Journal articles on the topic 'Pit design techniques, open pit mine planning'

In a mining operation, the structural model is considered as a first-order data required for planning. During the start-up and in-depth expansion of an operation, whether the case is open-pit or underground, the structural model must be systematically updated because most common failure mechanisms of a rock mass are generally controlled by geological discontinuities. This update represents one of the main responsibilities for structural geologists and mine engineers. For that purpose, our study presents a geochemically-developed tool based on the tridimensional (3-D) distribution of arsenic concentrations, which have been quantified with a very high-density of blast-holes sampling points throughout an open pit operation. Our results show that the arsenic spatial distribution clearly denotes alignments that match with faults that were previously recognized by classical direct mapping techniques. Consequently, the 3-D arsenic distribution can be used to endorse the existence and even more the real persistence of structures as well as the cross-cutting relationships between faults. In conclusion, by linking the arsenic fault-pathfinder tool to direct on field fault mapping, it is possible to improve structural models at mine scale, focusing on geotechnical design and management, with a direct impact in the generation of safety mining activities.

The standard optimization of open-pit mine design and production scheduling, which is impacted by a variety of factors, is an essential part of mining activities. The metal uncertainty, which is connected to supply uncertainty, is a crucial component in optimization. To address uncertainties regarding the economic value of mining blocks and the general problem of mine design optimization, a minimum-cut network flow algorithm is employed to give the optimal ultimate pit limits and pushback designs under uncertainty. A structure that is computationally effective and can manage the joint presentation and treatment of the economic values of mining blocks under various circumstances is created by the push re-label minimum-cut technique. In this study, the algorithm is put to the test using a copper deposit and shows similarities to other stochastic optimizers for mine planning that have already been created. Higher possibilities of reaching predicted production targets are created by the algorithm’s earlier selection of more certain blocks with blocks of high value. Results show that, in comparison to a conventional approach using the same algorithm, the cumulative metal output is larger when the uncertainty in the metal content is taken into consideration. There is also an additional 10% gain in net present value.

Karakterisasi massa batuan diperlukan dalam suatu rancangan bukaan batuan, dimana perhitungan sifat-sifat teknis dari massa batuan menjadi hal yang penting untuk diperhatikan. Sektor Lemajung merupakan salah satu area prospek untuk penambangan uranium di Kalan, Kalimantan Barat. Tujuan penelitian adalah mendapatkan data karakteristik massa batuan yang merupakan data dasar bagi perencanaan pengembangan teknik penambangan cebakan bahan galian. Metodologi yang digunakan adalah dengan pengambilan contoh batuan untuk analisis laboratorium mekanika batuan, pengamatan rekahan, dan pengamatan kondisi airtanah. Parameter batuan yang dianalisis meliputi uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), rock quality designation (RQD), jarak rekahan, kondisi rekahan, dan airtanah. Hasil analisis menyimpulkan bahwa metalanau sebagai litologi yang mengandung uranium di Sektor Lemajung mempunyai nilai rock mass rating (RMR) sebesar 56 atau kelas massa batuan III: fair rock pada kedalaman sekitar 60 m, dan pada kedalaman 280 m nilai RMR mencapai 82 atau kelas massa batuan I: very good rock. Data nilai RMR tersebut selanjutnya dapat digunakan dalam analisis pembuatan terowongan pada model tambang bawah tanah atau analisis kestabilan lereng pada model tambang terbuka. Rock mass characterization is required in design of rock opening, which calculation of engineering characters of rock mass become one important parameter toconsider. Lemajung sector is one of prospect area for uranium mining in Kalan, West Kalimantan. Purpose of research is to acquire rock mass characteristicsas basic data for planning the development of mining technique of ore deposit. Methodology applied is rock sampling for rock mechanic laboratory analysis, observation of joints, and observation of groundwater condition. Rock parameters analyzed includes uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), rock quality designation (RQD), joint spacing, joint condition, and groundwater. Analysis concluded that metasiltstonewhich is lithology contained uranium in Lemajung Sector has rock mass rating (RMR) value of 56 or rock mass class III: fair rock in the depth of around 60 m, and in the depth of 280 m RMR value reach 82 or rock mass class I: very good rock. RMR value data furthermore could be used for analysis of tunneling in the model of underground mine or slope stability analysis in the model of open pit mine.

Open pit mine design and production scheduling deals with the quest for most profitable mining sequence over the life of a mine. The dynamics of mining ore and waste, and spatial grade uncertainty make predictions of the optimal mining sequence a challenging task. Valuation and related decision-making in surface mining require the assessment and management of orebody risk in the generation of a pit design and long term production scheduling. As the most profitable mining sequence over de life of a mine determines both economic outcome of a project and the technical plan to be followed from mine development to mine closure, the adverse effects of orebody risk on performance is critical and are documented in various studies. Ignoring such a consequential source of risk and uncertainty may lead to unrealistic production plans. This paper presented a set of procedures that enable mine planning engineers to carry out a series of analysis, which can be used to evaluate the sensitivity of incremental pit shells and pit designs to grade uncertainty. The results obtained from the analysis have shown to provide valuable information, which can be used to develop mining strategies that are risk resilient in relation to grade uncertainty. A real life application at Sossego copper mine ensure that such procedures are technically implementable, supporting decision-making as (a) in-fill drilling programs; (b) review of mining sequence; (c) identification of areas of upside potential and downside risk and (d) ore blending between mining areas in order to minimize the impact of high risk areas. The goal of this work is to provide an approach for clear risk analysis and management in mine planning cycle to various aspects of pit optimisation and design, resulting in more technically and economically sustainable life-of-mine production plans and mineral reserve depletion.

Mineral and metallurgical processing are crucial within the mineral value chain. These processes involve several stages wherein comminution is arguably the most important due to its high energy consumption, and its impact on subsequent extractive processes. Several geological properties of the orebody impact the efficiency of mineral processing and extractive metallurgy; scholars have therefore proposed to deal with the uncertain ore feed in terms of grades and rock types, incorporating operational modes that represent different plant configurations that provide coordinated system-wide responses. Even though these studies offer insights into how mine planning impacts the ore fed into the plant, the simultaneous optimization of mine plan and metallurgical plant design has been limited by the existing stochastic mine planning algorithms, which have only limited support for detailing operational modes. The present work offers to fill this gap for open-pit mines through a computationally efficient adaptation of a strategic mine planning algorithm. The adaptation incorporates a linear programming representation of the operational modes which forms a Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition, nested within a high-performing stochastic mine planning algorithm based on a variable neighborhood descent metaheuristic. Sample calculations are presented, loosely based on the Mount Isa deposit in Australia, in which a metallurgical plant upgrade is evaluated, showing that the upgraded design significantly decreases the requirement on the mining equipment, without significantly affecting the NPV.

