Journal articles: 'Pitching (Baseball) Performance. Batting (Baseball)'

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Gray, Rob. "Differences in Attentional Focus Associated With Recovery From Sports Injury: Does Injury Induce an Internal Focus?" Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 37, no. 6 (December 2015): 607–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0156.

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Although it is commonly believed that focusing too much attention on the injured body area impairs recovery in sports, this has not been directly assessed. The present study investigated attentional focus following sports injury. Experienced baseball position players recovering from knee surgery (Expt 1) and baseball pitchers recovering from elbow surgery (Expt 2) performed simulated batting and pitching respectively. They also performed three different secondary tasks: leg angle judgments, arm angle judgments, and judgments about the ball leaving their bat/hand. Injured athletes were compared with expert and novice control groups. Performance on the secondary tasks indicated that the injured batters had an internal focus of attention localized on the area of the injury resulting in significantly poorer batting performance as compared with the expert controls. Injured pitchers had a diffuse, internal attentional focus similar to that of novices resulting in poorer pitching performance as compared with the expert controls.

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Porter, Anthony, Shawn Yang, Aakash Chauhan, Samuel Early, Sravya Challa, John D’Angelo, Daniel Keefe, Heinz Hoenecke, and Jan Fronek. "Professional Advancement and Performance of Amateur Baseball Players Selected in the Major League Baseball Draft With Previous Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction." American Journal of Sports Medicine 48, no. 3 (January 28, 2020): 581–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546519898194.

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Background: The effect that an anterior cruciate ligament injury requiring reconstructive surgery has on the professional advancement and performance of amateur baseball players selected in the Major League Baseball draft is not known. Return to sports after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) in professional athletes has been shown to be high, but mixed results with regard to performance and return to preinjury level have been demonstrated in other sports. Purpose: To (1) investigate the highest level of professional advancement among Major League Baseball draftees with a history of ACLR before entering the draft, (2) examine how much time these players spent on the disabled list (DL) and determine if it was related to the knee, and (3) compare the batting and pitching performance of these players against healthy matched controls. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Predraft medical records of all players selected in the Major League Baseball draft from 2004 to 2008 were reviewed. Players with a documented anterior cruciate ligament injury treated with ACLR before the draft were included. For each study player, 3 controls were identified. Data were accumulated from the time when players were drafted through the 2015 season. Outcome variables included highest professional level of advancement, DL time, and batting and pitching performance. Results: Forty draftees with a history of ACLR (22 pitchers, 18 position players) were identified and matched to 120 controls (66 pitchers, 54 position players). The difference in the highest level of professional advancement between the groups was not statistically significant ( P = .488). The mean total number of times and the mean total number of days on the DL were similar between the groups (1.83 vs 1.47, P = .297; 121.54 vs 109.62, P = .955); however, the mean number of times on the DL because of a knee injury was significantly different (0.28 vs 0.11, P = .004), as was the mean number of days on the DL because of a knee injury (17.36 vs 7.72, P = .009). Among pitchers, there were no differences in performance. Similarly, there were no differences among position players in batting performance. Conclusion: There was no difference between draftees with a history of ACLR and their controls in terms of advancement from the minor to the major leagues. Additionally, pitching and batting performance were similar. Although the 2 groups spent similar time on the DL, the ACLR group spent more time on the DL because of a knee injury than the control group.

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Kent, Wes P., and Scott C. Sheridan. "The Impact of Cloud Cover on Major League Baseball." Weather, Climate, and Society 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2011): 7–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2011wcas1093.1.

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Abstract Although it is often suggested that direct sunlight may affect a player’s vision, no published studies have analyzed this interaction. In this research, a variety of statistical tests were utilized to study how baseball variables respond to different cloud cover conditions. Data from more than 35 000 Major League Baseball games, spanning the seasons from 1987 through 2002, were studied. Eleven baseball variables covering batting, pitching, and fielding performance were included. Overall responses were analyzed, as well as individual responses at 21 different stadiums. Home and away team performances were evaluated separately. This study then synthesized the synergistic differences in offensive production, pitching performance, and fielding performance into changes in the “home field advantage.” Offensive production generally declines during clearer-sky daytime games compared to cloudy-sky daytime games, while pitching performance increases as conditions become clearer. Strikeouts show the strongest response in the study, increasing from 5.95 per game during cloudy-sky conditions to 6.40 per game during clear-sky conditions. The number of errors per game increases during clear-sky daytime games compared to cloudy-sky daytime games, while fly outs increase and ground outs decrease between daytime and nighttime games, regardless of the amount of cloud cover. Results at individual stadiums vary, with some stadiums displaying a very strong association between baseball performance and changes in cloud cover, while others display a weak association. All of these impacts affect the home field advantage, with the home team winning 56% of the games played under clear skies compared to 52.3% of the games played under cloudy skies.

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Smart, Dennis, Jason Winfree, and Richard Wolfe. "Major League Baseball Managers: Do They Matter?" Journal of Sport Management 22, no. 3 (May 2008): 303–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.22.3.303.

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Smart and Wolfe (2003) assessed the concurrent contribution of leadership and human resources to Major League Baseball (MLB) team performance. They found that player resources (defense/pitching and offence/batting) explained 67% of the variance in winning percentage, whereas leadership explained very little (slightly more than 1%) of the variance. In discussing the minimal contribution of leadership to their results, the authors suggested that future studies expand their operationalization of leadership. That is what is done in this study. Finding that the expanded operationalization has limited effect in explaining the contribution of leadership, we take an alternative tack in attempting to understand leadership in MLB. In addition, we estimate a production frontier (based on offensive and defensive resources), determine the efficiency of MLB managers relative to that frontier, and investigate the extent to which manager efficiency can be explained by manager characteristics. Finally, manager characteristics are related to manager compensation.

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Robertson, P. B., M. M. Walsh, and J. C. Greene. "Oral Effects of Smokeless Tobacco Use by Professional Baseball Players." Advances in Dental Research 11, no. 3 (September 1997): 307–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/08959374970110030101.

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This is a review of studies conducted from 1988-90 on the oral consequences of snuff and chewing tobacco use among professional baseball players. About half of the players studied were smokeless tobacco (ST) users, the majority of whom used snuff. Compared with non-users, players who used ST showed a significantly higher prevalence of leukoplakia, which was related to placement of the ST quid, and the frequency, amount, duration, and type of ST used. Sites adjacent to these mucosal lesions showed an increased prevalence of gingival recession with associated attachment loss, cervical abrasion, and root caries than did comparable sites in non-users. Extrinsic stain and occlusal attrition were also more frequent in ST users than in non-users. While ST use placed players at significantly increased risk for mucosal lesions and other oral problems, no differences were found between ST non-users and users in measurements of batting, fielding, and pitching performance during the baseball season.

