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1
Spencer, Thomas E., Andrew M. Kelleher, and Frank F. Bartol. "Development and Function of Uterine Glands in Domestic Animals." Annual Review of Animal Biosciences 7, no. 1 (February 15, 2019): 125–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-animal-020518-115321.
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All mammalian uteri contain glands that synthesize or transport and secrete substances into the uterine lumen. Uterine gland development, or adenogenesis, is uniquely a postnatal event in sheep and pigs and involves differentiation of glandular epithelium from luminal epithelium, followed by invagination and coiling morphogenesis throughout the stroma. Intrinsic transcription factors and extrinsic factors from the ovary and pituitary as well as the mammary gland (lactocrine) regulate uterine adenogenesis. Recurrent pregnancy loss is observed in the ovine uterine gland knockout sheep, providing unequivocal evidence that glands and their products are essential for fertility. Uterine gland hyperplasia and hypertrophy during pregnancy are controlled by sequential actions of hormones from the ovary and/or pituitary as well as the placenta. Gland-derived histotroph is transported by placental areolae for fetal growth. Increased knowledge of uterine gland biology is expected to improve pregnancy outcomes, as well as the health and productivity of mothers and their offspring.
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Petruska, Janet M., Maria Adamo, Jeffrey McCartney, Ahamat Aboulmali, and Thomas J. Rosol. "Evaluation of Adrenal Cortical Function in Neonatal and Weanling Laboratory Beagle Dogs." Toxicologic Pathology 49, no. 5 (June 2, 2021): 1117–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01926233211009492.
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The most common target organ for toxicity in the endocrine system is the adrenal gland, and its function is dependent upon the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Histopathologic examination of the adrenal glands and pituitary gland is routinely performed in toxicity studies. However, the function of the adrenal gland is not routinely assessed in toxicity studies. Assessment of adrenal cortical function may be necessary to determine whether a histopathologic finding in the adrenal cortex results in a functional effect in the test species. As juvenile toxicity studies are more commonly performed in support of pediatric indications for pharmaceuticals, it is important to establish historical control data for adrenal gland function. In this study, adrenal cortical function was assessed in control neonatal and weanling beagle dogs as part of an ongoing juvenile toxicology program. Measurements of serum adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol prior to and following administration of exogenous ACTH, and aldosterone were conducted beginning at 2 weeks of age continuing through 26 weeks of age. Serum electrolyte concentrations were determined at 4, 13, and 26 weeks of age. Dogs as young as 2 weeks of age synthesize and secrete adrenal cortical hormones and exhibit a functional hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis.
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Gogakos, Apostolos I., Tasos Gogakos, Marina Kita, and Zoe A. Efstathiadou. "Pituitary Dysfunction as a Cause of Cardiovascular Disease." Current Pharmaceutical Design 26, no. 43 (December 22, 2020): 5573–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612824999201105165351.
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The hypothalamic-pituitary axis is responsible for the neuroendocrine control of several organ systems. The anterior pituitary directly affects the functions of the thyroid gland, the adrenal glands, and gonads, and regulates growth and milk production. The posterior hypophysis, through nerve connections with the hypothalamic nuclei, releases vasopressin and oxytocin responsible for water balance and social bonding, sexual reproduction and childbirth, respectively. Pituitary gland hormonal excess or deficiency results in dysregulation of metabolic pathways and mechanisms that are important for the homeostasis of the organism and are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Cardiovascular (CV) disorders are common in pituitary disease and have a significant impact on survival. Hormonal imbalance is associated with CV complications either through direct effects on the heart structure and function and vasculature or indirectly by altering the metabolic profile. Optimal endocrine control can prevent or reverse CV defects and preserve survival and quality of life. In this review, we discuss the effects of pituitary hormone excess and deficiency on the CV system. Specifically, we assess the impact of Somatotroph, Corticotroph, Gonadotroph, and Lactotroph anterior pituitary axes on the CV system. The effect of posterior pituitary function on the CV system is also explored.
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Youssef, Joyce, Rohan Sadera, Dushyant Mital, and Mohamed H. Ahmed. "HIV and the Pituitary Gland: Clinical and Biochemical Presentations." Journal of Laboratory Physicians 13, no. 01 (March 2021): 084–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1723055.
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AbstractHuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can have profound impact on the function of the pituitary gland. We have performed an electronic literature search using the following database: PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and Google Scholar. These databases were searched using the keywords HIV, pituitary glands, cancer, pituitary apoplexy, and infertility. HIV can cause hypopituitarism and also can lead to diabetes insipidus. The impact can be slow and insidious, and diagnosis depends on high index of clinical suspicion. The effect on anterior pituitary gland can be associated with growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism, adrenal insufficiency, premature menopause, erectile dysfunction, and infertility. HIV can cause pituitary apoplexy, and this should be treated as an endocrine emergency. Importantly, HIV can be associated with pituitary lymphoma and pituitary cancer. Therefore, joined management between HIV physicians, clinical biochemists and endocrinologists may help in establishing pituitary dysfunction.
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López, B. Díaz, and L. Debeljuk. "Prenatal melatonin and its interaction with tachykinins in the hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis." Reproduction, Fertility and Development 19, no. 3 (2007): 443. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rd06140.
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The pineal gland, through its hormone melatonin, influences the function of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis. Tachykinins are bioactive peptides whose presence has been demonstrated in the pineal gland, hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland and the gonads, in addition to other central and peripheral structures. Tachykinins have been demonstrated to influence the function of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, acting as paracrine factors at each of these levels. In the present review, we examine the available evidence supporting a role for melatonin in the regulation of reproductive functions, the possible role of tachykinins in pineal function and the possible interactions between melatonin and tachykinins in the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis. Evidence is presented showing that melatonin, given to pregnant rats, influences the developmental pattern of tachykinins in the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland of the offspring during postnatal life. In the gonads, the effects of melatonin on the tachykinin developmental pattern were rather modest. In particular, in the present review, we have included a summary of our own work performed in the past few years on the effect of melatonin on tachykinin levels in the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis.
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Harary, Maya, Aislyn C. DiRisio, Hassan Y. Dawood, John Kim, Nayan Lamba, Charles H. Cho, Timothy R. Smith, Hasan A. Zaidi, and Edward R. Laws. "Endocrine function and gland volume after endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery for nonfunctional pituitary macroadenomas." Journal of Neurosurgery 131, no. 4 (October 2019): 1142–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2018.5.jns181054.
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OBJECTIVELoss of pituitary function due to nonfunctional pituitary adenoma (NFPA) may be due to compression of the pituitary gland. It has been proposed that the size of the gland and relative perioperative gland expansion may relate to recovery of pituitary function, but the extent of this is unclear. This study aims to assess temporal changes in hormonal function after transsphenoidal resection of NFPA and the relationship between gland reexpansion and endocrine recovery.METHODSPatients who underwent endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery by a single surgeon for resection of a nonfunctional macroadenoma were selected for inclusion. Patients with prior pituitary surgery or radiosurgery were excluded. Patient characteristics and endocrine function were extracted by chart review. Volumetric segmentation of the pre- and postoperative (≥ 6 months) pituitary gland was performed using preoperative and long-term postoperative MR images. The relationship between endocrine function over time and clinical attributes, including gland volume, were examined.RESULTSOne hundred sixty eligible patients were identified, of whom 47.5% were female; 56.9% of patients had anterior pituitary hormone deficits preoperatively. The median tumor diameter and gland volume preoperatively were 22.5 mm (interquartile range [IQR] 18.0–28.8 mm) and 0.18 cm3 (IQR 0.13–0.28 cm3), respectively. In 55% of patients, endocrine function normalized or improved in their affected axes by median last clinical follow-up of 24.4 months (IQR 3.2–51.2 months). Older age, male sex, and larger tumor size were associated with likelihood of endocrine recovery. Median time to recovery of any axis was 12.2 months (IQR 2.5–23.9 months); hypothyroidism was the slowest axis to recover. Although the gland significantly reexpanded from preoperatively (0.18 cm3, IQR 0.13–0.28 cm3) to postoperatively (0.33 cm3, IQR 0.23–0.48 cm3; p < 0.001), there was no consistent association with improved endocrine function.CONCLUSIONSRecovery of endocrine function can occur several months and even years after surgery, with more than 50% of patients showing improved or normalized function. Tumor size, and not gland volume, was associated with preserved or recovered endocrine function.