With mining depth and state-wide expansion in open pit mining, it is necessary to bulid a three-dimensional visual model of open pit mining boundary, which can be used in the analysis of pit slope stability, engineering decisions, geological analysis and production planning. In this paper, a three-dimensionla visual model reflecting the complex formation load and terrain conditions was built by collecting original open pit design and geological data. With this model, stability analysis of open pit can be obtained and theoretical basis for selection of design can be provided. In the specific prcess of modelling, the original information in the existing CAD mining topographic maps were be used fully and the mine topographic maps was imported into Surpac mining software. Surface digital terrain model can be obtained elevation assignmented by corrction processing of CAD linears and vector processing of measring point data. On this basis, by using MIDAS software and considering the requirements of the scope of computational space, a three-dimensional model can be obtained through Boolean cut operations. With this model, the real surface shape of open pit mining boundary can be reflected.

With the development of society, the demand for mineral resources is gradually increasing, and the current situation of decreasing total resources dictates the inevitable interaction between open-pit combing underground extraction (OPUG) in time and space. In this research, we took the Anjialing coal mine in Shanxi Province of China as a case study, and tested the physical and mechanical properties of coal rocks in the laboratory. The similarity criterion was used to build a similar experimental model for the deformation evolution of the slope of the open-pit mine section; the digital scattering method was used to test the influence of the underground mining process parameters on the deformation evolution of the open-pit slope. The results showed that there was an obvious distribution of “three zones” above the mining goaf, namely, a collapse zone, fracture zone, and slow subsidence zone. When the mining face was continuously advanced towards the bottom of the open pit, the supporting stress of the mining face transferred to the side of the open-pit slope. Additionally, large displacement and stress concentration were observed on the slope near the stoping line, which caused the slope body to move along the uppermost part of the slope first, and thereafter along the lower part. Various techniques for slope stability control are discussed, including the optimization of spatial and temporal relationships between open-pit and underground mining, the optimization of mining plans, and the use of monitoring and early warning systems. The results can provide a guide for slope stability control of similar open-pit mines in the process of mining coal resources.

Along with the advancement of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), improvement of high-resolution cameras and development of vision-based mapping techniques, unmanned aerial imagery has become a matter of remarkable interest among researchers and industries. These images have the potential to provide data with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution for three-dimensional (3D) modelling. In this paper, we present our theoretical and technical experiments regarding the development, implementation and evaluation of a UAV-based photogrammetric system for precise 3D modelling. This system was preliminarily evaluated for the application of gravel-pit surveying. The hardware of the system includes an electric powered helicopter, a 16-megapixels visible camera and inertial navigation system. The software of the system consists of the in-house programs built for sensor calibration, platform calibration, system integration and flight planning. It also includes the algorithms developed for structure from motion (SfM) computation including sparse matching, motion estimation, bundle adjustment and dense matching.

A 3D model of optimal contours phased development of oval-shaped open pit mines is proposed in the article. It is assumed that with enough accuracy the volumetric contour of the open pit mine is interpolated by an elongated elliptic hyperboloid. The calculation formulas for mineral resources are derived and optimal volumes of overburden are determined depending on the mining phase. In this case, the total number of mining phases is set in advance. The stripping ratio is used as a quality criterion of the optimization task. The problem of optimal control is solved using the Bellman function in dynamic programming. All the necessary calculation formulas are obtained in the final form by solving the optimization problem. Their simplicity and substantiation of each conclusion ensure that the results of this study can be successfully applied in practical calculations of the design and planning of mining operations in open pit mining.

In blasting operation, some undesirable impacts, such as fly-rock, fragmentation, and back break, are induced. If the blasting design is not optimized, these mentioned impacts would reduce the blasting efficiency. To improve and optimize the blast design, blasting effect evaluation is essential. Due to the complexity of interactions among blasting parameters, empirical methods may not be appropriate for blast design optimization. A two-level mathematical model based on fuzzy mathematics, is proposed in this work. In total, 11 typical parameters were chosen and classified into three groups. The blasting effect is evaluated from three aspects, and then the comprehensive evaluation is given. A blasting effect evaluation system was developed based on the mentioned method on the platform of VC++. Some other techniques, such as image processing, were integrated into the system, which allowed for obtaining all of the parameters rapidly and conveniently. The system was applied in practical bench blast engineering. The results obtained from the system can provide effective information for the optimization of the next blast design.

This paper shows the importance of performing probabilistic analyses in open pits, especially for mine planning, which can lead to more efficient ore extraction and meeting the acceptability criteria for safety in mine slopes. Three-dimensional stability analyses were performed to evaluate the future geometry of a large open pit for iron ore extraction in Brazil. The strength parameters of the lithologies were calibrated using ruptures in the pit walls. After determining the factors of safety (FoSs) from the calibrated parameters, probabilistic analyses were performed using the total range of values of each parameter under different field conditions to verify the reliability of the initial analysis. In this sense, it was possible to plot the probability of failure (PoF) and the FoS on the graph of slope height versus slope interramp angle (IRA) for the future pit in each lithology. IRA recommendations are made for two scenarios: (1) the best scenario: dry without ubiquitous joints and (2) the worst scenario: the water table at 10 m depth with ubiquitous joints in the most unfavourable direction. The results show that probabilistic evaluation is an important tool for establishing alert mechanisms in slopes that can be termed stable.