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Gould, Heath P., Robert Daniel Winkelman, Joseph Tanenbaum, Emily Hu, Colin M. Haines, Wellington Hsu, Iain H. Kalfas, Jason W. Savage, Mark S. Schickendantz, and Thomas E. Mroz. "Performance-Based Outcomes Following Symptomatic Pars Injuries in American Professional Baseball Players." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 7, no. 7_suppl5 (July 2019): 2325967119S0040. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967119s00406.

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Objectives: Previous studies in the evidence-based literature suggest that lumbar spine injuries can lead to a significant decrease in athletic performance. This phenomenon is particularly evident in sports that require repetitive truncal rotation, such as baseball. Although we have previously characterized the natural history of symptomatic spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis in professional baseball players, no prior study has investigated the impact of pars injuries on player performance in this patient population. The purpose of this study was to report performance-based outcomes following symptomatic pars injuries in elite-level baseball athletes. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted among all professional baseball players who presented with a symptomatic pars defect between 2011 and 2016. Both Major League and Minor League players were enrolled using a de-identified injury surveillance database maintained by the MLB. Lumbar spine imaging reports were reviewed to confirm the radiologic diagnosis of spondylolysis or spondylolisthesis. Players were stratified according to baseball position (pitcher vs. position player). Primary outcome measures for pitchers were earned run average (ERA) and walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP), while primary outcomes for position players were batting average (AVG) and on-base plus slugging (OPS). Paired t tests were used to compare pre-injury statistical performance to post-injury performance, with p < 0.05 treated as statistically significant. Results: During the defined study period, 75 players presented with low-back pain in the setting of a pars defect. 47 players were diagnosed with spondylolysis (62.7%), while 28 were diagnosed with spondylolisthesis (37.3%). Of those individuals, 19 players were excluded due to incomplete statistical data in the MLB injury surveillance system. Pre-injury vs. post-injury statistical comparisons are presented in Table 1. Pitching performance after the pars injury did not significantly differ with regard to the primary outcome measures, ERA (3.45 vs. 4.73; p = 0.25) and WHIP (1.28 vs. 1.47; p = 0.26). There was also no significant difference in any of the secondary outcomes - runs per 9 innings (R/9), hits per 9 innings (H/9), walks per 9 innings (BB/9), strikeouts per 9 innings (K/9), home runs per 9 innings (HR/9), and strikeout-to-walk ratio (K/BB). Similarly, batting performance among position players did not significantly differ from pre-injury to post-injury with regard to the primary outcomes, AVG (.261 vs. .256; p = 0.59) and OPS (.672 vs. .667; p = 0.87), or any of the secondary outcomes - on-base percentage (OBP), slugging percentage (SLG), runs per plate appearance (R/PA), hits per plate appearance (H/PA), runs batted in per plate appearance (RBI/PA), extra-base hits per plate appearance (XBH/PA), home runs per plate appearance (HR/PA), and walk-to-strikeout ratio (BB/K). Conclusion: This study represents the most comprehensive analysis of the impact of symptomatic pars injuries on MLB player performance. While previous studies suggest that lumbar injuries lead to shorter careers in both pitchers and position players, our current data demonstrate that pars defects do not cause a significant decrease in performance when MLB athletes return to play following these injury episodes. Given the limitations of our study design, larger prospective investigations are needed to validate these conclusions. [Table: see text]

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Soto Valero, César, and Mabel González Castellanos. "Sabermetría y nuevas tendencias en el análisis estadístico del juego de béisbol (Sabermetrics and new trends in statistical analysis of baseball)." Retos, no. 28 (March 23, 2015): 122–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.47197/retos.v0i28.34826.

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La sabermetría es reconocida actualmente como una tendencia novedosa en el estudio del juego de béisbol. Con mucho auge y utilización en el análisis empírico, esta se basa en el estudio estadístico riguroso de la evidencia objetiva obtenida durante el juego. Teniendo en cuenta tanto sus aportes teóricos como prácticos, la sabermetría se fundamenta en una constante búsqueda por comprender cómo jugar mejor y más eficientemente al béisbol, lo cual se expresa y soporta mediante un tipo de análisis de actuación único entre todos los deportes colectivos. El presente trabajo aborda los aspectos esenciales de la sabermetría, fundamentando la necesidad de su surgimiento y utilización, como una forma de perfeccionar la manera en que tradicionalmente se ha llevado a cabo el análisis estadístico en el béisbol. Además, se brinda un resumen de los estadísticos sabermétricos más utilizados, tanto de bateo y picheo como otros de valor individual para el equipo, con el propósito de hacer más clara su comprensión, estudio y posterior utilización entre los seguidores de este deporte.Abstract. Sabermetrics is recognized as a new trend in the study of baseball game. This is based on the rigorous statistical study of the objective evidence obtained and has been used extensively in its empirical analysis. Considering both theoretical and practical contributions, sabermetrics involves the constant quest of understanding how to play baseball better and more efficiently, which is expressed and supported by an exceptional type of analysis performance unique among all team sports. This paper describes the essential aspects of sabermetrics, pointing in the necessity of its emergence and use, as a way to improve the traditional statistical analysis of baseball. Moreover, a summary of the sabermetrics statistics most widely used is given. Both batting and pitching, as well as others of individual value for the team are stated throughout this work in order to make sabermetrics understanding, study and further use clearer among followers of this sport.

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Peterson, Joshua G., Vehniah K. Tjong, Michael A. Terry, Matthew D. Saltzman, Stephen M. Gryzlo, and Ujash Sheth. "Concussion Incidence and Impact on Player Performance in Major League Baseball Players Before and After a Standardized Concussion Protocol." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 8, no. 4 (April 1, 2020): 232596712091302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967120913020.