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Feigl, Günther Christian, Christine Maria Bonelli, Andrea Berghold, and Michael Mokry. "Effects of gamma knife radiosurgery of pituitary adenomas on pituitary function." Journal of Neurosurgery 97 (December 2002): 415–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/jns.2002.97.supplement_5.0415.
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Object. The authors undertook a retrospective analysis of the incidence and time course of pituitary insufficiency following gamma knife radiosurgery (GKS) for pituitary adenomas. Methods. Pituitary adenomas in 92 patients were analyzed. There were 61 hormonally inactive tumors, 18 prolactinomas, and nine somatotropic and four adrenocorticotropic adenomas. The mean tumor volume was 3.8 cm3 (range 0.2–14.6 cm3). The mean prescription dose was 15 Gy. The mean prescription isodose was 50.7%. The mean follow-up time was 4.6 years (range 1.2–10 years). The following new or deteriorating insufficiencies that did not require treatment were recorded for the different pituitary axes: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)/luteinizing hormone (LH) 19 (20.6%), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) 32 (34.8%), adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 10 (10.9%), and growth hormone (GH) 26 (28.3%). For new insufficiencies or deterioration requiring replacement therapy, the figures were as follows: FSH/LH 20 (21.7%), TSH 22 (23.9%), ACTH eight (8.7%), and GH 12 (13%). Spot dosimetry was performed in 59 patients in the hypothalamic region, the pituitary gland, and pituitary stalk. The pituitary stalks in patients with deterioration of pituitary function received a statistically higher dosage of radiation, 7.7 ± 3.7 Gy compared with 5.5 ± 3 Gy (p = 0.03). Conclusions. The function of the residual normal pituitary gland is less affected following GKS of pituitary adenomas than after fractionated radiotherapy. Nonetheless, increased attention needs to be exercised to reduce the dose to the stalk and pituitary gland to minimize the incidence of these complications.
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Thody, A. J., and S. Shuster. "Control and function of sebaceous glands." Physiological Reviews 69, no. 2 (April 1, 1989): 383–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1989.69.2.383.
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This review describes the various types of sebaceous glands, their locations, and where possible their different functions. All sebaceous glands are similar in structure and secrete sebum by a holocrine process. However, the nature of this secretion and the regulation of the secretory process seem to differ among the various types of glands. Methods for measuring sebum secretion and assessing sebaceous gland activity are also described. The area of major interest during the last 20 years has undoubtedly been the mechanisms that control sebaceous gland function. Most studies have focused on the endocrine control and in particular on the role of androgens and pituitary hormones, although evidence suggests that nonendocrine factors may also be important. However, many questions remain and during the next few years attention will certainly be given to the role of retinoids and their mode of action in the treatment of acne.
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Van de Kar, LD, and MS Brownfield. "Serotonergic Neurons and Neuroendocrine Function." Physiology 8, no. 5 (October 1, 1993): 202–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiologyonline.1993.8.5.202.
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The release of serotonin (5-HT) from nerve terminals in the hypothalamus increases secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone and prolactin from the anterior pituitary, vasopressin and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland, and renin secretion from the kidneys. Activation of 5-HT1 and/or 5-HT2 receptors stimulates the secretion of these hormones.
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Francis, Karen, B. Mary Lewis, Peter N. Monk, and Jack Ham. "Complement C5a receptors in the pituitary gland: expression and function." Journal of Endocrinology 199, no. 3 (December 2008): 417–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe-08-0110.
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Communication between the immune and endocrine system is important for the control of inflammation that is primarily mediated through the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. The innate immune system rapidly responds to pathogens by releasing complement proteins that include the anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a. We previously reported the existence of C3a receptors in the anterior pituitary gland and now describe the presence of C5a receptors in the gland. C5a and its less active derivative (C5adR) can bind to its own receptor and to another receptor called C5L2. Using RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry, C5a receptors and C5L2 were demonstrated in the rat anterior pituitary gland and in several rodent anterior pituitary cell lines. Western blotting analysis showed that C5a stimulated the phosphorylation of MAPK and AKT but not p38; C5adR on the other hand, had no effect on any of the signal molecules investigated. The effects of C5a and C5adR on the secretion of the inflammatory molecule, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) were investigated by ELISA. Both compounds showed a dose-dependent inhibition of MIF release, 30–40% inhibition at around 35–70 nM agonist with IC50 values of around 20 nM. C5a and C5adR also stimulated ACTH secretion (up to 25%) from AtT-20DV16 cells. These data show that functional C5a receptors (C5a and C5L2) are present in the anterior pituitary gland and they may play a role in dampening down inflammation by inhibiting the release of MIF and stimulating the release of ACTH.
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Little, Andrew S., Paul A. Gardner, Juan C. Fernandez-Miranda, Michael R. Chicoine, Garni Barkhoudarian, Daniel M. Prevedello, Kevin C. J. Yuen, Daniel F. Kelly, and _. _. "Pituitary gland recovery following fully endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery for nonfunctioning pituitary adenoma: results of a prospective multicenter study." Journal of Neurosurgery 133, no. 6 (December 2020): 1732–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2019.8.jns191012.
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OBJECTIVERecovery from preexisting hypopituitarism after transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenoma is an important outcome to investigate. Furthermore, pituitary function has not been thoroughly evaluated after fully endoscopic surgery, and benchmark outcomes have not been clearly established. Here, the authors characterize pituitary gland outcomes with a focus on gland recovery following endoscopic transsphenoidal removal of clinically nonfunctioning adenomas.METHODSThis multicenter prospective study was conducted at 6 US pituitary centers among adult patients with nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenomas who had undergone endoscopic endonasal pituitary surgery. Pituitary gland function was evaluated 6 months after surgery.RESULTSThe 177 enrolled patients underwent fully endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery; 169 (95.5%) of them were available for follow-up. Ninety-five (56.2%) of the 169 patients had had a preoperative deficiency in at least one hormone axis, and 20/95 (21.1%) experienced recovery in at least one axis at the 6-month follow-up. Patients with adrenal insufficiency were more likely to recover (10/34 [29.4%]) than were those with hypothyroidism (8/72 [11.1%]) or male hypogonadism (5/50 [10.0%]). At the 6-month follow-up, 14/145 (9.7%) patients had developed at least one new deficiency. The study did not identify any predictors of gland recovery (p ≥ 0.20). Permanent diabetes insipidus was observed in 4/166 (2.4%) patients. Predictors of new gland dysfunction included a larger tumor size (p = 0.009) and Knosp grade 3 and 4 (p = 0.051).CONCLUSIONSFully endoscopic pituitary surgery resulted in improvement of pituitary gland function in a substantial minority of patients. The deficiency from which patients were most likely to recover was adrenal insufficiency. Overall rates of postoperative permanent diabetes insipidus were low. This study provides multicenter benchmark neuroendocrine clinical outcome data for the endoscopic technique.
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Russell, John P., Emily J. Lodge, and Cynthia L. Andoniadou. "Basic Research Advances on Pituitary Stem Cell Function and Regulation." Neuroendocrinology 107, no. 2 (2018): 196–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000488393.
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As a central regulator of major physiological processes, the pituitary gland is a highly dynamic organ, capable of responding to hormonal demand and hypothalamic influence, through adapting secretion as well as remodelling cell numbers among its seven populations of differentiated cells. Stem cells of the pituitary have been shown to actively generate new cells during postnatal development but remain mostly quiescent during adulthood, where they persist as a long-lived population. Despite a significant body of research characterising attributes of anterior pituitary stem cells, the regulation of this population is poorly understood. A better grasp on the signalling mechanisms influencing stem proliferation and cell fate decisions can impact on our future treatments of pituitary gland disorders such as organ failure and pituitary tumours, which can disrupt endocrine homeostasis with life-long consequences. This minireview addresses the current methodologies aiming to understand better the attributes of pituitary stem cells and the normal regulation of this population in the organ, and discusses putative future avenues to manipulate pituitary stem cells during disease states or regenerative medicine approaches.
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Wan, Zhen, Hua Yang, Yu Cai, Jianyu Ma, Peiyong Cheng, Zhibo Wang, Feng Wang, and Yanli Zhang. "Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis of Hu Sheep Pituitary Gland Prolificacy at the Follicular and Luteal Phases." Genes 13, no. 3 (February 27, 2022): 440. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes13030440.