At the time of this writing, the U.S. Geological Survey estimates that the average American-born human will need millions of pounds of fuels, minerals, and other extracted resources in his or her lifetime. Mining is a critical global industry, spanning all but one continent (Antarctica), with the highest-producing countries being China, the United States, Russia, Australia, and India. Increasingly, this demand is driving mining companies to explore and pursue deeper mineral deposits as near-surface deposits deplete. Correspondingly, there has been a significant rise in industry interest in applying operations research techniques to improve underground mine planning. Newman et al. [Newman AM, Rubio E, Caro R, Weintraub A, Eurek K (2010) A review of operations research in mine planning. Interfaces 40(3):222–245] present a review of such techniques, applied to both open pit and underground mining operations. We focus here on the advancements since that publication and concentrate on underground applications in metalliferous deposits, such as copper, iron, and gold.

Abstract The mining industry faces a period of increasingly difficult challenges over the next 30 years. The increasing demand for traditional mineral resources will likely continue unabated as developing countries modernize and the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources ramps up. Compounding the challenge will be more rigorous constraints on mining imposed by environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) standards and regulations, as well as the progression from open-pit and shallow underground deposits to large, deeper, potentially lower-grade deposits, where underground mass mining methods are the only viable option. The latter change will especially apply to metals that are critical to mass electrification, including the traditionally required metals such as Cu, Ni, Co, Mn, Zn, U, etc. The more expensive-to-produce critical metals, such as Li, rare earths, high-purity alumina, etc., are currently only used in smaller quantities, and thus open-pit mining of these may remain viable until their near-surface resources are depleted. The large-scale mining of Cu, Ni, and Mo in particular will increasingly rely on cave mining methods, as these are the only profitable underground methods capable of yielding the large tonnages necessary to meet global demands, such as raising living standards within developing countries and providing the foundation for mass electrification of modern society, and all at a time when shallow deposits mined by open pit are becoming scarce. The application of cave mining is thus expected to increase in the future for deep mineral deposits with characteristics that are suited to this mining method. However, poor cave mine performance and/or unpredicted rock-mass responses (e.g., mine-induced seismicity) during cave mining can threaten the viability of the mine and will reduce investor confidence in this method. Irrespective of whether mining is of a traditional metal on a very large (mass) scale, or of a presently critical metal that now has lower tonnage requirements, we predict that geology will need to be more comprehensively considered during mine planning and design—right from the early stages of mine study—because of the uncertainties that the host rocks (geology) present to mining. This will be especially important in complying with the ESG constraints that are being applied to mining companies, in addition to the concept of sustainability that they also seek to address. We review—and propose remediation research of—the various geology-related issues that are already causing concern during mass underground mining by caving of Cu ore; some of these issues are equally applicable to other types of mining, such as open-pit and narrow-width extraction.

The process of creating a geological block model as the basis for a further detailed design and planning of mining operations is a very responsible task. Errors made during this initial process are transferred to all other phases of the mining project. Certainly, one of the most important decisions for the modelling process is the choice of the appropriate size of the blocks that form the model itself. The determination of the optimal block size is not a simple process, because it depends on a large number of affecting factors and criteria. This process can be significantly facilitated by the application of multi-criteria analysis methods, which enable establishment of interdependence between the criteria in order to select the optimal solution. This paper presents the possibilities of applying the Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) method for selecting the optimal block size for the needs of the coal deposit modelling process and mine planning, as well as the way in which this method can significantly facilitate problem solving, by looking at it from several aspects. The analysis included six criteria and four potential solutions, and the results themselves indicated the advantages and disadvantages of the applied method.

Numerical groundwater modelling to support mining decisions is often challenging and time consuming. Simulation of open pit mining for model calibration or prediction requires models that include unsaturated flow, large magnitude hydraulic gradients and often require transient simulations with time varying material properties and boundary conditions. This combination of factors typically results in models with long simulation times and/or some level of numerical instability. In modelling practice, long run times and instability can result in reduced effort for predictive uncertainty analysis, and ultimately decrease the value of the decision-support modelling. This study presents an early application of the Iterative Ensemble Smoother (IES) method of calibration-constrained uncertainty analysis to a mining groundwater flow model. The challenges of mining models and uncertainty quantification were addressed using the IES method and facilitated by highly parallelized cloud computing. The project was an open pit mine in South Australia that required predictions of pit water levels and inflow rates to guide the design of a proposed pumped hydro energy storage system. The IES calibration successfully produced 150 model parameter realizations that acceptably reproduced groundwater observations. The flexibility of the IES method allowed for the inclusion of 1493 adjustable parameters and geostatistical realizations of hydraulic conductivity fields to be included in the analysis. Through the geostatistical realizations and IES analysis, alternative conceptual models of fractured rock aquifer orientation and connections could be conditioned to observation data and used for predictive uncertainty analysis. Importantly, the IES method out-performed finite difference methods when model simulations contained small magnitude numerical instabilities.

Open-pit mining results in profound modifications at different environmental scales that may persist for very long time periods, or even indefinitely. Considerable research efforts in mine reclamation strategies have been made, although reclamation failures are still common. In dry climates, such as in the Mediterranean Basin, successful actions may depend on features related to proper species selection and restoration techniques, which may substantially contribute to provide substrate stability and facilitate the regeneration of the main ecological processes. In this context, we developed the TECMINE case-study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and suitability of innovative restoration practices applied to clay-mine reclamation under Mediterranean conditions. The restoration strategy was designed at the landscape level with two main approaches: the recovery of natural geomorphology shapes and ecological restoration, including vegetation recovery and soil quality, based on proper reference ecosystems. After the geomorphological land remodeling, a combination of several innovative restoration techniques was implemented to reclaim plant communities and ecosystem functioning. These techniques involved: (i) accurate species selection according to microhabitat characteristics; (ii) high-quality plant production; (iii) surface remodeling to improve substrate stabilization; and (iv) implementing rainfall collection to enhance resources availability, soil fertility improvement and the amelioration of abiotic conditions for seedlings. Finally, we developed a monitoring program to assess the success of the implemented restoration techniques over time. The application of these innovative techniques has reported interesting results and represents a step forward in the improvement of mine restoration under Mediterranean climate.

