability of forage crops within certain regions, causing prices within those regions to become inflated. Under standard insurance in British Columbia, farmers are only insured against shortfalls in production; there is no compensation provided against increases in the price of forage. For those purchasing forage, a Wide—Spread Drought (WSD) insurance scheme would provide insurance against the price—risk associated with drastic weather conditions. However, since forage prices are required to operate such a policy and are non—observable, a mechanism is needed in order to estimate them. A regional spatial price—equilibrium model which relates regional prices to regional production is developed in this thesis. The model will eventually be used to predict prices and hence determine whether a particular region is eligible for a payout under the WSD insurance scheme. A key assumption behind the model is that according to the ‘Law of One Price’; prices are perfectly arbitraged. In a competitive setting, in which agents maximize individual welfare, total welfare is maximized and prices between regions will not differ by more than the transportation costs. This spatial price—equilibrium model is applied to British Columbia forage production. The regions incorporated in the study include the Peace River, Central Interior, Cariboo—Chilcotin, Thompson—Okanagan, and Kootenay Regions. The Lower Mainland/Fraser Valley and Vancouver Island are excluded as they do not typically fall under the forage crop insurance plan in British Columbia.