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The pituitary gland directly regulates the reproduction of domestic animals. Research has increasingly focused on the potential regulatory mechanism of non-coding RNA in pituitary development. Little is known about the differential expression pattern of lncRNAs in Hu sheep, a famous sheep breed with high fecundity, and its role in the pituitary gland between the follicular phase and luteal phase. Herein, to identify the transcriptomic differences of the sheep pituitary gland during the estrus cycle, RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed. The results showed that 3529 lncRNAs and 16,651 mRNAs were identified in the pituitary gland. Among of them, 144 differentially expressed (DE) lncRNA transcripts and 557 DE mRNA transcripts were screened in the follicular and luteal phases. Moreover, GO and KEGG analyses demonstrated that 39 downregulated and 22 upregulated genes interacted with pituitary functions and reproduction. Lastly, the interaction of the candidate lncRNA XR_001039544.4 and its targeted gene LHB were validated in sheep pituitary cells in vitro. LncRNA XR_001039544.4 and LHB showed high expression levels in the luteal phase in Hu sheep. LncRNA XR_001039544.4 is mainly located in the cytoplasm, as determined by FISH analysis, indicating that XR_001039544.4 might act as competing endogenous RNAs for miRNAs to regulate LHB. LncRNA XR_001039544.4 knockdown significantly inhibited LH secretion and cell proliferation. LncRNA XR_001039544.4 may regulate the secretion of LH in the luteal-phase pituitary gland via affecting cell proliferation. Taken together, these findings provided genome-wide lncRNA- and mRNA-expression profiles for the sheep pituitary gland between the follicular and luteal phases, thereby contributing to the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of pituitary function.
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Freeman, Marc E., Béla Kanyicska, Anna Lerant, and György Nagy. "Prolactin: Structure, Function, and Regulation of Secretion." Physiological Reviews 80, no. 4 (January 10, 2000): 1523–631. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.2000.80.4.1523.
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Prolactin is a protein hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that was originally named for its ability to promote lactation in response to the suckling stimulus of hungry young mammals. We now know that prolactin is not as simple as originally described. Indeed, chemically, prolactin appears in a multiplicity of posttranslational forms ranging from size variants to chemical modifications such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. It is not only synthesized in the pituitary gland, as originally described, but also within the central nervous system, the immune system, the uterus and its associated tissues of conception, and even the mammary gland itself. Moreover, its biological actions are not limited solely to reproduction because it has been shown to control a variety of behaviors and even play a role in homeostasis. Prolactin-releasing stimuli not only include the nursing stimulus, but light, audition, olfaction, and stress can serve a stimulatory role. Finally, although it is well known that dopamine of hypothalamic origin provides inhibitory control over the secretion of prolactin, other factors within the brain, pituitary gland, and peripheral organs have been shown to inhibit or stimulate prolactin secretion as well. It is the purpose of this review to provide a comprehensive survey of our current understanding of prolactin's function and its regulation and to expose some of the controversies still existing.
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Gonzalez-Meljem, Jose Mario, Sarah Ivins, Cynthia Lilian Andoniadou, Paul Le Tissier, Peter Scambler, and Juan Pedro Martinez-Barbera. "An expression and function analysis of the CXCR4/SDF-1 signalling axis during pituitary gland development." PLOS ONE 18, no. 2 (February 17, 2023): e0280001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280001.
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The chemokine SDF-1 (CXCL12) and its receptor CXCR4 control several processes during embryonic development such as the regulation of stem cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration. However, the role of this pathway in the formation of the pituitary gland is not understood. We sought to characterise the expression patterns of CXCR4, SDF-1 and CXCR7 at different stages of pituitary gland development. Our expression profiling revealed that SDF-1 is expressed in progenitor-rich regions of the pituitary anterior lobe, that CXCR4 and CXCR7 have opposite expression domains and that CXCR4 expression is conserved between mice and human embryos. We then assessed the importance of this signalling pathway in the development and function of the murine pituitary gland through conditional deletion of CXCR4 in embryonic pituitary progenitors. Successful and specific ablation of CXCR4 expression in embryonic pituitary progenitors did not lead to observable embryonic nor postnatal defects but allowed the identification of stromal CXCR4+ cells not derived from HESX1+ progenitors. Further analysis of constitutive SDF-1, CXCR7 and CXCR4 mutants of the pathway indicates that CXCR4 expression in HESX1+ cells and their descendants is not essential for normal pituitary development in mice.
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Zhao, Lei, Shuo Zhang, Li Gong, Yan Qu, and Lijun Heng. "Endonasal interdural pituitary transposition for resection of a posterior clinoid process enchondroma in a patient with Maffucci syndrome." Neurosurgical Focus: Video 2, no. 2 (April 2020): V10. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2020.4.focusvid.19801.
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Maffucci syndrome is an extremely rare disorder characterized by benign enchondromas, skeletal deformities, and cutaneous lesions composed of abnormal blood vessels. Enchondromas rarely arise in the cranial bones. Interdural pituitary transposition is an effective way to gain access to the posterior clinoid, without affecting the function of the pituitary gland. Here, the authors present a case of a posterior clinoid process enchondroma in a patient with Maffucci syndrome. The tumor was resected via an interdural pituitary transposition fashion. Four months postoperatively, the patient’s oculomotor function had recovered to normal and the function of the pituitary gland was preserved intact.The video can be found here: https://youtu.be/EYgVwVZuC4g.
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Leenstra, James L., Shota Tanaka, Robert W. Kline, Paul D. Brown, Michael J. Link, Todd B. Nippoldt, William F. Young, and Bruce E. Pollock. "Factors Associated With Endocrine Deficits After Stereotactic Radiosurgery of Pituitary Adenomas." Neurosurgery 67, no. 1 (July 1, 2010): 27–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000370978.31405.a9.
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Abstract OBJECTIVE To analyze the factors associated with anterior pituitary deficits after pituitary adenoma stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS). METHODS The tumor, pituitary stalk, and pituitary gland were segmented on the dose plans of 82 patients (secreting tumors, n = 53; nonsecreting tumors, n = 29) for dose-volume analysis. No patient had undergone prior radiation therapy and all patients had at least 12 months of endocrinological follow-up (median, 63 months; mean, 69 months; range, 13–134). RESULTS Thirty-four patients (41%) developed new anterior pituitary deficits at a median of 32 months (range, 2–118) after SRS. The risk of developing new anterior pituitary deficits was 16% and 45% at 2 and 5 years, respectively. Multivariate analysis of the entire group showed that poor visualization of the pituitary gland (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.63, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.10–6.25, P = .03) was associated with a higher rate of new anterior pituitary deficits. Dosimetric analysis of 60 patients whose pituitary gland could be clearly identified showed that increasing mean pituitary gland radiation dose correlated with new anterior pituitary deficits (HR = 1.11, 95% CI = 1.02–1.20, P = .02). New anterior pituitary deficits stratified by mean pituitary gland radiation dose: ≤7.5 Gy, 0% (0/7); 7.6 to 13.2 Gy, 29% (7/24); 13.3 to 19.1 Gy, 39% (9/23); >19.1 Gy, 83% (5/6). CONCLUSION New endocrine deficits after pituitary adenoma radiosurgery were correlated with increasing radiation dose to the pituitary gland. Methods that limit the radiation dose to the pituitary gland during SRS may increase the probability of preserving pituitary function.
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Jackson, Christina, Derek Kai Kong, Zachary C. Gersey, Eric W. Wang, Georgios Zenonos, Carl H. Snyderman, and Paul A. Gardner. "Contact endoscopy as a novel technique for intra-operative identification of normal pituitary gland and adenoma." Neurosurgical Focus: Video 6, no. 1 (January 2022): V17. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2021.10.focvid21199.
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Intraoperative distinction of pituitary adenoma from normal gland is critical in maximizing tumor resection without compromising pituitary function. Contact endoscopy provides a noninvasive technique that allows for real-time in vivo visualization of differences in tissue vascularity. Two illustrative cases of endoscopic endonasal approaches (EEAs) for resection of pituitary adenoma illustrate the use of contact endoscopy in identifying tumor from gland and differentiating a thin section of normal gland draped over the underlying tumor, thereby allowing for safe extracapsular tumor resection. Contact endoscopy may be used as an adjunct for intraoperative, in vivo differentiation of pituitary gland and adenoma. The video can be found here: https://stream.cadmore.media/r10.3171/2021.10.FOCVID21199
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Pomeraniec, I. Jonathan, Davis G. Taylor, Or Cohen-Inbar, Zhiyuan Xu, Mary Lee Vance, and Jason P. Sheehan. "Radiation dose to neuroanatomical structures of pituitary adenomas and the effect of Gamma Knife radiosurgery on pituitary function." Journal of Neurosurgery 132, no. 5 (May 2020): 1499–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2019.1.jns182296.