The mining industry is in need of a good planning so that the planned production targets can beachieved at minimum cost and revenue optimally, and can generate cash flow that will maximizerevenue each year over the life of the mine took place. Tin ore mining economic studies based onthe technical design data, so that the determination of the cost will be considered by the company.Components of the economic study of tin ore mining in terms of costing, revenue from the sale ofproducts, the calculation of cash flow, net present value, internal rate of return, payback period,sensitive analysis. Based on the results of studies on tin ore mine PT Mitra Stania Prima BlockKemingking acquired total reserves of tin ore amounted to 2.801,531 tons, by applying the method ofmining Open Pit Mining. From the economic feasibility calculations assuming the bank rate of 12%was obtained net present value of Rp 11.810.941.184.00, internal rate of return of 19.04%, and apayback period of 4.78 months for 2 years. Based on these results the project of PT Mitra StaniaPrima Block Kemingking feasible to continue.

Large cable shovel is a complex mechatronic system used for primary production in the open pit mine. For such structure-control highly coupled system, the conventional sequential design strategy (structure design followed by the control optimization in sequence) cannot manage this interaction adequately and explicitly. In addition, the large cable shovel consists of large number of sub-systems and/or disciplines, which also poses challenges to the global optimal design for large cable shovel. To enhance large cable shovel’s performance, an integrated design optimization strategy combining the structure-control simultaneous design (co-design) and the multidisciplinary design optimization is established in this study to perform the global optimization for the large cable shovel. In this proposed multidisciplinary co-design, the point-to-point trajectory planning method is extended to achieve the simultaneous optimization of the structure and control system. Besides the structure and control, the dynamics/vibration and energy consumption are taken into account in this multidisciplinary co-design. The objectives are to minimize the energy consumption per volume of ore and to minimize the excavating time. By comparing the multidisciplinary co-design and the conventional sequential design, it is found that the multidisciplinary co-design can not only make large cable shovel’s structure more compact with relatively small vibration, but also generate more flexible control speeds by making the best of the power motors.

The deterioration of rock geomechanical behaviors subjected to freeze–thaw (F–T) action is a determining factor for rock engineering and rock structures in cold regions. In this work, taking six groups of granite obtained from an open pit mine as the research object, F–T cycle treatment, in-situ AE (acoustic emission) monitoring and ultrasonic detection techniques were performed to experimentally reveal the effects of F–T fatigue damage on the mechanical and acoustic properties of granite. The results indicate that the F–T action impacts the rock’s mesoscopic structure, deformation, strength, P and S-wave velocities, AE pattern and energy release. The accumulated AE counts and accumulated AE energy show a decreasing trend as the F–T cycle increases. The frequency spectrum revealed that the width of the low frequency band decreases and the high frequency band increases with increasing F–T cycles, indicating that there is an increase in large-scale cracks for a sample with high F–T treatment. In addition, energy balance analysis further illustrates the energy dissipation and release mechanism. The energy proportion used to drive the crack propagation is relatively small with high F–T treatment, and the final released energy becomes the minimum. The energy evolution characteristics analyzed by the energy balance approach is in good agreement with AE results. It is suggested that the F–T fatigue damage influences the rock energy storage and release characteristics and the instability of rock in the cold regions.

Alternative tailings disposal technologies can be effective solutions to mining waste safety and environmental problems. The current decision-making processes for tailings disposal schemes lack consideration of environmental impacts. Based on a case study of an open-pit iron mine in northern China, this study adopted the life cycle assessment (LCA) method to compare the environmental impacts of three tailings disposal schemes of conventional slurry disposal technology (CSDT), dry stack disposal technology (DSDT) by belt conveyance and DSDT by truck transport. The results indicated that (1) the environmental impacts of the CSDT scheme were lowest under the premise that water consumption was ignored; (2) the environmental impacts of the DSDT scheme by belt conveyance mainly originated from its transport process, indicating that the tailings storage facilities (TSFs) site planning could be crucial in design decision making; (3) the environmental impacts of the DSDT scheme by truck transport mainly originated from the energy consumption of dry stacking equipment; and (4) the DSDT scheme by truck transport was eventually found to be preferable and implemented in the case study, after comprehensively considering the LCA results, TSF safety and remaining capacity, and social and policy uncertainties. It is therefore recommended to conduct LCA of environmental impacts in the decision-making process for the sustainable design of TSFs.

Mining activities in TB 2.2 TempilangSite was conducted by Bahtera Sarindo Utama as a partner of PT Timah (Persero) Tbk.The method and technology used in mining site was Mechanical Mine as an alternative of conventional open pit mining which had been applied to overcome a great lack of hydraulic mining. There were several problems occurred in tin mining activities of TB 2.2 Tempilang included less of cycle time of gravel pump per day due to several problems that appeared in mine site such as gravel pump were often broken, Front Work landslides, so the production activity was inefficient. Mine planning of Mining mechanical methods plan Mechanics in TB 2.2 TempilangSite had production target of 320 m3 / h or 5,760 m3 / day. Therefore it was necessary to optimize the mining design to make it more efficient. The study included the election needs of load haulage equipment and conveyance based fleet to achieve production targets.Based on the results obtained, the need of equipment in hydraulic mine method for IDH work Front 1 to achieve production target was4 units of hydraulic pump, 4 units of gravel pump, 3 units of Excavators and 4 units of Articular Dump Truck with the total production of 5,976 m3 / day, and if using mechanical mine methodthe needs of load haulage equipment and conveyance for IDH removal was 1 fleet, 2 units of CAT 320D2 Excavator and 6 units of CAT 740B ADT with a total production of 6588.00 m3 / day with the production rate at 9.20 % greater than hydraulic mine and fleet 2 such us 1 unit of 345D CAT Excavator and 6 units of CAT 740B ADT 6 with the total production of 6468.12 m3/ day with the production rate at 7.60% greater than hydraulic mine.Based on the results obtained, mine lifetime of TB 2.2 TempilanFront 1 was 6,13 years using hydraulic mine method, 5,57 years for Mechanical mine of fleet 1 and 5.67 years for fleet 2. From these results suggested, that would better to use mechanical mine method in the removal of IDH in TB 2.2 Tempilang. With the availability of load haulage equipments and conveyance would counduct with fleet 1.