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Background: Sports-related concussions have garnered significant attention in recent years because of the negative effects they can have on a player’s cognitive health and performance. In response to this growing concern, Major League Baseball (MLB) introduced a standardized concussion protocol during the 2011-2012 season. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to compare the reported incidence of concussions and the subsequent performance of MLB players before and after the introduction of the standardized concussion protocol. We hypothesized that the introduction of the standardized concussion protocol would not have an impact on player performance postconcussion. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Players who suffered a concussion between 2001 and 2018 were identified from the MLB transactions page. Incidence and player performance were compared before and after the introduction of the standardized concussion protocol. Player performance was evaluated using traditional data and sabermetric data, which are advanced statistics used in conjunction with standard statistics to better compare players and teams. Player averages were calculated and compared using paired t tests for 30 days before and after concussion, 1 year before and after concussion, and career before and after concussion. Averages were also compared before and after the institution of the standardized concussion protocol using independent-measures t tests. Results: There were a total of 114 players who suffered 142 concussions, with 77% of those occurring after the introduction of the concussion protocol (32 before, 110 after). The average time missed because of concussion significantly decreased from 33.7 days (range, 10-122 days) to 18.9 days (range, 6-111 days) after the concussion protocol ( P = .0005). There was no difference in player performance (including batting average, on-base percentage, and slugging for batters; earned run average, fielding-independent pitching, and walks plus hits per inning pitched for pitchers) after concussion at any time point (30 days, 1 year, or career) when comparing these statistics before versus after the MLB concussion protocol. However, batter performance was significantly poorer 1 year after concussion and over the remainder of the players' careers ( P < .05). Conclusion: The number of reported concussions increased after the introduction of the MLB concussion protocol. However, players spent significantly less time on the disabled list without any adverse effect on player performance. Despite these changes, long-term batting performance was significantly poorer after concussion.

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Schallmo, Michael S., Thomas H. Fitzpatrick, Hunter B. Yancey, Alejandro Marquez-Lara, T. David Luo, and Allston J. Stubbs. "Return-to-Play and Performance Outcomes of Professional Athletes in North America After Hip Arthroscopy From 1999 to 2016." American Journal of Sports Medicine 46, no. 8 (May 16, 2018): 1959–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546518773080.

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Background: The effect of hip arthroscopy on athletic performance compared with preinjury levels for professional athletes in different sports remains unknown. In addition, while return rates have been reported for professional baseball, football, and hockey players, return rates have not been reported for professional basketball players. Hypothesis: Professional athletes in 4 major North American sports would be able to return to their sport and preoperative level of performance at a high rate after arthroscopic hip surgery. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL) athletes who underwent hip arthroscopy were identified through a previously reported protocol based on public sources. Successful return to play (RTP) was defined as returning for at least 1 professional regular season game after surgery. Performance scores were calculated by use of previously established scoring systems. Each player served as his own control, with the season prior to surgery defined as baseline. To make comparisons across sports, the authors adjusted for expected season and career length differences between sports and calculated percentage changes in performance. Results: The authors identified 227 procedures performed on 180 professional athletes between 1999 and 2016. Successful RTP was achieved in 84.6% (192/227) of the procedures. Compared with all other athletes, NBA athletes returned at a similar rate (85.7%, P ≥ .999). NFL offensive linemen returned at a significantly lower rate than all other athletes (61.1%, P = .010). NHL athletes returned at a significantly higher rate than all other athletes (91.8%, P = .048) and demonstrated significantly decreased performance during postoperative season 1 compared with baseline (–35.1%, P = .002). Lead leg surgery for MLB athletes (batting stance for hitters, pitching stance for pitchers) resulted in a 12.7% reduction in hitter performance score ( P = .041), a 1.3% reduction in pitcher fastball velocity ( P = .004), and a 60.7% reduction in pitch count ( P = .007) one season after surgery compared with baseline. Players in nearly every sport demonstrated significant reductions in game participation after surgery. Conclusion: This study supports the hypothesis that hip arthroscopy in professional athletes is associated with excellent rates of return at the professional level. However, postoperative performance outcomes varied based on sport and position.

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Nevins, Derek, Lloyd Smith, and Jeff Kensrud. "Sensitivity of batted-ball speed to swing speed models." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology 233, no. 3 (March 26, 2019): 416–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754337119835682.

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In baseball and softball, batted-ball velocities depend strongly on bat speed prior to contact. The purpose of this study was to characterize the sensitivity of hit. ball speed to swing speed models. A pitching machine was used to project balls at varying speeds considered to be age appropriate for female fastpitch softball batters ranging from 9 to 24 years of age. Participants swung bats of varying moment of inertia and high-speed video was used to measure bat and ball kinematics for each hit. Several power law swing speed models were compared, including a generic model for all participants, age-specific models and participant-specific models. In addition, an exponential Gaussian process regression model was used. Estimates of batted-ball speeds were obtained by coupling the swing speed models to a model of the bat–ball collision. The root mean square error of model estimates ranged from 2.3 to 5.0 rad/s for swing speed models and 3.6 to 8.5 m/s for batted-ball speed estimates. The Gaussian process regression model performance was similar to the participant-specific models (swing speed root mean square error = 2.4 rad/s; batted-ball speed root mean square error = 3.7 m/s). The correlation of the Gaussian process regression model with field measurements was surprising given the limited number of inputs, which warrants further investigation. Agreement between all power law models and field measurements improved when the bat moment of inertia about its instantaneous center of rotation (rather than about the knob) was considered. This information will be of use to players and coaches to improve batting performance and bat selection.

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Fleisig, Glenn S., Wellington K. Hsu, Dave Fortenbaugh, Andrew Cordover, and Joel M. Press. "Trunk axial rotation in baseball pitching and batting." Sports Biomechanics 12, no. 4 (November 2013): 324–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2013.838693.

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Irawan, Fajar Awang, and Chuang Long-Ren. "Baseball and biomechanics: Injury prevention for baseball pitcher." Jurnal Keolahragaan 7, no. 1 (April 1, 2019): 57–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/jk.v7i1.24636.

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Pitching was the fastest motion in baseball. Upper extremity has important roles especially in shoulder, elbow, wrist, and fingers. The purpose of this study was to integrate the information in a resume of biomechanical pitching and baseball pitcher’s injuries. The data base used refers to PubMed, SAGE, and Elsevier and several relevance journals related to baseball and injuries. Source refers to the data since December 2017 to the oldest 2000 to get data source in baseball pitcher injuries. Upper arm has the prominent role when pitching to get maximum motion and joints stabilize. Rotator cuff muscle generate rotation in the shoulder while pitching and control shoulder joints in the lower arm’s muscles and joints. Baseball pitcher has a special skill in the strength, speed, and endurance. They had to keep their performance to avoid from injury especially shoulder and elbow injuries. Biomechanical analysis can help to evaluated performance in monitoring dan give recommendation to elevate skills and prevent injury. Knowledge and understanding about basic of pitching have to mastering before elevate to the next level. Further study can focus on the time for the pitcher to improve the skills and maximizing the pitch type to avoid from injuries.

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Sasanuma, Hideyuki, Yuki Iijima, Tomohiro Saito, Yuichiro Yano, Sueo Nakama, Masahiro Kameda, and Katsushi Takeshita. "Satisfaction With Elbow Function and Return Status After Autologous Osteochondral Transplant for Capitellar Osteochondritis Dissecans in High School Baseball Players." American Journal of Sports Medicine 48, no. 12 (September 17, 2020): 3057–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546520952782.