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OBJECTIVEGamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) provides a safe and effective management option for patients with all types of pituitary adenomas. The long-term adverse effects of targeted radiation to the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in relationship to radiation dose remain unclear. In this retrospective review, the authors investigated the role of differential radiation doses in predicting long-term clinical outcomes and pituitary function after GKRS for pituitary adenomas.METHODSA cohort of 236 patients with pituitary tumors (41.5% nonfunctioning, 58.5% functioning adenomas) was treated with GKRS between 1998 and 2015. Point dosimetric measurements, with no minimum volume, to 14 consistent points along the hypothalamus bilaterally, pituitary stalk, and normal pituitary were made. Statistical analyses were performed to determine the impact of doses to critical structures on clinical, radiological, and endocrine outcomes.RESULTSWith a median follow-up duration of 42.9 months, 18.6% of patients developed new loss of pituitary function. The median time to endocrinopathy was 21 months (range 2–157 months). The median dose was 2.1 Gy to the hypothalamus, 9.1 Gy to the pituitary stalk, and 15.3 Gy to the normal pituitary. Increasing age (p = 0.015, HR 0.98) and ratio of maximum dose to the pituitary stalk over the normal pituitary gland (p = 0.013, HR 0.22) were independent predictors of new or worsening hypopituitarism in the multivariate analysis. Sex, margin dose, treatment volume, nonfunctioning adenoma status, or ratio between doses to the pituitary stalk and hypothalamus were not significant predictors.CONCLUSIONSGKRS offers a low rate of delayed pituitary insufficiency for pituitary adenomas. Doses to the hypothalamus are low and generally do not portend endocrine deficits. Patients who are treated with a high dose to the pituitary stalk relative to the normal gland are at higher risk of post-GKRS endocrinopathy. Point dosimetry to specific neuroanatomical structures revealed that a ratio of stalk-to-gland radiation dose of 0.8 or more significantly increased the risk of endocrinopathy following GKRS. Improvement in the gradient index toward the stalk and normal gland may help preserve endocrine function.
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Scully, Kathleen M., Dorota Skowronska-Krawczyk, Michal Krawczyk, Daria Merkurjev, Havilah Taylor, Antonia Livolsi, Jessica Tollkuhn, Radu V. Stan, and Michael G. Rosenfeld. "Epithelial cell integrin β1 is required for developmental angiogenesis in the pituitary gland." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 47 (November 3, 2016): 13408–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1614970113.
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As a key component of the vertebrate neuroendocrine system, the pituitary gland relies on the progressive and coordinated development of distinct hormone-producing cell types and an invading vascular network. The molecular mechanisms that drive formation of the pituitary vasculature, which is necessary for regulated synthesis and secretion of hormones that maintain homeostasis, metabolism, and endocrine function, remain poorly understood. Here, we report that expression of integrin β1 in embryonic pituitary epithelial cells is required for angiogenesis in the developing mouse pituitary gland. Deletion of pituitary epithelial integrin β1 before the onset of angiogenesis resulted in failure of invading endothelial cells to recruit pericytes efficiently, whereas deletion later in embryogenesis led to decreased vascular density and lumen formation. In both cases, lack of epithelial integrin β1 was associated with a complete absence of vasculature in the pituitary gland at birth. Within pituitary epithelial cells, integrin β1 directs a large transcriptional program that includes components of the extracellular matrix and associated signaling factors that are linked to the observed non–cell-autonomous effects on angiogenesis. We conclude that epithelial integrin β1 functions as a critical and canonical regulator of developmental angiogenesis in the pituitary gland, thus providing insight into the long-standing systems biology conundrum of how vascular invasion is coordinated with tissue development.
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Miyamoto, Junko, Takahiro Matsumoto, Hiroko Shiina, Kazuki Inoue, Ichiro Takada, Saya Ito, Johbu Itoh, et al. "The Pituitary Function of Androgen Receptor Constitutes a Glucocorticoid Production Circuit." Molecular and Cellular Biology 27, no. 13 (April 30, 2007): 4807–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mcb.02039-06.
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ABSTRACT Androgen receptor (AR) mediates diverse androgen actions, particularly reproductive processes in males and females. AR-mediated androgen signaling is considered to also control metabolic processes; however, the molecular basis remains elusive. In the present study, we explored the molecular mechanism of late-onset obesity in male AR null mutant (ARKO) mice. We determined that the obesity was caused by a hypercorticoid state. The negative feedback system regulating glucocorticoid production was impaired in ARKO mice. Male and female ARKO mice exhibited hypertrophic adrenal glands and glucocorticoid overproduction, presumably due to high levels of adrenal corticotropic hormone. The pituitary glands of the ARKO males had increased expression of proopiomelanocortin and decreased expression of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). There were no overt structural abnormalities and no alteration in the distribution of cell types in the pituitaries of male ARKO mice. Additionally, there was normal production of the other hormones within the glucocorticoid feedback system in both the pituitary and hypothalamus. In a cell line derived from pituitary glands, GR expression was under the positive control of the activated AR. Thus, this study suggests that the activated AR supports the negative feedback regulation of glucocorticoid production via up-regulation of GR expression in the pituitary gland.
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Shima, Yuichi, Kanako Miyabayashi, Takami Mori, Koji Ono, Mizuki Kajimoto, Hae Lim Cho, Hitomi Tsuchida, et al. "Intronic Enhancer Is Essential for Nr5a1 Expression in The Pituitary Gonadotrope and for Postnatal Development of Male Reproductive Organs in a Mouse Model." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 1 (December 22, 2022): 192. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms24010192.
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Nuclear receptor subfamily 5 group A member 1 (NR5A1) is expressed in the pituitary gonadotrope and regulates their differentiation. Although several regulatory regions were implicated in Nr5a1 gene expression in the pituitary gland, none of these regions have been verified using mouse models. Furthermore, the molecular functions of NR5A1 in the pituitary gonadotrope have not been fully elucidated. In the present study, we generated mice lacking the pituitary enhancer located in the 6th intron of the Nr5a1 gene. These mice showed pituitary gland-specific disappearance of NR5A1, confirming the functional importance of the enhancer. Enhancer-deleted male mice demonstrated no defects at fetal stages. Meanwhile, androgen production decreased markedly in adult, and postnatal development of reproductive organs, such as the seminal vesicle, prostate, and penis was severely impaired. We further performed transcriptomic analyses of the whole pituitary gland of the enhancer-deleted mice and controls, as well as gonadotropes isolated from Ad4BP-BAC-EGFP mice. These analyses identified several genes showing gonadotrope-specific, NR5A1-dependent expressions, such as Spp1, Tgfbr3l, Grem1, and Nr0b2. These factors are thought to function downstream of NR5A1 and play important roles in reproductive organ development through regulation of pituitary gonadotrope functions.
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Malenkovic, Vesna, Ljiljana Gvozdenovic, Branko Milakovic, Vera Sabljak, Nebojsa Ladjevic, and Vladan Zivaljevic. "Preoperative preparation of patients with pituitary gland disorders." Acta chirurgica Iugoslavica 58, no. 2 (2011): 91–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/aci1102091m.
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This paper presents the most common disorders of pituitary function: acromegaly, hypopituitarism, diabetes insipidus and syndrome similar to diabetes insipidus, in terms of their importance in preoperative preparation of patients. Pituitary function manages almost the entire endocrine system using the negative feedback mechanism that is impaired by these diseases. The cause of acromegaly is a pituitary adenoma, which produces growth hormone in adults. Primary therapy of acromegaly is surgical, with or without associated radiotherapy. If a patient with acromegaly as comorbidity prepares for non-elective neurosurgical operation, then it requires consultation with brain surgeons for possible delays of that operation and primary surgical treatment of pituitary gland. If operative treatment of pituitary gland is carried out, the preoperative preparation (for other surgical interventions) should consider the need for perioperative glucocorticoid supplementation. Panhypopituitarism consequences are different in children and adults and the first step in diagnosis is to assess the function of target organs. Change of electrolytes and water occurs in the case of pituitary lesions in the form of central or nephrogenic diabetes insipidus as a syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH). Preoperative preparation of patients with pituitary dysfunction should be multidisciplinary, whether it is a neurosurgical or some other surgical intervention. The aim is to evaluate the result of insufficient production of pituitary hormones (hypopituitarism), excessive production of adenohypophysis hormones (acromegaly, Cushing?s disease and hyperprolactinemia) and the influence of pituitary tumours in surrounding structures (compression syndrome) and to determine the level of perioperative risk. Pharmacological suppressive therapy of the hyperfunctional pituitary disorders can have significant interactions with drugs used in the perioperative period.