Editor’s note: The Geology and Mining series, edited by Dan Wood and Jeffrey Hedenquist, is designed to introduce early-career professionals and students to a variety of topics in mineral exploration, development, and mining, in order to provide insight into the many ways in which geoscientists contribute to the mineral industry. Abstract Cave mining methods (generically referred to as block caving) are becoming the preferred mass underground mining options for large, regularly shaped mineral deposits that are too deep to mine by open pit. The depth at which caving is initiated has increased over the past few decades, and operational difficulties experienced in these new mines have indicated the need for a much improved geologic and geotechnical understanding of the rock mass, if the low-cost and high-productivity objectives of the method are to be maintained and the mines operated safely. Undercuts (the caving initiation level immediately above the ore extraction level) are now being developed at depths of >1,000 m below surface, with the objective of progressively deepening to 2,000 and, eventually, 3,000 m. Many of the deeper deposits now being mined by caving have lower average metal grades than previously caved at shallower depths and comprise harder and more heterogeneous rock masses, and some are located in higher-stress and higher-temperature environments. As a result, larger caving block heights are required for engineering reasons; mining costs (capital and operating) are also escalating. In these deeper cave mining environments, numerous hazards must be mitigated if safety, productivity, and profitability are not to be adversely affected. Fortunately, potential hazards can be indicated and evaluated during exploration, discovery, and deposit assessment, prior to mine design and planning. Major hazards include rock bursts, air blasts, discontinuous surface subsidence, and inrushes of fines. These hazards are present during all stages of the caving process, from cave establishment (tunnel and underground infrastructure development, drawbell opening, and undercutting) through cave propagation and cave breakthrough to surface, up to and including steady-state production. Improved geologic input into mine design and planning will facilitate recognition and management of these risks, mitigating their consequences.

Introduction. The article presents the results of developing the procedure of evaluating quality indicators of minerals based on the technology of block modeling with the use of modern mining and geological information systems (MGIS). The flowchart of mineral quality indicators modeling has been proposed, and the outcome of its application has been presented by the example of Serovsky complex ore deposit and Odegeldei coalfield, the Tyva Republic. The presented procedure of block modeling makes it possible to zone the industrial types and sorts of ore in the open pit with a high degree of accuracy, which helps to solve the problems of industrial design, planning and management in the conditions of economic uncertainty, deteriorating mining and geological and mining-process conditions of field development. Research aim is to develop a universal algorithm of block modeling to improve the procedures of evaluating quality indicators. Methodology. The scheme has been developed which establishes the connection between the stages of modeling and process solutions for field opencasting. Based on geologic feature block modeling, the procedure of mineral quality indicators geometrization has been widened and improved. Results. The flexibility of mineral quality block modeling procedure has been proved. It can be applied at any deposit to solve certain mining engineering objectives. Based on the presented scientific results, mineral quality control procedures may be developed, and mining planning may be improved in the mode of quality control. Summary. The proposed methodology is flexible and makes it possible to evaluate quality indicators of minerals to select rational techniques of mineral quality control.

The optimal design of roads in mines is very crucial to the success of the mining operation. However, the transportation roads of mines are often inadequately designed and rarely properly maintained in order to save cost. In order to acquire the optimum track of road for the open pit coal mine, analysis of the topography factor, land usage, environment, and geology are needed on the basic engineering design phase. Considering the amount of overlapping and influencing criteria, the method of Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (Fuzzy AHP) is used. FAHP is the combination of AHP with the mathematical method of fuzzy. The difference between FAHP and AHP is the implementation of the level of importance in the paired comparison of the comparison matrices, which uses Triangular Fuzzy Numbers (TFN). Following the geometric planning of the open pit coal mine haul road, several track alternatives are considered. Fuzzy AHP was used to select the final alternative that should be implemented. The criteria for the fuzzy AHP operation were acquired through expert opinions. The resulting criteria and scores were processed, with the final result of a feasibility ranking of each track alternative. Fuzzy AHP were proven to be very effective to be used in determining the optimum haul road track alternative for an open pit coal mine.

SYNOPSIS Long-term production scheduling is a major step in open pit mine planning and design. It aims to maximize the net present value (NPV) of the cash flows from a mining project while satisfying all the operational constraints, such as grade blending, ore production, mining capacity, and pit slope during each scheduling period. Long-term plans not only determine the cash flow generated over the mine life, but are also the basis for medium- and short-term production scheduling. Mathematical programming methods, such as linear programming, mixed integer linear programming, dynamic programming, and graph theory, have shown to be well suited for optimization of mine production scheduling. However, the long-term plans generated by the mathematical formulations mostly create a scattered block extraction order on several benches that cannot be implemented in practice. The reason is the excessive movement of mining equipment between benches in a single scheduling period. In this paper, an alternative integer linear programming (ILP) formulation is presented for long-term production scheduling that reduced the number of active benches in any scheduling period. Numerical results of the proposed model on a small-scale open pit gold mine show a 34% reduction in the average number of working benches in a given scheduling period. Keywords: long-term production scheduling, mathematical programming, practical plans, equipment movements.

Mining industry importance stems from the fact that it forms the basis of all materials used by humankind, including the agro-industrial sector, where products such as phosphates are behind a significant part of all modern agriculture. Despite its high economic importance, the constraints of its activity make it be considered one of the most challenging and dangerous industries. The main optimization problems in open pit mining design consist on the determination of the ultimate pit limit for exploitation, and mining block sequences for the production schedule, where safety management decision system needs to be integrated. The proposed protocol provides the procedure that will be used to conduct one or more systematic reviews according to the PRISMA statement, to prove the effectiveness of optimization solutions on open pit mining production and occupational safety. The search will be carried out in eight electronic engineering databases, using eight combinations of appropriate keywords for the topic to achieve the main goal. The selection process, data extraction, and data synthesis are described. advantages (improvement in mine planning and safety in the long and short term), the effectiveness of implementation (cost and time). Outcomes of this study will contribute to the mining industry through research in order to improve mine planning and safety in long term and short term.

Despite drones being successfully utilized for monitoring and detecting hazards in mines, there is limited research on their application for open-pit stockpile volumetric computation compared to traditional methods. Furthermore, time, cost, and safety have challenged the use of the traditional approach. Present study aims to fill the gaps by conducting a comparative analysis of stockpile volumetric computation utilizing a drone and traditional approach. A mapping framework is proposed to guide mine personnel on how to conduct open-pit stockpile volumetric computations. The methodology comprises using a drone and traditional survey approach to measure the volume of a known quarry stockpile. Drone-captured images are processed in Pix4D mapper software and geometric techniques are applied to the traditional survey approach. Findings show that the smaller the error of the checkpoints the more accurate the generated model making the measurements reliable. The generated Pix4D quality report showed a root mean square error of 0.019. The drone percentage error to the actual volume is 2.6% while the traditional approach is 1.3%. Both estimations are less than the maximum allowable percentage error of ± 3%. Therefore, compared to the traditional approach drone technology provides an accurate, cost-effective, fast, and safe working distance suitable for stockpile volumetric computations in open pit quarries.