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Background: Osteochondral autograft transplant (OAT), a surgical treatment for capitellar osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), has favorable rates of elbow recovery and return to sports in adolescents. However, few reports have investigated how long patients continue to play baseball after OAT and their satisfaction with their treatment outcome. Purpose: To evaluate the rate of boys who played baseball and received OAT for OCD in junior high school or earlier (age <15 years) and continued to play baseball in high school and the players’ satisfaction with their elbow function during play. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: A total of 32 elbows of boys who played baseball and received OAT at age ≤15 years (mean, 14.1 years) were examined and divided into pitcher (n = 11) and nonpitcher (n = 21) groups according to their player position before surgery. The clinical Timmerman-Andrews score at the end of their high school baseball, participation percentage of players who continued to play baseball, and satisfaction level during play (on a scale of 0-10 during pitching and batting and in a 4-choice format) were compared between the 2 groups. Results: The Timmerman-Andrews scores significantly improved after surgery in both groups, with no significant difference between the groups. Of the 32 players, 30 (93.8%) continued to play baseball throughout high school, including all players in the pitcher group and 19 (90.5%) of those in the nonpitcher group. The percentage of players who continued to pitch was 55.6% (6/11) in the pitcher group. Satisfaction with elbow joint function at the time of pitching was significantly lower in the pitcher group. Further, 5 players reported being “a little unsatisfied” because of elbow pain during pitching. All of the players indicated satisfaction with elbow function during batting. Conclusion: The percentage of players who received OAT for OCD in junior high school and continued to play baseball in high school was favorable. However, satisfaction with elbow function during throwing was lower in pitchers than in nonpitchers. Clinical Relevance: Before surgery, consent should be obtained from patients who are pitchers after it is explained that satisfaction with elbow joint function during pitching could be decreased after OAT.

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JINJI, Tsutomu, Ryota MORIMOTO, Hiroshi KINOSHITA, and Shinichi NAKAO. "Optimization for pitching and batting motion in professional baseball players." Proceedings of Mechanical Engineering Congress, Japan 2017 (2017): F123003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmemecj.2017.f123003.

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Koban, Lori, and Erin McNelis. "Fantasy Baseball with a Statistical Twist." Mathematics Teacher 102, no. 4 (November 2008): 264–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mt.102.4.0264.

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Fantasy baseball, a game invented in 1980, allows baseball fans to become managers of pretend baseball teams. In most fantasy baseball leagues, participants choose teams consisting of major league players who they believe will do well in five offensive categories (batting average, home runs, runs batted in, stolen bases, and runs scored) or in five pitching categories. We bring a fantasy baseball activity into entry-level statistics classes. Each student drafts a team on the basis of nine offensive categories, most of which are statistical twists on the five categories above. The primary goal of this activity is to apply the material in an introductory one-semester, non-calculus-based college course in statistics. This is the type of course that AP Statistics courses are designed to emulate, so this project is appropriate for AP Statistics classes as well. Indeed, this project incorporates exploratory analysis, planning and conducting a study, probability, and statistical inference, the four major themes of an AP Statistics class (The College Board 2004).

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Koban, Lori, and Erin McNelis. "Fantasy Baseball with a Statistical Twist." Mathematics Teacher 102, no. 4 (November 2008): 264–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mt.102.4.0264.

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Fantasy baseball, a game invented in 1980, allows baseball fans to become managers of pretend baseball teams. In most fantasy baseball leagues, participants choose teams consisting of major league players who they believe will do well in five offensive categories (batting average, home runs, runs batted in, stolen bases, and runs scored) or in five pitching categories. We bring a fantasy baseball activity into entry-level statistics classes. Each student drafts a team on the basis of nine offensive categories, most of which are statistical twists on the five categories above. The primary goal of this activity is to apply the material in an introductory one-semester, non-calculus-based college course in statistics. This is the type of course that AP Statistics courses are designed to emulate, so this project is appropriate for AP Statistics classes as well. Indeed, this project incorporates exploratory analysis, planning and conducting a study, probability, and statistical inference, the four major themes of an AP Statistics class (The College Board 2004).

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Over, Ray. "Age and Level of Performance in Major League Baseball." Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 2, no. 3 (July 1994): 221–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/japa.2.3.221.

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The relationship between age and the level of performance of major league baseball players was assessed through quasi-experimental designs. Whereas cross-sectional comparisons revealed no differences in batting and fielding statistics between younger and older players, longitudinal analysis showed significant decrements in batting performance as players aged from 30 to 35 years. A decline in performance with age was found even among elite players. Age decrements in achievement need to be studied not only in the context of molar measures such as batting statistics but also at a microanalytic level through reference to component skills. This paper outlines a methodology that can be used in assessing the nature and basis of age decrements in skilled athletic performance.

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Gray, Rob. "“Markov at the Bat”: A Model of Cognitive Processing in Baseball Batters." Psychological Science 13, no. 6 (November 2002): 542–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00495.

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Anecdotal evidence from players and coaches indicates that cognitive processing (e.g., expectations about the upcoming pitch) plays an important role in successful baseball batting, yet this aspect of hitting has not been investigated in detail. The present study provides experimental evidence that prior expectations significantly influence the timing of a baseball swing. A two-state Markov model was used to predict the effects of pitch sequence and pitch count on batting performance. The model is a hitting strategy of switching between expectancy states using a simple set of transition rules. In a simulated batting experiment, the model provided a good fit to the hitting performance of 6 experienced college baseball players, and the estimated model parameters were highly correlated with playing level.

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CRISCO, JOSEPH J., RICHARD M. GREENWALD, JEFFREY D. BLUME, and LORRAINE H. PENNA. "Batting performance of wood and metal baseball bats." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 34, no. 10 (October 2002): 1675–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200210000-00021.

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Chen, Rongrong, Leland S. Stone, and Li Li. "Visuomotor predictors of batting performance in baseball players." Journal of Vision 21, no. 3 (March 2, 2021): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/jov.21.3.3.

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McPherson, Sue L., and Clare MacMahon. "How Baseball Players Prepare to Bat: Tactical Knowledge as a Mediator of Expert Performance in Baseball." Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 30, no. 6 (December 2008): 755–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.6.755.

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Our understanding of the role of tactical knowledge in baseball batting preparation is scarce, thereby limiting training guidelines. We examined the verbal reports of baseball players and nonplayers when told to view different edited video sequences of a half-inning of baseball competition under different task conditions: to prepare to bat (problem solve); recall as much information as possible (intentional recall); or prepare to bat, with an unexpected recall (incidental recall). Separate mixed-model ANOVAs (Expertise X Instruction conditions) on verbal report measures indicated that nonplayers used general strategies for recalling baseball events and lacked the tactical skills to use such information for their upcoming times at bat. In contrast, players used baseball-specific strategies to encode and retrieve pertinent game events from long-term memory (LTM) to develop tactics for their upcoming times at bat and to recall as much information as possible. Recommendations for training tactical skills are presented as some players exhibited defciencies in the LTM structures that mediate batting decisions.