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Nelson, Paul B., Alan G. Robinson, and Julio A. Martinez. "Metastatic Tumor of the Pituitary Gland." Neurosurgery 21, no. 6 (April 1, 1987): 941–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/00006123-198712000-00030.
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Abstract Although metastatic tumors of the pituitary gland and the sellar region are not common, they may radiographically mimic a pituitary tumor. Because the metastasis frequently involves the posterior lobe and because lateral extension to the cavernous sinus is common, patients may present with ptosis, diplopia, or diabetes insipidus. Decrease in anterior pituitary function is less common. Metastatic tumors contain abundant vascular networks, as evidenced by frequent blush on cerebral angiography and increased bleeding at operation. We report the case of a 57-year-old woman who presented with rapid onset of bilateral ptosis and ophthalmoplegia and was found to have a metastatic carcinoma within the pituitary gland.
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REES, D. Aled, Maurice F. SCANLON, and Jack HAM. "Novel insights into how purines regulate pituitary cell function." Clinical Science 104, no. 5 (May 1, 2003): 467–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/cs20030053.
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Purine nucleosides and nucleotides are widely distributed substances that exhibit a diverse range of effects in a number of tissues, acting as important extracellular signalling molecules in addition to their more established roles in cellular metabolism. They mediate their effects via activation of distinct cell surface receptors, termed adenosine (or P1) and P2 purinergic receptors. Although roles for adenosine and adenine nucleotides have been described previously in the pituitary gland, the distribution of the receptor subtypes and the effects of their activation on pituitary function are not well defined. Recent evidence, however, has emerged to describe a complex signalling system for purines in the pituitary gland. Data from a variety of studies have shown that the expression pattern, number and affinity of adenosine and/or P2 receptors may be cell-type specific and that non-endocrine in addition to endocrine cells elaborate these receptors. These variations, along with the diverse range of signalling pathways activated, dictate the response of individual cell types to extracellular purines, with roles now emerging for these substances in the regulation of hormone release, pituitary cell proliferation and cytokine/growth factor expression. In this review, we discuss these advances and examine some implications for pituitary growth control and the response of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis to stress and inflammation.
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Zhao, L., M. Bakke, Y. Krimkevich, L. J. Cushman, A. F. Parlow, S. A. Camper, and K. L. Parker. "Steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1) is essential for pituitary gonadotrope function." Development 128, no. 2 (January 15, 2001): 147–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.128.2.147.
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Knockout mice lacking the orphan nuclear receptor steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1) exhibit a complex endocrine phenotype that includes adrenal and gonadal agenesis, impaired expression of pituitary gonadotropins, and absence of the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMH). These multiple defects complicate efforts to delineate primary versus secondary effects of SF1 deficiency in different tissues, such that its direct role in gonadotropes remains uncertain. To define this role, we have expressed Cre recombinase driven by the promoter region of the common alpha subunit of glycoprotein hormones (alpha GSU), thereby inactivating a loxP-modified SF1 locus in the anterior pituitary gland. Although pituitary-specific SF1 knockout mice were fully viable, they were sterile and failed to develop normal secondary sexual characteristics. Their adrenal glands and VMH appeared normal histologically, but their testes and ovaries were severely hypoplastic. alpha GSU-Cre, loxP mice had normal levels of most pituitary hormones, but had markedly decreased expression of LH and FSH. Treatment with exogenous gonadotropins stimulated gonadal steroidogenesis, inducing germ cell maturation in males and follicular and uterine maturation in females--establishing that the gonads can respond to gonadotropins. The pituitary-specific SF1 knockout mice are a novel genetic model of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism that establishes essential role(s) of SF1 in pituitary gonadotropes.
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Mansurova, G. N., L. M. Tukhvatullina, L. Yu Mirolyubova, and A. T. Valiullina. "Extragenital pathology and disorders of menstrual function in young girls." Kazan medical journal 79, no. 2 (March 25, 1998): 94–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/kazmj63717.
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Anamnestic, objective and clinicolaboratory data with estimation of physical and sex development of young girls are studied. The functions of thyroid gland, adrenal cortices, pituitary body and ovaries are studied, ultrasonic examination of small pelvis, roentgenography and MR-tomography of skull are performed. It is shown that disorders of sex development and menstrual function occur in the majority of young girls in the presence of unfavourable anamnesis and various extragenital pathology. Unfavourable anamnesis is revealed in 1/3 of young girls with menstrual function disorder. Polycystosis of ovaries, disfunctional metrorrhagia, tumors and inflammatory diseases of genitals, pituitory body adenoma are revealed. Extragenital pathology is diagnosed in 44% of young girls
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Rossi, Marco Lorenzo, John Stuart Bevan, Kenneth Anthony Fleming, and Felix Cruz-Sanchez. "Pituitary Metastasis from Malignant Bronchial Carcinoid." Tumori Journal 74, no. 1 (February 1988): 101–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030089168807400118.
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Metastases from a carcinoid tumor to the pituitary gland have, to our knowledge, not been described. We present a 49-year-old woman diagnosed as having a primary carcinoid tumor arising in the submucosa of a large bronchus who 8 years later presented with multiple metastases including one to the pituitary gland, which was in partial failure of pituitary function. This case illustrates than when confronted with a pituitary tumor resembling an adenoma but negative for pituitary hormones, the possibility of a metastasis from a carcinoid tumor should be considered.
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Zheng, Weiming, Jingying Yang, Qiaorong Jiang, Zhibin He, and Lisa M. Halvorson. "Liver receptor homologue-1 regulates gonadotrope function." Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 38, no. 2 (February 2007): 207–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/jme-06-0001.
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Over the past decade, substantial advances have been made in our understanding of the transcription factors which regulate gene expression in gonadotropes. One of the most important of these factors, steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1; NR5A1) is critical for gonadotropin and GnRH-receptor expression. Interestingly, a closely related nuclear hormone receptor, liver receptor homologue-1 (LRH-1; NR5A2) has recently been detected in the anterior pituitary gland; however, its functional significance in this tissue has not been investigated. For the experiments reported here, we hypothesized that LRH-1 plays a previously unrecognized role in gonadotrope physiology. Towards this end, we first demonstrate LRH-1 mRNA and protein expression in both primary pituitary cells and gonadotrope-derived cell lines. We next show that LRH-1 stimulates promoter activity of the GnRH-receptor and gonadotropin subunit genes. Within the LHβ gene, this response appears to be mediated by DNA-binding and transactivation through previously characterized SF-1 cis-elements. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating a functional role for LRH-1 in the gonadotrope population of the anterior pituitary gland.
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BUTENANDT, O., M. EMMLINGER, and H. DOERR. "Single and repeated testing of growth hormone secretory capacity in hypopituitarism using growth hormone releasing factor." Acta Endocrinologica 113, no. 4_Suppl (December 1986): S118—S122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/acta.0.112s118.
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Abstract 38 patients with proven growth hormone deficiency (GHD) and 19 children with familial short stature received an iv GRF-bolus injection of 1 ug/kg body weight. Whereas in all control children plasma growth hormone rose significantly (mean of maximal values 36 ng/ml), only 7 out of 38 patients with GHD reached peak values of 8 ng/ml or more. GRF-priming by 1 ug GRF/kg BW given once daily s.c. for 5 days in 19 patients improved the response of the pituitary gland in 11. Thus, following the first GRF test, only 21 % of patients demonstrated function of the pituitary gland whereas 45 % did so when all test results are combined. To evaluate the pituitary function in patients with GHD correctly, GRF tests following a GRF priming period seems to be necessary to reactivate atrophic somatotropic cells of the pituitary gland.
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Sikorskaya, T. A., M. V. Kachuk, and A. V. Sikorsky. "FUNCTIONAL STATE OF THE THYROID GLAND AND ADRENAL GLANDS IN PATIENTS WITH PSORIASIS." Military Medicine, no. 3 (2021): 58–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.51922/2074-5044.2021.3.58.
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The article defines the characteristic features of thyroid and adrenal function in patients with psoriasis, taking into account the pituitary regulation and streptococcal association of dermatosis. Patients with psoriasis, regardless of the form of dermatosis and microbial association, experience a non-thyroid syndrome with a high T3 concentration, increased glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid function of the adrenal glands.
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Hurcombe, Samuel D. A. "Hypothalamic-Pituitary Gland Axis Function and Dysfunction in Horses." Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice 27, no. 1 (April 2011): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2010.12.006.