Mining induced seismicity can expose tailings dams to ground motions with potential to trigger a failure, if the structure reaches a certain level of vibrations that could exceed the seismic coefficient design criteria from pseudostatic analysis. Despite the cited risk, mainly for dams that are closer to open pits, few dams in Brazil are monitored by microseismic systems, and there are no references in the literature about continuous seismic monitoring both in open pit (source) and tailings dam, which represents the motivation of this paper. A microseismic system was commissioned in Cajati Mine, São Paulo, to record seismic events continuously in an array of 16 geophones (14 Hz and 4.5 Hz), installed in boreholes near the open pit (12 sensors) and in the dam (4 sensors), has measured values of PGA (Peak Ground Acceleration) and PGV (Peak Ground Velocity) related to 2,972 induced events from rock removal in the open pit. During the period monitored, the total of 109 events have triggered sensors in both structures, producing 920 seismograms, with the highest values of PGA and PGV of 0.0135 m/s2 (0.1358% of g) and 0.0892 mm/s. The highest PGA value is 36 times lower than the vertical coefficient of 3% of g defined by Brazilian technical standard to dam design criteria, normally used in common pseudostatic analysis from geotechnical engineers. A routine microseismic monitoring brings a new set of valuable actionable data and information to support the management of geotechnical tailings dams’ risks, under the conditions of vibrations induced by mining production.

AbstractBackbreak (BB) is one of the serious adverse blasting consequences in open-pit mines, because it frequently reduces economic benefits and seriously affects the safety of mines. Therefore, rapid and accurate prediction of BB is of great significance to mine blasting design and other production activities. For this purpose, six different swarm intelligence optimization (SIO) algorithms were proposed to optimize the extreme learning machine (ELM) model for BB prediction, i.e., ELM-based particle swarm optimization (ELM–PSO), ELM-based fruit fly optimization (ELM–FOA), ELM-based whale optimization algorithm (ELM–WOA), ELM-based lion swarm optimization (ELM–LOA), ELM-based seagull optimization algorithm (ELM–SOA) and ELM-based sparrow search algorithm (ELM–SSA). In total, 234 data records from blasting operations in the Sungun mine in Iran were used in this study, including six input parameters (special drilling, spacing, burden, hole length, stemming, powder factor) and one output parameter (i.e., BB). To evaluate the predictive performance of the different optimization models and initial models, six performance indicators including the root mean square error (RMSE), Pearson correlation coefficient (R), determination coefficient (R2), variance accounted for (VAF), mean absolute error (MAE) and sum of square error (SSE) were used to evaluate the models in the training and testing phases. The results show that the ELM–LSO was the best model to predict BB with RMSE of 0.1129 (R: 0.9991, R2: 0.9981, VAF: 99.8135%, MAE: 0.0706 and SSE: 2.0917) in the training phase and 0.2441 in the testing phase (R: 0.9949, R2: 0.9891, VAF: 98.9806%, MAE: 0.1669 and SSE: 4.1710). Hence, ELM techniques combined with SIO algorithms are an effective method to predict BB.