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Bram, Anthony D., and Deborah L. Feltz. "Effects of Batting Performance Feedback on Motivational Factors and Batting Performance in Youth Baseball." Perceptual and Motor Skills 81, no. 3_suppl (December 1995): 1367–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1995.81.3f.1367.

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The effects of batting feedback on motivational factors and batting of young baseball players were investigated. Hypotheses were that, compared to participants receiving feedback or no feedback on their batting average, those receiving contact average would exhibit (a) a greater increase in batting efficacy, (b) more enjoyment, satisfaction, and persistence, and (c) superior batting performance. Participants were 78 children from nine teams. Although analyses did not support the hypotheses, performance-to-efficacy correlations as well as other data provided tentative evidence for the premise that contact average may be more appropriate feedback for young players because (compared to batting average) it is less ambiguous and is based on a more realistic definition of success. Limitations and implications for coaches were discussed.

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Kato, Takaaki, and Tadahiko Fukuda. "Visual Search Strategies of Baseball Batters: Eye Movements during the Preparatory Phase of Batting." Perceptual and Motor Skills 94, no. 2 (April 2002): 380–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.2002.94.2.380.

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The aim of this study was to analyze visual search strategies of baseball batters during the viewing period of the pitcher's motion. The 18 subjects were 9 experts and 9 novices. While subjects viewed a videotape which, from a right-handed batter's perspective, showed a pitcher throwing a series of 10 types of pitches, their eye movements were measured and analyzed. Novices moved their eyes faster than experts, and the distribution area of viewing points was also wider than that of the experts. The viewing duration of experts of the pitching arm was longer than those of novices during the last two pitching phases. These results indicate that experts set their visual pivot on the pitcher's elbow and used peripheral vision properties to evaluate the pitcher's motion and the ball trajectory.

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Castaneda, Brooke, and Rob Gray. "Effects of Focus of Attention on Baseball Batting Performance in Players of Differing Skill Levels." Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 29, no. 1 (February 2007): 60–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsep.29.1.60.

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This study addressed the question, what should baseball players focus their attention on while batting? Less-skilled and highly skilled (college) baseball players participated in four dual-task conditions in a baseball batting simulation: two that directed attention to skill execution (skill/internal [movement of the hands] and skill/external [movement of the bat]) and two that directed attention to the environment (environmental/irrelevant [auditory tones] and environmental/external [the ball leaving the bat]). Batting performance for highly skilled players was best in the environmental/external condition and worst in the skill/internal condition. Performance of less-skilled batters was significantly better in the two skill conditions than in either of the two environmental conditions. We conclude that the optimal focus of attention for highly skilled batters is one that does not disrupt proceduralized knowledge and permits attention to the perceptual effect of the action, whereas the optimal focus of attention for less-skilled batters is one that allows attention to the step-by-step execution of the swing.

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Sakai, Shinobu, and Jin-Xing Shi. "Development of New Baseball Pitching Machine with Four-Roller Throwing Mechanism." Proceedings 49, no. 1 (June 15, 2020): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2020049008.

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At present, there are only a few developed pitching machines that can throw a ball with gyro spin. In this study, we aimed to develop a new baseball pitching machine using four rollers, where the rotational speed of each of the four rollers and the crossing angle of the opposite gyro rollers can be controlled optionally to generate an objective gyro spin more efficiently. We also elucidate the throwing mechanism of the developed baseball pitching machine and confirm its performance by finite element analysis. The newly developed pitching machine can throw a baseball with a wide range of speeds from 22.2 m/s (80 km/h) to 44.4 m/s (160 km/h) with all pitch types (fastball, curveball, gyroball, etc.), and the spin axis can be controlled in any designated direction. Moreover, this machine is capable of throwing a baseball with higher accuracy compared to commercially available pitching machines.

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Burke, David T., Cleo Stafford, and Victor Osisanya. "No. 62 Baseball Batting Performance After Gravitational Wellness Lifting." PM&R 6, no. 8 (August 2014): S95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pmrj.2014.08.310.

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Liu, Sicong, Frederick R. Edmunds, Kyle Burris, and Lawrence Gregory Appelbaum. "Visual and oculomotor abilities predict professional baseball batting performance." International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport 20, no. 4 (June 14, 2020): 683–700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2020.1777819.

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Ranganathan, Rajiv, and Les G. Carlton. "Perception-Action Coupling and Anticipatory Performance in Baseball Batting." Journal of Motor Behavior 39, no. 5 (September 2007): 369–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/jmbr.39.5.369-380.

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Mercier, Marie-Andrée, Mathieu Tremblay, Catherine Daneau, and Martin Descarreaux. "Individual factors associated with baseball pitching performance: scoping review." BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 6, no. 1 (February 2020): e000704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000704.

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BackgroundBall velocity, accuracy and game statistics represent three methods used to measure pitching performance. However, individual determinants of pitching performance are more elusive.ObjectivesThe aims of this study were to classify the performance factors associated with baseball pitchers, to identify the methods used to quantify their abilities through all features of the game and to document relationships between performance factors and indicators.DesignScoping review.Data sourcesElectronic searches of MEDLINE, Academic Search Complete, CINAHL, SportDiscus, PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane and of grey literature were undertaken from inception to January 2019.Eligibility criteria for selecting studiesCross-sectional studies that investigated the relationship between performance indicators and individual performance factors in healthy baseball pitchers were selected.ResultsThirty-four cross-sectional studies investigating individual potential factors of pitching performance met the inclusion criteria. The primary performance factors investigated were kinematic, kinetic, timing outcomes, personal characteristics, physical tests and range of motion. Shoulder horizontal adduction (SHA), upper torso forward flexion, maximal shoulder external rotation, upper torso rotation angle, upper torso lateral flexion, lead knee flexion (LKF) and forward trunk tilt (FTT) were identified as key kinematic features associated with increased ball velocity. Shoulder proximal force and peak elbow proximal forces were associated with greater ball velocity. Individual performances in jumping tests and body weight (BW) are also associated with pitching performance.Summary/conclusionBased on studies presenting low and moderate risk of bias, we conclude that BW, age and kinematics, such as FTT, LKF, SHA and lateral trunk tilt, are associated with pitching performance.

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Amo, Alexia E., William P. Lydon, Nathaniel J. Holmgren, Mark J. VanNess, and Courtney D. Jensen. "Kinematic Factors that Contribute to Batting Performance in Collegiate Baseball." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 51, Supplement (June 2019): 783. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000562835.00028.55.