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Lü, F., K. Yang, V. K. M. Han, and J. R. G. Challis. "Expression, distribution, regulation and function of IGFs in the ovine fetal pituitary." Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 14, no. 3 (June 1995): 323–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/jme.0.0140323.
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ABSTRACT Activation of the fetal pituitary-adrenal axis is crucial for fetal organ maturation and the onset of parturition in sheep. Many factors including corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin secreted from the hypothalamus, and growth factors produced within the pituitary may be involved in the regulation of maturation of the fetal pituitary gland. IGFs have mitogenic and differentiation-promoting capacities in a variety of organs and are synthesized as paracrine factors within developing tissues. However, there is little information concerning the synthesis, distribution, regulation and function of IGFs in the fetal pituitary gland at different times during pregnancy. Therefore, we have localized IGF-I and IGF-II mRNAs and peptides, and determined the effect of cortisol on the level of IGF-II mRNAs in the pituitary glands of developing sheep fetuses. We examined the possible effects of IGFs on corticotroph function in cultures of adenohypophysial cells from term fetuses. Seven species of IGF-II transcripts of 1·2–6·0 kb were identified by Northern blot analysis in the pituitary gland of fetuses between day 60 of gestation and term (day 145). The levels of IGF-II mRNAs did not change significantly during pregnancy, although there was a trend for the presence of higher levels of IGF-II mRNAs at day 60 of gestation. IGF-I mRNA was not detectable. By in situ hybridization, IGF-II mRNA was localized to non-endocrine cells and to cells lining the blood vessels of the pars distalis, to some presumed endocrine cells in the pars distalis and pars intermedia, and to clusters of cells in the pars nervosa. In contrast, IGF-I and IGF-II peptides were detected in the presumed endocrine cells in the pars distalis and pars intermedia but not in the pars nervosa. Incubation of adenohypophysial cells from term fetuses with IGF-I, but not IGF-II, for 48 h increased specific 125I-Tyr-ovine CRH binding. However, neither IGF-I nor IGF-II had any significant effects on the basal or CRH-stimulated immunoreactive (ir)-ACTH output, the level of POMC mRNA or the number of ir-ACTH positive cells. Infusion of cortisol to fetuses starting at day 96 of gestation for 100 h or at days 120–125 of gestation for 84 h did not affect the level of IGF-II mRNAs in the pars distalis but decreased the levels of POMC mRNA. These results are consistent with IGFs having the potential to influence fetal pituitary function, although probably on cell types other than the corticotrophs. The likely sources of IGFs may be predominantly local (IGF-II) or from extrapituitary sources (IGF-I).
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Cheung, Leonard Y. M., Akima S. George, Stacey R. McGee, Alexandre Z. Daly, Michelle L. Brinkmeier, Buffy S. Ellsworth, and Sally A. Camper. "Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Reveals Novel Markers of Male Pituitary Stem Cells and Hormone-Producing Cell Types." Endocrinology 159, no. 12 (October 17, 2018): 3910–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2018-00750.
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Abstract Transcription factors and signaling pathways that regulate stem cells and specialized hormone-producing cells in the pituitary gland have been the subject of intense study and have yielded a mechanistic understanding of pituitary organogenesis and disease. However, the regulation of stem cell proliferation and differentiation, the heterogeneity among specialized hormone-producing cells, and the role of nonendocrine cells in the gland remain important, unanswered questions. Recent advances in single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) technologies provide new avenues to address these questions. We performed scRNAseq on ∼13,663 cells pooled from six whole pituitary glands of 7-week-old C57BL/6 male mice. We identified pituitary endocrine and stem cells in silico, as well as other support cell types such as endothelia, connective tissue, and red and white blood cells. Differential gene expression analyses identify known and novel markers of pituitary endocrine and stem cell populations. We demonstrate the value of scRNAseq by in vivo validation of a novel gonadotrope-enriched marker, Foxp2. We present novel scRNAseq data of in vivo pituitary tissue, including data from agnostic clustering algorithms that suggest the presence of a somatotrope subpopulation enriched in sterol/cholesterol synthesis genes. Additionally, we show that incomplete transcriptome annotation can cause false negatives on some scRNAseq platforms that only generate 3′ transcript end sequences, and we use in vivo data to recover reads of the pituitary transcription factor Prop1. Ultimately, scRNAseq technologies represent a significant opportunity to address long-standing questions regarding the development and function of the different populations of the pituitary gland throughout life.
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Argyropoulou, M., D. Kiortsis, Z. Metafratzi, S. Bitsis, A. Tsatoulis, and S. Efremidis. "Pituitary gland height evaluated by MR in patients with β-thalassemia major: a marker of pituitary gland function." Neuroradiology 43, no. 12 (September 6, 2001): 1056–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002340100634.
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Chen, Long, Huijun Wang, Ziqin Zhao, Yihu Zhang, and Guangzhao Huang. "Effects of the Extract of a Chinese Herb Tripterygium wilfordii Hook f on Rat Pituitary Gland." American Journal of Chinese Medicine 33, no. 06 (January 2005): 945–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0192415x05003521.
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In China, the ethylacetate extract of the herb Tripterygium wilfordii Hook f (TWEE), containing the major active ingredient triptolide, is often used with favorable effect on rheumatoid arthritis patients, in alternation with the use of prednisone. The mechanism of this therapeutic effect, however, has not been completely delineated. In this study, we studied how TWEE and prednisone affect the pituitary and adrenal glands in rats. Thirty normal male Sprague-Dawley rats (ten per group) were randomly assigned to receive: (1) TWEE (25 mg/kg, twice a day), (2) prednisone (2 mg/kg, twice a day), or (3) vehicle (control) (0.5% sodium carboxymethyl cellulose 1 ml, twice a day), orally for 30 days. Pituitary and trunk blood were collected on day 31. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) expression in the pituitary gland was assessed morphologically by immunohistochemical techniques. Plasma ACTH concentrations and serum corticosterone concentrations were quantitatively measured by radioimmunoassay. We found that TWEE significantly increased plasma ACTH concentration and serum corticosterone concentration and dramatically increased the number of ACTH-positive cells in the pituitary. Our findings indicate that TWEE can promote the synthesis and secretion of ACTH cells — in the pars distalis of the rat pituitary gland and the production of corticosterone in the zone fasciculata of the adrenal cortex. Our results indicate that TWEE has a cortical hormone-like function and can promote adrenal cortex function by activating the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis.
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Kameda, Hiraku, Hideaki Miyoshi, Chikara Shimizu, So Nagai, Akinobu Nakamura, Takuma Kondo, Dai Chida, and Tatsuya Atsumi. "Expression and Regulation of Neuromedin B in Pituitary Corticotrophs of Male Melanocortin 2 Receptor-Deficient Mice." Endocrinology 155, no. 7 (July 1, 2014): 2492–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2013-2077.
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The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a major part of the neuroendocrine system that controls responses to stress, and has an important function in the regulation of various body processes. We previously created a mouse line deficient in the melanocortin 2 receptor (MC2R). MC2R-deficient mice (MC2R−/− mice) have high adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels because of undetectable corticosterone levels. Increased neuromedin B (NMB) expression was recently reported in the pituitary gland of adrenalectomized mice, a model for acute adrenal insufficiency. To investigate gene expression in the pituitary gland under chronic adrenal deficiency, we examined the pituitary gland of MC2R−/− mice, a model of chronic adrenal insufficiency. To understand the molecular background of pituitary cells under chronic adrenal deficiency, we first performed DNA microarray analyses using the pituitary glands of the MC2R−/− mice. The DNA microarray analysis and real-time polymerase chain reaction showed that NMB expression was higher in the MC2R−/− than in the wild-type (WT) mice. We detected NMB expression in the MC2R−/− pituitary corticotrophs by immunohistochemistry using the specific antibodies for ACTH and NMB. In addition, the plasma NMB concentration was significantly higher in the MC2R−/− mice than in the WT mice. Subcutaneous implantation of a sustained-release corticosterone pellet decreased the expression of NMB mRNA as well as pituitary proopiomelanocortin mRNA. In isolated anterior pituitary cells, NMB mRNA expression was increased by the administration of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and was suppressed by dexamethasone treatment. In this study, we first demonstrate NMB expression in corticotrophs and its regulation by CRH and glucocorticoids. Furthermore, corticotrophs seemed to secrete NMB into the systemic circulation.
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Rees, DA, MF Scanlon, and J. Ham. "Adenosine signalling pathways in the pituitary gland: one ligand, multiple receptors." Journal of Endocrinology 177, no. 3 (June 1, 2003): 357–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1770357.
