Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Plastic pollution'

Plastic debris is entering into the marine environment at an accelerating rate, now becoming one of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting changes in natural systems. Marine turtles are large marine vertebrates with complex life histories and highly mobile behaviour that may make them particularly vulnerable to its impacts. The main goals of this thesis were to i) evaluate the potential implications of the presence of plastic pollution in the environment to marine turtles by reviewing current literature ii) provide a global summary of the issue of entanglement in this taxon, utilising a global network of experts iii) explore the drivers of key interactions between marine turtles and plastic ingestion and develop novel additions classification methodologies to explore selective ingestion of plastics iv) develop a methodology for investigating and isolating the presence of microplastic ingestion in marine turtle gut content and v) examine plastic pollution on a key habitat for marine turtles e.g. nesting beaches. Major findings of the thesis include i) the issue of entanglement with plastic debris, the majority in ghost fishing gear, is both an under-reported and under-researched threat ii) a clear display of strong diet-related ingestion towards plastic debris that resemble natural food items, utilising a case study of green turtles in Northern Cyprus iii) a method development that allowed the identification and isolation of a suite synthetic particles in gut content residue samples, providing evidence of ingestion of synthetic debris at the microscopic size class iv) a more comprehensive viewpoint on plastic concentrations on nesting beaches, in the form of 3D sampling to investigate subsurface plastic densities, showing microplastics present down to turtle nesting depth of both loggerhead and green turtles in Northern Cyprus. In conclusion, this thesis forms the most detailed and comprehensive investigation to date on the impacts of this pollutant on the taxon of marine turtles; contributing to knowledge into macro and microplastic ingestion, entanglement and key habitats through method development and integration of marine turtle feeding ecology and developmental biology.

It is widely claimed that at least 80% of the plastic litter entering marine environments comes from land-based sources, yet there is little empirical evidence to support this. Most studies to date predict the flux of litter from land to sea using global models based on a handful of field studies conducted mostly in developed, Northern Hemisphere countries; others use proxies such as per capita waste generation and proportion of mismanaged waste to predict litter loads entering the sea. It thus remains unclear how accurate these predictions are, particularly for African countries where few field studies have been conducted. Due to its rapidly growing human population, Africa is expected to become a much more significant source of litter into the sea. It is therefore important to identify major land-based sources of litter from the continent so as to implement effective mitigation strategies aimed at stopping this leakage of waste plastics into the marine environment. In this thesis I investigate two possible land-based sources of plastic pollution in South Africa. In Chapter 2 I show that stormwater run-off from Cape Town, a large coastal city, is a significant land-based source of litter into Table Bay. By placing nets over three stormwater outlets, each draining a different land-use type in the city, I estimate that some 70-630 tonnes of plastic litter are released as part of urban runoff from Cape Town each year which is a similar order of magnitude as estimates based on run-off litter collected in the 1990s and stranded beach litter. Overall, 40- 78% of litter items by count and 52-64% by mass was plastic, of which most was single-use packaging. Compared to a similar survey of the same three stormwater outlets conducted in 1996, litter densities by count decreased by 50% in two of the three catchments but increased threefold in the commercial/residential area. It is clear that urban run-off is a significant source of litter into Table Bay, but the total amount is considerably less than model predictions that identified South Africa as the 11th worst source of marine plastics from land-based sources globally. While several of South Africa's large cities are on the coast, the largest industrial centre and most densely populated part of the country is inland in the Gauteng Province. Much of this province lies within the catchment of the Orange-Vaal River system, which flows west across the country to eventually drain into the Atlantic Ocean. In Chapter 3 I present the results of two extensive field surveys to assess the amounts of plastic debris transported by the Orange-Vaal River system into the sea. By sampling for micro- and macro-plastics at 33 bridges spanning the lengths of both the Orange and Vaal rivers I show that densities of larger plastic items were highest at sites in the densely populated and highly urbanised upper reaches of the Vaal River, while microfibres were particularly abundant in the arid, sparsely populated lower reaches of the Orange River at the end of the wet season. It therefore appears that the Orange-Vaal River system may be a source of microfibres to the Atlantic Ocean, but most larger plastic items are retained near point sources in the upper reaches of the Vaal River. The Orange-Vaal River system thus does not appear to be a major source of plastics into the Atlantic Ocean and there is considerably less than the 0.095 tonnes·yr-1 predicted to be washed out of the Orange River by global models. I also investigated whether dams retain microplastics and microfibres within their reservoirs by collecting bulk water and neuston net samples from above and below the walls of the five major dams in the Orange-Vaal River system. I present these results in Chapter 4 and show that microplastic and microfibre concentrations were highest in dams on the densely populated Vaal River during dry conditions, whereas the opposite pattern occurred at dams farther downstream or on the sparsely populated Orange River during wet conditions. Overall, microplastic and microfibre densities were similar at sites collected above versus below dam walls and there was no significant correlation between microplastic and microfibre densities at a site and the distance from the site to the dam wall. Dams therefore do not appear to trap floating microplastics and microfibres, although the data were noisy (average CV = 184%) and so provide only a rough estimate of differences in plastic densities among sites. Lastly, in Chapter 5 I summarise the main results from the previous chapters and present recommendations for future research. Combining the findings from Chapters 2 and 3 I make a first, very crude estimate of the amount of plastic entering the sea from land-based sources in South Africa and compare this to the 0.09-0.25 million tonnes predicted by Jambeck et al. (2015) based on national estimates of waste production and management. I conclude that actual plastic emissions are some 1-2 orders of magnitude less than the global model estimate, which concurs with estimates based on beach litter data.