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Pluta, Anthony, Chad C. Williams, Gordon Binsted, Kent G. Hecker, and Olave E. Krigolson. "Chasing the zone: Reduced beta power predicts baseball batting performance." Neuroscience Letters 686 (November 2018): 150–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.09.004.

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Crisco, Joseph J., Michael J. Rainbow, Joel B. Schwartz, and Bethany J. Wilcox. "Batting Cage Performance of Wood and Nonwood Youth Baseball Bats." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 30, no. 2 (April 2014): 237–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2012-0178.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the batting cage performance of wood and nonwood baseball bats used at the youth level. Three wood and ten nonwood bats were swung by 22 male players (13 to 18 years old) in a batting cage equipped with a 3-dimensional motion capture (300 Hz) system. Batted ball speeds were compared using a one-way ANOVA and bat swing speeds were analyzed as a function of bat moment of inertia by linear regression. Batted ball speeds were significantly faster for three nonwood bat models (P< .001), significantly slower for one nonwood model, and not different for six nonwood bats when compared with wood bats. Bat impact speed significantly (P< .05) decreased with increasing bat moment of inertia for the 13-, 14-, and 15-year-old groups, but not for the other age groups. Ball-bat coefficients of restitution (BBCOR) for all nonwood were greater than for wood, but this factor alone did not correlate with bat performance. Our findings indicate that increases in BBCOR and swing speed were not associated with faster batted ball speeds for the bats studied whose moment of inertia was substantially less than that of a wood bat of similar length.

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MacLean, Leonard, Bill Ziemba, and Austin Korgan. "The Expected Utility of Performance: Dominant Batting Seasons in Baseball." Wilmott 2018, no. 98 (November 2018): 40–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wilm.10722.

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Bakshi, Neil K., Paul M. Inclan, Jacob M. Kirsch, Asheesh Bedi, Cristine Agresta, and Michael T. Freehill. "Current Workload Recommendations in Baseball Pitchers: A Systematic Review." American Journal of Sports Medicine 48, no. 1 (April 23, 2019): 229–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546519831010.

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Background: Several recommendations have been made regarding pitch counts and workload for baseball players of different levels, including Little League, high school, collegiate, and professional baseball. However, little consensus is found in the literature regarding the scientific basis for many of these recommendations. Purpose: The primary purpose of this study was to summarize the evidence regarding immediate and long-term musculoskeletal responses to increasing pitching workload in baseball pitchers of all levels. A secondary purpose of this review was to evaluate the extent to which workload influences injury and/or performance in baseball pitchers. Study Design: Systematic review. Methods: We performed a systematic search in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines for studies addressing physiologic and/or pathologic musculoskeletal changes in response to a quantifiable pitching workload. We included studies examining the effects of pitching workload on performance, injury rate, and musculoskeletal changes in Little League, high school, collegiate, and professional baseball players. Results: We identified 28 studies that met our inclusion and exclusion criteria: 16 studies regarding Little League and high school pitchers and 12 studies regarding collegiate and professional pitchers. The current evidence presented suggests that increased pitching workload may be associated with an increased risk of pain, injury, and arm fatigue in Little League and high school pitchers. However, little consensus was found in the literature regarding the association between pitching workload and physiologic or pathologic changes in collegiate and professional pitchers. Conclusion: Evidence, although limited, suggests the use of pitch counts to decrease injury rates and pain in Little League and high school baseball pitchers. However, further research must be performed to determine the appropriate number of pitches (or throws) for players of different ages. This systematic review reported conflicting evidence regarding the use of pitch counts in college and professional baseball. Future high-quality research is required to determine the role, if any, of pitch counts for collegiate and professional pitchers.

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MacWilliams, Bruce A., Tony Choi, Mark K. Perezous, Edmund Y. S. Chao, and Edward G. McFarland. "Characteristic Ground-Reaction Forces in Baseball Pitching." American Journal of Sports Medicine 26, no. 1 (January 1998): 66–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/03635465980260012801.

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Overhand throwing requires contributions from and interaction between all limb segments. Most previous investigations have concentrated on the throwing arm itself, yet poor mechanics at the arm may originate in the lower extremities. Multicomponent ground-reaction forces of both the push-off and landing limbs were measured in six collegiate and one high school level baseball pitchers. Full body kinematics were simultaneously recorded to correlate phases in the pitching cycle with the force data. Pitchers were found to generate shear forces of 0.35 body weight in the direction of the pitch with the push-off leg and to resist forces of 0.72 body weight with the landing leg. Wrist velocity was found to correlate highly with increased leg drive. This study validates the clinical impression that the lower extremity is an important contributor to the throwing motion. Based on this study, strengthening of the lower extremities could be inferred to be important both to enhance performance and to avoid injury.

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MacWilliams, Bruce A., Tony Choi, Mark K. Perezous, Edmund Y. S. Chao, and Edward G. McFarland. "Characteristic Ground-Reaction Forces in Baseball Pitching." American Journal of Sports Medicine 26, no. 1 (January 1998): 66–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/03635465980260014101.

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Overhand throwing requires contributions from and interaction between all limb segments. Most previous investigations have concentrated on the throwing arm itself, yet poor mechanics at the arm may originate in the lower extremities. Multicomponent ground-reaction forces of both the push-off and landing limbs were measured in six collegiate and one high school level baseball pitchers. Full body kinematics were simultaneously recorded to correlate phases in the pitching cycle with the force data. Pitchers were found to generate shear forces of 0.35 body weight in the direction of the pitch with the push-off leg and to resist forces of 0.72 body weight with the landing leg. Wrist velocity was found to correlate highly with increased leg drive. This study validates the clinical impression that the lower extremity is an important contributor to the throwing motion. Based on this study, strengthening of the lower extremities could be inferred to be important both to enhance performance and to avoid injury.

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Anshel, Mark H. "Effect of Using Mechanical Devices for Baseball Batting on Warm-up Decrement." Perceptual and Motor Skills 60, no. 1 (February 1985): 291–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1985.60.1.291.

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The extent to which different mechanical baseball-batting devices used during a rest affected performance immediately after rest (warm-up decrement) was examined. Difference scores between the average of pre-rest Trials 8, 9, and 10 and each of 10 postrest trials were used to determine the presence of warm-up decrement. It was predicted that the use of a batting-T and the Batter's Aid machine (in which a batter swings ac a ball popped up within the strike zone) would result in superior performance measured as the distance (ft.) a ball was hit and frequency of contacts on postrest performance reducing or eliminating the warm-up decrement. Performance of 33 boys, aged 11 and 12 yr., indicated that only use of the Batter's Aid eliminated warm-up decrement with respect to both the distance and frequency as compared to the batting-T and control groups. In addition, the batting-T condition solicited significantly better performance than the controls on the distance measure but was statistically similar to the controls in frequency of contacts. Also, superior performance was significantly related to heightened heart rate, a physiological index of arousal. A primary explanation of the results focused on the effects of heightened physiological and psychological arousal on warm-up decrement.