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Adenosine receptors are widely distributed in most species and mediate a diverse range of physiological and pathological effects. Although adenosine receptors have been identified in the pituitary gland, the distribution of the individual subtypes (A(1), A(2A), A(2B), A(3)) has not been well defined. Furthermore, the effects of adenosine on pituitary trophic activity and function are not well established despite good evidence for growth- and immune-modulating properties of the nucleoside elsewhere. Recent advances have provided a more detailed description of adenosine receptor distribution and function in the anterior pituitary and this commentary reviews these observations and highlights some of the possible implications in relation to the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the regulation of inflammation and pituitary cell growth.
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Yaglova, N. V., and T. T. Berezov. "Regulation of thyroid and pituitary function by bacterial lipopolysaccharide." Biomeditsinskaya Khimiya 56, no. 2 (2010): 179–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.18097/pbmc20105602179.
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Activation of toll-like receptors-4 by bacterial lipopolysaccharide downregulates pituitary and thyroid function. Besides decrease of thyroid-stimulating hormone secretion lipopolysaccharide affects secretion in follicular thyroid cells directly. The endotoxin partialy activates and inhibits different phases of follicular thyrocytes' secretion. Lipopolysaccharide enhances thyroglobulin synthesis and exocytosis into follicular lumen and supresses its resorbtion.It results in sharp drop of blood thyroxine concentration without decrease of deiodinases-mediated thiroxine to triiodothyronine conversion. Stimulation of the lipopolysaccharide-pretreated thyroid gland with thyroid-stimulating hormone increases resorbtion of thyroglobulin and thyroid hormone production. Combined stimulation of the thyroid gland increases protein bound thyroxine and triiodothyronine serum concentration unlike only TSH stimulation resulting in increase of free thyroid hormone levels. It also prooves that binding capacity of thyroid hormone serum transport proteins during nonthyroidal illness syndrome remains normal.
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Hoa, Ombeline, Chrystel Lafont, Pierre Fontanaud, Anne Guillou, Yasmine Kemkem, Rhonda D. Kineman, Raul M. Luque, Tatiana Fiordelisio Coll, Paul Le Tissier, and Patrice Mollard. "Imaging and Manipulating Pituitary Function in the Awake Mouse." Endocrinology 160, no. 10 (July 22, 2019): 2271–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2019-00297.
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Abstract Extensive efforts have been made to explore how the activities of multiple brain cells combine to alter physiology through imaging and cell-specific manipulation in different animal models. However, the temporal regulation of peripheral organs by the neuroendocrine factors released by the brain is poorly understood. We have established a suite of adaptable methodologies to interrogate in vivo the relationship of hypothalamic regulation with the secretory output of the pituitary gland, which has complex functional networks of multiple cell types intermingled with the vasculature. These allow imaging and optogenetic manipulation of cell activities in the pituitary gland in awake mouse models, in which both neuronal regulatory activity and hormonal output are preserved. These methodologies are now readily applicable for longitudinal studies of short-lived events (e.g., calcium signals controlling hormone exocytosis) and slowly evolving processes such as tissue remodeling in health and disease over a period of days to weeks.
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Ullah, Yaseen, Cunyuan Li, Xiaoyue Li, Wei Ni, Rui Yao, Yueren Xu, Renzhe Quan, et al. "Identification and Profiling of Pituitary microRNAs of Sheep during Anestrus and Estrus Stages." Animals 10, no. 3 (February 29, 2020): 402. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10030402.
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MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs, molecules of 21 to 25 nucleotides in length, that regulate gene expression by binding to their target mRNA and play a significant role in animal development. The expression and role of miRNAs in regulating sheep estrus, however, remain elusive. Transcriptome analysis is helpful to understand the biological roles of miRNAs in the pituitary gland of sheep. A sheep’s pituitary gland has a significant difference between estrus and anestrus states. Here, we investigate the expression profiles of sheep anterior pituitary microRNAs (miRNAs) in two states, estrus and anestrus, using Illumina HiSeq-technology. This study identified a total of 199 miRNAs and 25 differentially expressed miRNAs in the estrus and anestrus pituitary gland in sheep. Reverse transcription quantitative-PCR (RT-qPCR) analysis shows six differentially (p < 0.05) expressed miRNAs, that are miR-143, miR-199a, miR-181a, miR-200a, miR-218, and miR-221 in both estrus and anestrus states. miRNAs containing estrus-related terms and pathways regulation are enriched using enrichment analysis from gene ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Moreover, we also envisioned a miRNA–mRNA interaction network to understand the function of miRNAs involved in the pituitary gland regulatory network. In conclusion, miRNA expression profiles in sheep pituitary gland in the anestrus and estrus deliver a theoretical basis for the study of pituitary gland biology in sheep.
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Jovanovic, Dragan, Zoran Kovacevic, Tamara Dragovic, Marijana Petrovic, and Jelena Tadic. "Anterior pituitary lobe atrophy as late complication of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome." Vojnosanitetski pregled 66, no. 2 (2009): 166–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/vsp0902166j.
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Introduction. Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is acute infective multisystemic disease followed by febrility, hemorrhages and acute renal insufficiency. Bleeding in the anterior pituitary lobe leading to tissue necrosis occurs in acute stage of severe clinical forms of HFRS, while atrophy of the anterior pituitary lobe with diminution of the gland function occurs after recovery stage. Case report. We presented a patient with the development of chronic renal insufficiency and hypopituitarism as complication that had been diagnosed six years after Hantavirus infection. Magnetic resonance of the pituitary gland revealed atrophy and empty sella turcica. Conclusion. Regarding frequency of this viral infection and its endemic character in some parts of our country partial and/or complete loss of pituitary function should be considered during the late stage of HFRS.
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Scagliotti, Valeria, Ruben Esse, Thea L. Willis, Mark Howard, Isabella Carrus, Emily Lodge, Cynthia L. Andoniadou, and Marika Charalambous. "Dynamic Expression of Imprinted Genes in the Developing and Postnatal Pituitary Gland." Genes 12, no. 4 (March 30, 2021): 509. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes12040509.
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In mammals, imprinted genes regulate many critical endocrine processes such as growth, the onset of puberty and maternal reproductive behaviour. Human imprinting disorders (IDs) are caused by genetic and epigenetic mechanisms that alter the expression dosage of imprinted genes. Due to improvements in diagnosis, increasing numbers of patients with IDs are now identified and monitored across their lifetimes. Seminal work has revealed that IDs have a strong endocrine component, yet the contribution of imprinted gene products in the development and function of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis are not well defined. Postnatal endocrine processes are dependent upon the production of hormones from the pituitary gland. While the actions of a few imprinted genes in pituitary development and function have been described, to date there has been no attempt to link the expression of these genes as a class to the formation and function of this essential organ. This is important because IDs show considerable overlap, and imprinted genes are known to define a transcriptional network related to organ growth. This knowledge deficit is partly due to technical difficulties in obtaining useful transcriptomic data from the pituitary gland, namely, its small size during development and cellular complexity in maturity. Here we utilise high-sensitivity RNA sequencing at the embryonic stages, and single-cell RNA sequencing data to describe the imprinted transcriptome of the pituitary gland. In concert, we provide a comprehensive literature review of the current knowledge of the role of imprinted genes in pituitary hormonal pathways and how these relate to IDs. We present new data that implicate imprinted gene networks in the development of the gland and in the stem cell compartment. Furthermore, we suggest novel roles for individual imprinted genes in the aetiology of IDs. Finally, we describe the dynamic regulation of imprinted genes in the pituitary gland of the pregnant mother, with implications for the regulation of maternal metabolic adaptations to pregnancy.
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Margaret, F. Keil, and A. Stratakis Constantine. "Advances in the Diagnosis, Treatment and Molecular Genetics of Pituitary Adenomas in Childhood." US Endocrinology 04, no. 01 (2008): 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.17925/use.2008.04.01.83.
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The pituitary gland has an essential role in the maintenance of homeostasis, normal growth and reproductive function. Although pituitary tumours are rare in childhood and adolescence and are typically histologically benign, significant morbidity may result due to their location, mass effect and/or interference with normal pituitary hormone functions.1The early identification of pituitary tumours in children is necessary to avoid serious adverse effects on both physiological and cognitive outcomes as a result of pituitary hormone dysregulation during the critical periods of growth in childhood and adolescence. In this report, we review recent findings on the diagnosis, evaluation, treatment and molecular genetics of pituitary adenomas presenting in childhood.