Introduction Almost all industries in Australia today have adopted digital media in some way. However, uses in large scale activities such as mining may seem to be different from others. This article looks at mining practices with a media studies approach, and concludes that, just as many other industries, mining and media have converged. Many Australian mine sites are adopting new media for communication and control to manage communication, explore for ore bodies, simulate forces, automate drilling, keep records, and make transport and command robotic. Beyond sharing similar digital devices for communication and computation, new media in mining employ characteristic digital media operations, such as numerical operation, automation and managed variability. This article examines the implications of finding that some of the most material practices have become mediated by new media. Mining has become increasingly mediated through new media technologies similar to GPS, visualisation, game remote operation, similar to those adopted in consumer home and mobile digital media. The growing and diversified adoption of digital media championed by companies like Rio Tinto aims not only ‘improve’ mining, but to change it. Through remediating practices of digital mining, new media have become integral powerful tools in prospective, real time and analytical environments. This paper draws on two well-known case studies of mines in the Pilbara and Western NSW. These have been documented in press releases and media reports as representing changes in media and mining. First, the West Angelas mines in the Pilbara is an open cut iron ore mine introducing automation and remote operation. This mine is located in the remote Pilbara, and is notable for being operated remotely from a control centre 2000km away, near Perth Airport, WA. A growing fleet of Komatsu 930E haul trucks, which can drive autonomously, traverses the site. Fitted with radars, lasers and GPS, these enormous vehicles navigate through the open pit mine with no direct human control. Introducing these innovations to mine sites become more viable after iron ore mining became increasingly profitable in the mid-2000s. A boom in steel building in China drove unprecedented demand. This growing income coincided with a change in public rhetoric from companies like Rio Tinto. They pointed towards substantial investments in research, infrastructure, and accelerated introduction of new media technologies into mining practices. Rio Tinto trademarked the term ‘Mine of the future’ (US Federal News Service 1), and publicised their ambitious project for renewal of mining practice, including digital media. More recently, prices have been more volatile. The second case study site is a copper and gold underground mine at Northparkes in Western NSW. Northparkes uses substantial sensing and control, as well as hybrid autonomous and remote operated vehicles. The use of digital media begins with prospecting, and through to logistics of transportation. Engineers place explosives in optimal positions using computer modelling of the underground rock formations. They make heavy use of software to coordinate layer-by-layer use of explosives in this advanced ‘box cut’ mine. After explosives disrupt the rock layer a kilometre underground, another specialised vehicle collects and carries the ore to the surface. The Sandvik loader-hauler-dumper (LHD) can be driven conventionally by a driver, but it can also travel autonomously in and out of the mine without a direct operator. Once it reaches a collection point, where the broken up ore has accumulated, a user of the surface can change the media mode to telepresence. The human operator then takes control using something like a games controller and multiple screens. The remote operator controls the LHD to fill the scoop with ore. The fully-loaded LHD backs up, and returns autonomously using laser senses to follow a trail to the next drop off point. The LHD has become a powerful mediator, reconfiguring technical, material and social practices throughout the mine. The Meanings of Mining and Media Are Converging Until recently, mining and media typically operated ontologically separately. The media, such as newspapers and television, often tell stories about mining, following regular narrative scripts. There are controversies and conflicts, narratives of ecological crises, and the economics of national benefit. There are heroic and tragic stories such as the Beaconsfield mine collapse (Clark). There are new industry policies (Middelbeek), which are politically fraught because of the lobbying power of miners. Almost completely separately, workers in mines were consumers of media, from news to entertainment. These media practices, while important in their own right, tell nothing of the approaching changes in many other sectors of work and everyday life. It is somewhat unusual for a media studies scholar to study mine sites. Mine sites are most commonly studied by Engineering (Bellamy & Pravica), Business and labour and cultural histories (McDonald, Mayes & Pini). Until recently, media scholarship on mining has related to media institutions, such as newspapers, broadcasters and websites, and their audiences. As digital media have proliferated, the phenomena that can be considered as media phenomena has changed. This article, pointing to the growing roles of media technologies, observes the growing importance that media, in these terms, have in the rapidly changing domain of mining. Another meaning for ‘media’ studies, from cybernetics, is that a medium is any technology that translates perception, makes interpretations, and performs expressions. This meaning is more abstract, operating with a broader definition of media — not only those institutionalised as newspapers or radio stations. It is well known that computer-based media have become ubiquitous in culture. This is true in particular within the mining company’s higher ranks. Rio Tinto’s ambitious 2010 ‘Mine of the Future’ (Fisher & Schnittger, 2) program was premised on an awareness that engineers, middle managers and senior staff were already highly computer literate. It is worth remembering that such competency was relatively uncommon until the late 1980s. The meanings of digital media have been shifting for many years, as computers become experienced more as everyday personal artefacts, and less as remote information systems. Their value has always been held with some ambivalence. Zuboff’s (387-414) picture of loss, intimidation and resistance to new information technologies in the 1980s seems to have dissipated by 2011. More than simply being accepted begrudgingly, the PC platform (and variants) has become a ubiquitous platform, a lingua franca for information workers. It became an intimate companion for many professions, and in many homes. It was an inexpensive, versatile and generalised convergent medium for communication and control. And yet, writers such as Gregg observe, the flexibility of networked digital work imposes upon many workers ‘unlimited work’. The office boundaries of the office wall break down, for better or worse. Emails, utility and other work-related behaviours increasingly encroach onto domestic and public space and time. Its very attractiveness to users has tied them to these artefacts. The trail that leads the media studies discipline down the digital mine shaft has been cleared by recent work in media archaeology (Parikka), platform studies (Middelbeek; Montfort & Bogost; Maher) and new media (Manovich). Each of these redefined Media Studies practices addresses the need to diversify the field’s attention and methods. It must look at more specific, less conventional and more complex media formations. Mobile media and games (both computer-based) have turned out to be quite different from traditional media (Hjorth; Goggin). Kirschenbaum’s literary study of hard drives and digital fiction moves from materiality to aesthetics. In my study of digital mining, I present a reconfigured media studies, after the authors, that reveals heterogeneous media configurations, deserving new attention to materiality. This article also draws from the actor network theory approach and terminology (Latour). The uses of media / control / communications in the mining industry are very complex, and remain under constant development. Media such as robotics, computer modelling, remote operation and so on are bound together into complex practices. Each mine site is different — geologically, politically, and economically. Mines are subject to local and remote disasters. Mine tunnels and global prices can collapse, rendering active sites uneconomical overnight. Many technologies are still under development — including Northparkes and West Angelas. Both these sites are notable for their significant use of autonomous vehicles and remote operated vehicles. There is no doubt that the digital technologies modulate all manner of the mining processes: from rocks and mechanical devices to human actors. Each of these actors present different forms of collusion and opposition. Within a mining operation, the budgets for computerised and even robotic systems are relatively modest for their expected return. Deep in a mine, we can still see media convergence at work. Convergence refers to processes whereby previously diverse practices in media have taken on similar devices and techniques. While high-end PCs in mining, running simulators; control data systems; visualisation; telepresence, and so on may be high performance, ruggedised devices, they still share a common platform to the desktop PC. Conceptual resources developed in Media Ecology, New Media Studies, and the Digital Humanities can now inform readings of mining practices, even if their applications differ dramatically in size, reliability and cost. It is not entirely surprising that some observations by new media theorists about entertainment and media applications can also relate to features of mining technologies. Manovich argues that numerical representation is a distinctive feature of new media. Numbers have always already been key to mining engineering. However, computers visualise numerical fields in simulations that extend out of the minds of the calculators, and into visual and even haptic spaces. Specialists in geology, explosives, mechanical apparatuses, and so on, can use