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Chaudhari, Ajit MW, Christopher S. McKenzie, James R. Borchers, and Thomas M. Best. "Lumbopelvic Control and Pitching Performance of Professional Baseball Pitchers." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25, no. 8 (August 2011): 2127–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0b013e31820f5075.

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Morris-Binelli, Khaya, Sean Müller, and Peter Fadde. "Use of Pitcher Game Footage to Measure Visual Anticipation and Its Relationship to Baseball Batting Statistics." Journal of Motor Learning and Development 6, no. 2 (December 1, 2018): 197–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2017-0015.

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Professional baseball batters’ (N = 105) visual anticipation of pitch type and location were measured using a video-based temporal occlusion test and correlated with their baseball batting statistics. Participants watched in-game footage of skilled baseball pitchers that was temporally occluded at the point of ball release, and at 80 ms and 200 ms after ball release. Participants made written predictions of pitch type and location. Results indicated there was a significant positive correlation between anticipation of combined pitch type and location 80 ms after ball release with slugging percentage (r = .21). There was a significant negative correlation between anticipation of pitch type alone 200 ms after ball release and strikeouts (r = −.28), indicating higher prediction is associated with fewer incorrect swing choices. Furthermore, there was a significant positive correlation between anticipation of pitch type alone 200 ms after ball release and on-base percentage (r = .23) as well as walk-to-strikeout ratio (r = .25). These small relationships are consistent to the batting statistics we predicted and can be due to the range of competitive levels in the leagues the participants had played. The findings further theoretical and applied knowledge of the role visual anticipation contributes to baseball batting game performance. The findings also suggest that game footage can be used to assess and potentially to train visual anticipation skill, which is highly valuable for athletes and high performance support staff in sporting organizations.

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Davis, J. T., Orr Limpisvasti, Derrick Fluhme, Karen J. Mohr, Lewis A. Yocum, Neal S. ElAttrache, and Frank W. Jobe. "The Effect of Pitching Biomechanics on the Upper Extremity in Youth and Adolescent Baseball Pitchers." American Journal of Sports Medicine 37, no. 8 (July 28, 2009): 1484–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546509340226.

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Background Increased pitch counts have been linked to increased complaints of shoulder and elbow pain in youth baseball pitchers. Improper pitching mechanics have not been shown to adversely affect the upper extremity in youth pitchers. Hypothesis The correct performance of 5 biomechanical pitching parameters correlates with lower humeral internal rotation torque and elbow valgus load, as well as higher pitching efficiency, in youth and adolescent pitchers. Study Design Descriptive laboratory study. Methods In sum, 169 baseball pitchers (aged 9-18) were analyzed using a quantitative motion analysis system and a high-speed video while throwing fastballs. The correct performance of 5 common pitching parameters was compared with each pitcher's age, humeral internal rotation torque, elbow valgus load, and calculated pitching efficiency. Results Motion analysis correlated with video analysis for all 5 parameters (P <. 05). Youth pitchers (aged 9-13) performing 3 or more parameters correctly showed lower humeral internal rotation torque, lower elbow valgus load, and higher pitching efficiency (P <. 05). Conclusions Youth pitchers with better pitching mechanics generate lower humeral internal rotation torque, lower elbow valgus load, and more efficiency than do those with improper mechanics. Proper pitching mechanics may help prevent shoulder and elbow injuries in youth pitchers. Clinical Relevance The parameters described in this study may be used to improve the pitching mechanics of youth pitchers and possibly reduce shoulder and elbow pain in youth baseball pitchers.

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Albrecht, Richard R., and Deborah L. Feltz. "Generality and Specificity of Attention Belated to Competitive Anxiety and Sport Performance." Journal of Sport Psychology 9, no. 3 (September 1987): 231–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsp.9.3.231.

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The Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) was developed as an objective measure by which an individual's attentional predisposition could be identified and used to predict performance on a variety of tasks. The present study had three purposes: (a) to construct a baseball/softball batting (B-TAIS) version of each TAIS attentional subscale, (b) to compare TAIS and B-TAIS reliability, and (c) to compare TAIS and B-TAIS validity. Both instruments were administered to 29 intercollegiate baseball and softball players. The B-TAIS demonstrated slightly higher test-restest reliability on five of the six attentional subscales and was higher than the TAIS in internal consistency on all subscales. Batting performance was positively related to all B-TAIS subscales assessing effective attentional deployment and negatively related to all subscales assessing ineffective attention. Significant positive correlations also existed between B-TAIS ineffective subscale scores and competitive trait anxiety. However, these relationships were not found with the general TAIS.

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Birfer, Richard, Michael WL Sonne, and Michael WR Holmes. "Manifestations of muscle fatigue in baseball pitchers: a systematic review." PeerJ 7 (July 29, 2019): e7390. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7390.

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Background Fatigue in baseball pitchers is a process linked to lowered physical and mental performance, injury, and changes in kinematics. Numerous studies have associated fatigue with overuse, high ball velocities, lack of rest time, poor mechanics, and degree of self-satisfaction. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature to identify a theoretical framework for the relationship between outcomes and the manifestation of fatigue on baseball pitching. The synthesized data may identify areas requiring further research. Methodology This protocol was registered with PROSPERO (ID: CRD42018114194). SPORTDiscus, Medline, PubMed, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Google Scholar were searched, using keywords such as fatigue in pitchers and changes in kinematics (e.g., pitching mechanics, valgus elbow torque), performance (e.g., pitch count, pitch type), and injury (e.g., pain, elbow, and shoulder soreness). Three reviewers independently screened the articles, selected relevant literature based on abstract eligibility, and assessed the methods described therein for final inclusion. Results A total of 31,860 articles were screened for eligibility and 25 articles were included for the review. The selected articles included epidemiological, longitudinal, experimental, conference papers, and crossover laboratory studies. Evidence extracted from the 25 studies demonstrates a relationship between fatigue in baseball pitching, and three overarching outcomes: changes in kinematics, a decrease in performance, and an increase in injury risk. Conclusions Findings show that a co-dependence between changes in kinematics and a decrease in performance, which stems from central and peripheral fatigue, is a contributing factor of injury in baseball pitchers. A large percentage of baseball pitchers exhibit pain or soreness in either their elbow or shoulder, or both at some point in a season. Initially, kinematic changes occur that could maintain performance, but may increase joint and tissue loading. Performance decreased with elevated pitch counts and innings thrown, and pitching further into games or the season. Evidence was found to be consistent across all studies; however, more work is needed in the area of fatigue as an injury mechanism during pitching. With a proof of concept established, the prevention of negative outcomes associated with fatigue must be the focus of future research and performance should not be the only criteria.