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Abdo, Ahmed MR, Mohamed E. El-Beeh, Sameer H. Qari, Dina A. El-badry, and Hassan IH El-Sayyad. "Diabetes and Hypercholesterolemia Impair the Cytological Structure of the Anterior Pituitary Gland." Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia 16, no. 3 (September 30, 2019): 649–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.13005/bbra/2780.
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Increase consumption of high fat diet was found to alter blood sugar level similar to diabetes and contributed to the development of obesity and affected the reproductive function of both sexes. The study aimed to clarify the influence of diabetes and or hypercholesterolemia on the cytological picture of cells of the anterior lobe of pituitary gland of male albino rats. Eighteen male albino rats weighing approximately 120 gram body weight were divided into three main groups; control, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes (single i.p. 40 mg streptozotocin/kg B.wt plus 100mg. nicotinamide /kg body weight) and hypercholesterolemia (diet containing 3% cholesterol). Dietary feeding on cholesterol and diabetes were carried out for 12 weeks. At the end of treatment, animals were sacrificed, and pituitary glands were separated and their anterior lobe was processed for cytological investigations by transmission electron microscopy. The present study revealed that the rats subjected to experimental diabetes and/ or hypercholesterolemia exhibited a decrease of the secretory granules within the gonadotroph cells somatotroph and corticotrophin cells. There was a detected intracellular accumulation of fat globules in both the gonado- and sommatotroph cells. The authors reported that the altered cytological structures of the secretory function of the anterior pituitary gland led to marked impairment of the male hormonal level and causing infertility.
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Tateishi, Kayoko, Yoshio Misumi, Yukio Ikehara, Kyoko Miyasaka, and Akihiro Funakoshi. "Molecular cloning and expression of rat antisecretory factor and its intracellular localization." Biochemistry and Cell Biology 77, no. 3 (July 28, 1999): 223–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/o99-043.
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Antisecretory factor (AF) was identified as a pituitary protein that inhibits the intestinal fluid secretion induced by cholera toxin. One aim of this study was to elucidate whether AF is also synthesized in the intestine or if AF produced in the pituitary is transported to the intestinal tract for its function there. cDNA clones encoding a protein proposed to be AF were isolated from rat pituitary gland and intestinal mucosa cDNA libraries. The nucleotide sequences of clones isolated from the rat pituitary gland and intestinal mucosa were identical. The deduced amino acid sequence was highly homologous to the sequence for subunit 5a of the human 26S protease that exists abundantly in the cytosol and nucleus. The production of AF in the intestine was confirmed by Northern blot and immunoblot analyses. Immunocytochemical observations of cells transfected with the rat AF cDNA showed that the AF protein was localized in the cytoplasm. These findings suggest that the protein proposed to be AF may be a cytoplasmic protein, it exists in the intestine rather than being transported from the pituitary gland, and it may function in intestinal cells.Key words: rat antisecretory factor, 26S protease, S5a, cytoplasmic protein.
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AL-Okaily, Baraa N. "Effect of Different Doses of Doxorubicin on Pituitary Gland and Some Testicular Function in Adult Male Rabbits." Iraqi Journal of Veterinary Medicine 37, no. 1 (June 30, 2013): 121–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.30539/iraqijvm.v37i1.344.
Full textAbstract:
The present study was designed to search out the effect of different doses of doxorubicin some functions of pituitary gland and testes in adult male rabbits. Twenty adult male rabbits were randomly divided into four equal groups and treated for 28 days as follows: first group (control) were injected with normal saline; second group (GI) were injected with doxorubicin 3 mg/ kg B.W., while animals in the third group (GII) and fourth group (GIII) injected with 3.5 and 4 mg/ kg body weight of doxorubicin respectively, all animals were injected twice a week via ear vein. At the end of experiment fasting blood (8-10 hrs) samples were collected. Blood was drawn by cardiac puncture technique and serum was collected for measuring the hormones, Follicular Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), and Testosterone (T). In addition, sections from pituitary gland and testes were taken for histopathological studies. The results showed significant increase (P<0.05) in serum FSH, LH and T levels in group (GIII) as compared to GI, GI and control groups. Beside significant increases in T levels was observed in GII as compared to control group. Sever histopathological changes was observed in testes including thickness of basement membrane, protienous material in lumen of somniferous tubules and pituitary gland showed fibrosis, faculation of epithelial cell in all treated groups. In conclusion different doses of doxorubicin have detrimental effect on pituitary gland and male reproductive system of rabbits
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Camilletti, María Andrea, Alejandra Abeledo-Machado, Jimena Ferraris, Pablo A. Pérez, Erika Y. Faraoni, Daniel Pisera, Silvina Gutierrez, and Graciela Díaz-Torga. "Role of GPER in the anterior pituitary gland focusing on lactotroph function." Journal of Endocrinology 240, no. 2 (February 2019): 99–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/joe-18-0402.
Full textAbstract:
Ovarian steroids control a variety of physiological functions. They exert actions through classical nuclear steroid receptors, but rapid non-genomic actions through specific membrane steroid receptors have been also described. In this study, we demonstrate that the G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) is expressed in the rat pituitary gland and, at a high level, in the lactotroph population. Our results revealed that ~40% of the anterior pituitary cells are GPER positive and ~35% of the lactotrophs are GPER positive. By immunocytochemical and immuno-electron-microscopy studies, we demonstrated that GPER is localized in the plasmatic membrane but is also associated to the endoplasmic reticulum in rat lactotrophs. Moreover, we found that local Gper expression is regulated negatively by 17β-estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) and fluctuates during the estrus cycle, being minimal in proestrus. Interestingly, lack of ovarian steroids after an ovariectomy (OVX) significantly increased pituitary GPER expression specifically in the three morphologically different subtypes of lactotrophs. We found a rapid estradiol stimulatory effect on PRL secretion mediated by GPER, both in vitro and ex vivo, using a GPER agonist G1, and this effect was prevented by the GPER antagonist G36, demonstrating a novel role for this receptor. Then, the increased pituitary GPER expression after OVX could lead to alterations in the pituitary function as all three lactotroph subtypes are target of GPER ligand and could be involved in the PRL secretion mediated by GPER. Therefore, it should be taken into consideration in the response of the gland to an eventual hormone replacement therapy.
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Rahman, Md Towhidur, Md Mofazzal Sharif, and AS Mohiuddin. "Three-dimensional pituitary gland volume on MRI - A normative study." KYAMC Journal 9, no. 2 (September 10, 2018): 53–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/kyamcj.v9i2.38147.
Full textAbstract:
Background: Standard reference values for the pituitary gland volume of healthy Bangladeshi is necessary to facilitate assessment and diagnosis of pituitary pathology.Objectives: To obtain the dimensions of normal pituitary gland using T1-weighted magnetic resonance images (MRI) and to determine their relationship with age, sex.Materials & Methods: MRI of 100 individuals with clinically normal pituitary function (age range 14- 82 years) was taken in order to obtain volumetric measurements of the pituitary gland. The data obtained were stratified based on age and sex for analysis.Results: The mean pituitary gland volumes were 332.1 ± 146.8 mm3 and 324.2 ± 130.2 mm3 while the mean pituitary heights were 6.22 ± 1.6 mm and 6.42 ± 1.57 mm in males and females, respectively. Although there was no statistically significant difference between pituitary height and pituitary volume in both sexes, they correlated negatively with increasing age (r = -202, P = 0.04 and r = -410, P = 0.000, respectively). The mean pituitary widths (9.03 ± 2.48 mm and 9.21 ± 1.84 mm) and depths (10.5 ± 1.6 mm and 10.42 ± 1.52 mm) in males and females, respectively, did not show remarkable changes with age and sex in the individuals studied. Statistical tests applied included Student's t-test and Pearson correlation. A minimum level of statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.Conclusion: With this study, we have provided reference values in Bangladeshi population for the dimensions of normal pituitary gland.KYAMC Journal Vol. 9, No.-2, July 2018, Page 53-55
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Freeman, ME. "The Nonpregnant Uterus as an Endocrine Organ." Physiology 3, no. 1 (February 1, 1988): 31–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiologyonline.1988.3.1.31.
Full textAbstract:
The mammalian uterus is well known as an endocrine organ whose secretions are responsible for the maintenance of pregnancy and the preparation of the mammary gland for lactation. There is now evidence that the nonpregnant uterus secretes a hormone that regulates pituitary function in the nonpregnant mammal. It secretes a protein that enters the bloodstream and is transported to the pituitary gland where it acts to inhibit prolactin secretion.