plaftorms that are common to everyday media. As the significance of numbers is extended by computers in the field, more and more diverse sources of data provide apparently consistent and seamless images of multiple fields of knowledge. Another feature that Manovich identifies in new media is the capacity for automation of media operations. Automation of many processes in mechanical domains clearly occurred long before industrial technologies were ported into new media. The difference with new media in mine sites is that robotic systems must vary their performance according to feedback from their extra-system environments. For our purposes, the haul trucks in WA are software-controlled devices that already qualify as robots. They sense, interpret and act in the world based on their surroundings. They evaluate multiple factors, including the sensors, GPS signals, operator instructions and so on. They can repeat the path, by sensing the differences, day after day, even if the weather changes, the track wears away or the instructions from base change. Automation compensates for differences within complex and changing environments. Automation of an open-pit mine haulage system… provides more consistent and efficient operation of mining equipment, it removes workers from potential danger, it reduces fuel consumption significantly reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and it can help optimize vehicle repairs and equipment replacement because of more-predictable and better-controlled maintenance. (Parreire and Meech 1-13) Material components in physical mines tend to become modular and variable, as their physical shape lines up with the logic of another of Manovich’s new media themes, variability. Automatic systems also make obsolete human drivers, who previously handled those environmental variations, for better or for worse, through the dangerous, dull and dirty spaces of the mine. Drivers’ capacity to control repeat trips is no longer needed. The Komatsu driverless truck, introduced to the WA iron ore mines from 2008, proved itself to be almost as quick as human drivers at many tasks. But the driverless trucks have deeper advantages: they can run 23 hours each day with no shift breaks; they drive more cautiously and wear the equipment less than human drivers. There is no need to put up workers and their families up in town. The benefit most often mentioned is safety: even the worst accident won’t produce injuries to drivers. The other advantage less mentioned is that autonomous trucks don’t strike. Meanwhile, managers of human labour also need to adopt certain strategies of modulation to support the needs and expectations of their workers. Mobile phones, televisions and radio are popular modes of connecting workers to their loved ones, particularly in the remote and harsh West Angelas site. One solution — regular fly-in-fly out shifts — tends also to be alienating for workers and locals (Cheshire; Storey; Tonts). As with any operations, the cost of maintaining a safe and comfortable environment for workers requires trade-offs. Companies face risks from mobile phones, leaking computer networks, and espionage that expose the site to security risks. Because of such risks, miners tend be subject to disciplinary regimes. It is common to test alcohol and drug levels. There was some resistance from workers, who refused to change to saliva testing from urine testing (Latimer). Contesting these machines places the medium, in a different sense, at the centre of regulation of the workers’ bodies. In Northparkes, the solution of hybrid autonomous and remote operation is also a solution for modulating labour. It is safer and more comfortable, while also being more efficient, as one experienced driver can control three trucks at a time. This more complex mode of mediation is necessary because underground mines are more complex in geology, and working environments to suit full autonomy. These variations provide different relationships between operators and machines. The operator uses a games controller, and watches four video views from the cabin to make the vehicle fill the bucket with ore (Northparkes Mines, 9). Again, media have become a pivotal element in the mining assemblage. This combines the safety and comfort of autonomous operation (helping to retain staff) with the required use of human sensorimotor dexterity. Mine systems deserve attention from media studies because sites are combining large scale physical complexity with increasingly sophisticated computing. The conventional pictures of mining and media rarely address the specificity of subjective and artefactual encounters in and around mine sites. Any research on mining communication is typically within the instrumental frames of engineering (Duff et al.). Some of the developments in mechanical systems have contributed to efficiency and safety of many mines: larger trucks, more rock crushers, and so on. However, the single most powerful influence on mining has been adopting digital media to control, integrate and mining systems. Rio Tinto’s transformative agenda document is outlined in its high profile ‘Mine of the Future’ agenda (US Federal News Service). The media to which I refer are not only those in popular culture, but also those with digital control and communications systems used internally within mines and supply chains. The global mining industry began adopting digital communication automation (somewhat) systematically only in the 1980s. Mining companies hesitated to adopt digital media because the fundamentals of mining are so risky and bound to standard procedures. Large scale material operations, extracting and processing minerals from under the ground: hardly to be an appropriate space for delicate digital electronics. Mining is also exposed to volatile economic conditions, so investing in anything major can be unattractive. High technology perhaps contradicts an industry ethos of risk-taking and masculinity. Digital media became domesticated, and familiar to a new generation of formally educated engineers for whom databases and algorithms (Manovich) were second nature. Digital systems become simultaneously controllers of objects, and mediators of meanings and relationships. They control movements, and express communications. Computers slide from using meanings to invoking direct actions over objects in the world. Even on an everyday scale, computer operations often control physical processes. Anti-lock Braking Systems regulate a vehicle’s braking pressure to avoid the danger when wheels lock-up. Or another example, is the ATM, which involves both symbolic interactions, and also exchange of physical objects. These operations are examples of the ‘asignifying semiotic’ (Guattari), in which meanings and non-meanings interact. There is no operation essential distinction between media- and non-media digital operations. Which are symbolic, attached or non-consequential is not clear. This trend towards using computation for both meanings and actions has accelerated since 2000. Mines of the Future Beyond a relatively standard set of office and communications software, many fields, including mining, have adopted specialised packages for their domains. In 3D design, it is AutoCAD. In hard sciences, it is custom modelling. In audiovisual production, it may be Apple and Adobe products. Some platforms define their subjectivity, professional identity and practices around these platforms. This platform orientation is apparent in areas of mining, so that applications such as the Gemcom, Rockware, Geological Database and Resource Estimation Modelling from Micromine; geology/mine design software from Runge, Minemap; and mine production data management software from Corvus. However, software is only a small proportion of overall costs in the industry. Agents in mining demand solutions to peculiar problems and requirements. They are bound by their enormous scale; physical risks of environments, explosive and moving elements; need to negotiate constant change, as mining literally takes the ground from under itself; the need to incorporate geological patterns; and the importance of logistics. When digital media are the solution, there can be what is perceived as rapid gains, including greater capacities for surveillance and control. Digital media do not provide more force. Instead, they modulate the direction, speed and timing of activities. It is not a complete solution, because too many uncontrolled elements are at play. Instead, there are moment and situations when the degree of control refigures the work that can be done. Conclusions In this article I have proposed a new conception of media change, by reading digital innovations in mining practices themselves as media changes. This involved developing an initial reading of the operations of mining as digital media. With this approach, the array of media components extends far beyond the conventional ‘mass media’ of newspapers and television. It offers a more molecular media environment which is increasingly heterogeneous. It sometimes involves materiality on a huge scale, and is sometimes apparently virtual. The mining media event can be a semiotic, a signal, a material entity and so on. It can be a command to a human. It can be a measurement of location, a rock formation, a pressure or an explosion. The mining media event, as discussed above, is subject to Manovich’s principles of media, being numerical, variable and automated. In the mining media event, these principles move from the aesthetic to the instrumental and physical domains of the mine site. The role of new media operates at many levels — from the bottom of the mine site to the cruising altitude of the fly-in-fly out aeroplanes — has motivated significant changes in the Australian industry. When digital media and robotics come into play, they do not so much introduce change, but reintroduce similarity. This inversion of media is less about meaning, and more about local mastery. Media modulation extends the kinds of influence that can be exerted by the actors in control. In these situations, the degrees of control, and of resistance, are yet to be seen. Acknowledgments Thanks to Mining IQ for a researcher's pass at Mining Automation and Communication Conference, Perth in August 2012. References Bellamy, D., and L. 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