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Damrow, Derek, Xue-Cheng Liu, and Shayne Fehr. "MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES AND RELATED BIOMECHANICS FOR YOUTH BASEBALL PITCHING." Journal of Musculoskeletal Research 18, no. 02 (June 2015): 1530001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s021895771530001x.

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An estimated 3 million youth participate in youth baseball. The purpose of this review is to highlight musculoskeletal development and specific throwing-related injuries in youth baseball players, as well as the current knowledge of pitching biomechanics, which are closely intertwined with the both arm development and injuries. Methods: A systematic literature review was conducted to highlight musculoskeletal development, throwing-related injuries and pitching mechanics. Results: Youth athletes are actively going through skeletal maturation which includes the formation of new bone at the epiphyseal plate, increasing muscle mass and/or strength, and morphological changes in tendons and ligaments. These processes setup youth pitchers to sustain throwing injuries at their shoulder and elbow in ways that differ from their adult counterparts. Faulty pitching biomechanics may also cause throwing injuries. Deviation from proper mechanics at any point can cause injuries in the shoulder and elbow. Conclusion: Many musculoskeletal changes occur during the development of a youth baseball player. Some of these changes are beneficial for improving throwing performance, but also predispose the athlete to injury. Improper biomechanics may be related to the throwing-related injuries that are seen in youth baseball players.

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Fortenbaugh, Dave, Glenn S. Fleisig, and James R. Andrews. "Baseball Pitching Biomechanics in Relation to Injury Risk and Performance." Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach 1, no. 4 (June 25, 2009): 314–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1941738109338546.

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Acosta, Marie R., Mark J. Van Ness, William P. Lydon, Brian G. Graham, Alexis C. King, and Courtney D. Jensen. "Biceps and Triceps Contribute to Pitching Performance in College Baseball." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 51, Supplement (June 2019): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000560688.68517.e9.

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Van Duser, B. L., T. S. Shafer, and T. L. Otterness. "THE EFFECT OF ORAL SMOKELESS TOBACCO ON BASEBALL PITCHING PERFORMANCE." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 27, Supplement (May 1995): S149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199505001-00840.

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SAKAI, Shinobu, Hirotoshi KAKUDA, Ryouta NOBE, Hitoshi NAKAYAMA, Toshikazu TANABE, and Satoshi KITAYAMA. "415 Throw Performance of Roller-Type Pitching Machine for Baseball." Proceedings of the Dynamics & Design Conference 2009 (2009): _415–1_—_415–5_. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmedmc.2009._415-1_.

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Smith, Ronald E., and Donald S. Christensen. "Psychological Skills as Predictors of Performance and Survival in Professional Baseball." Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 17, no. 4 (December 1995): 399–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsep.17.4.399.

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The role of physical and psychological skills as predictors of performance and survival in professional baseball was studied in a sample of 104 minor league baseball players. Psychological and physical skills were largely uncorrelated with one another and appear to be measuring separate and independent skill domains. Preseason scores on the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28) and coaches’/managers’ ratings of the same skills on an ACSI Rating Form each accounted for as much performance variance in batting average (approximately 20%) as did physical skills when differences in the latter were statistically controlled, and the psychological measures accounted for substantially more variance in pitchers’ earned run averages than did the expert ratings of physical skills. The psychological skills measures also predicted athletes’ survival in professional baseball 2 and 3 years after they were obtained. Bayesian hit rate anlayses indicated substantially increased survival predictability over simple base rate predictions.

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Erickson, Brandon, Peter Chalmers, D. John, Kevin Ma, Scott Sheridan, Mark Schickendantz, and Anthony Romeo. "Timing of Return to Batting Milestones Following Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction in Professional Baseball Players." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 8, no. 7_suppl6 (July 1, 2020): 2325967120S0037. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967120s00371.

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Objectives: Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction (UCLR) is a common procedure in professional baseball position players. Timing of return to hitting following UCLR is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the time to return to batting milestones after UCLR as well as the effect of UCLR upon batting performance in professional baseball players. The authors’ hypothesized that position players would return to batting in an in-season game prior to fielding in an in-season game and hitting performance would remain unchanged following UCLR Methods: All professional position players who underwent UCLR between 2010-2018 were included. Time to batting milestones following UCLR was analyzed. Batting performance before and after UCLR was compared and analyzed. Results: Overall, 141 UCLRs (96% performed on the dominant arm) in 137 position players were included (86% minor leaguers). Four players underwent revision, all within one year of the primary UCLR. With regard to position, catchers and shortstops were over-represented. With regard to batting side, 57% batted from the right and 12% batted as switch-hitters, and thus 76% of surgeries were on the lead arm. While 91% of players were able to return to any throwing at all, there was a progressive gradual decline during the rehabilitation progress such that 77% were able to return to hitting in a real game and 75% were able to return to fielding in a real game. The first dry swing occurred at 150±49 days after surgery, first batting practice occurred at 195±58 days after surgery, and first hitting in a real game occurred at 323±92 days after surgery. However, players generally saw a decrease in their utilization, with fewer at bats (p<0.001) translating into fewer hits (p<0.001) and runs (p<0.001). Conclusion: Professional position players begin swinging at 150 days following UCLR while they do not hit batting practice until 195 days and do not hit in a real game until 323 days following UCLR. Players saw a decrease in hitting utilization following UCLR. [Figure: see text]

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Chang, Shun-Chuan. "Can pitcher performance reveal game fixing in baseball? Developing a forensic analysis detection procedure." Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal 46, no. 2 (February 2, 2018): 259–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6549.

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Gambling and game-fixing scandals have loomed over the international baseball world and a lack of sports ethics in baseball may lead to many problems. In this study I conducted a textual analysis of reports by prosecutors regarding a pitcher who was investigated but not indicted in 2009 after allegations of game fixing. Drawing upon the statistical records of the season's games for the pitcher that were contained in the prosecutor's reports and game-by-game records for each Chinese Professional Baseball League pitcher in the 2009 regular season, I used the change-point test and difference-in-differences techniques to identify anomalies in the pitcher's play. The results I obtained support information contained in the prosecutors' reports regarding the pitcher's actions. My model is confirmed as an appropriate method of applied behavior analysis for detecting corruption in baseball pitching performance.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Pitching (Baseball) Performance. Batting (Baseball)'

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