This study focuses on women vendors' perspectives on plastic bag consumption in markets in Mali. It also investigates how women across the urban and rural divide are affected by plastic bag pollution and to what extent women in Mali are included in policy formulation addressing plastic bag issues. I interviewed thirty women vendors in three research sites: Bougouni, Koulikoro and Bamako. In addition, I interviewed five Mali Officials including the Prime Minister and the Minister of Environment. Plastic bags continue to be used widely in all African countries, including Mali. This has created increased environmental pollution as there is no recycling due to the lack of appropriate technology or political will. Reducing the use of plastic bags, and thus pollution, requires social and economic change that may be difficult to implement without involving one of the largest consumers of plastic bags, women, specifically those selling at the market.

In this thesis project I try to make visible the complex problems behind the plastic pollution crisis, the skewed ideas of synthetic plastic and recycling we as consumers are taught, and in what way architecture can help make these systems visible. This is achived through a design method of growth and transformation using plastic waste to create a building that uncovers what would otherwise not bee seen.

Our civilization is built on plastic. Plastic literally pass through our hands all day. The amount of plastic that we meet every day, not the end. Plastic has become an epidemic. But where does all this plastic? A small part is recycled, goes to landfills, and a large part falls into the water. Plastic trash can be found everywhere — on land, at sea and even deep on the ocean floor. Planet pollution waste plastic turns into a real ecological disaster.

Plastic pollution is a huge problem that is affecting all the oceans of the Earth. Plastic items end into the sea, break into tiny pieces and pollute the marine environment. The aim of this research is to increase our knowledge on this problem by comparing microplastic and zooplankton distributions. Samples from the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar Strait have been collected and analyzed. Plastic fragments have been extracted, weighted, photographed, measured and analyzed with a hyperspectral camera. The planktonic part of the samples has been analyzed identifying the main typology of organisms, taking pictures of the samples and analyzing them with ImageJ to take the measures. Data analysis was focused to the plastic to zooplankton ratio. The results have highlighted that most of the plastic to plankton ratios occurred in the in 1mm-10mm size range, and half of the stations in the Mediterranean sea presented values higher than 1, meaning than there is more plastic than plankton in that size range, for 50% of the Mediterranean. The ratio was higher during the day, due to the ascent of zooplankton during night. The results clearly show that the rank of greater danger is between 1mm to 10mm, and for this reason future samplings should focus on a net for this specific size range, to make sampling more simple and effective. A pollution indicator was created, based on the data collected all around the Mediterranean Sea, which could help find out future danger classifications, and choose the best adoptable strategies to solve the problem. Furthermore, the fact that the higher ratio has been found during the day can help future plastic sampling to focus on this time lapse. Concluding, the data provided by this research will be useful to better understand the degree of plastic contamination of our oceans and give updates to develop quality guidelines according to the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

Comprendere l'impatto delle micro- e nanoplastiche sugli ecosistemi sta diventando sempre più importante, come evidenziato dalla crescita esponenziale della letteratura scientifica riguardante questi inquinanti. Le nanoplastiche si formano in ambiente a causa di processi naturali di degradazione dei rifiuti plastici. Tuttavia, i campioni ambientali sono difficili da gestire, a causa della loro complessità, eterogeneità e dell'alto livello di impurità naturali. Per questo motivo, la gran parte degli studi condotti finora si basa sull’utilizzo di nanoparticelle sintetiche, come modelli delle nanoplastiche naturali. Inoltre, quasi tutti gli studi pubblicati si basano su nanoparticelle di polistirene; tuttavia, è verosimile ritenere che le nanoplastiche naturalmente formate in ambiente derivino da una varietà di rifiuti plastici. È necessario creare nanomateriali che meglio rispecchino le caratteristiche delle nanoplastiche naturalmente formate, per colmare il divario tra la pratica di laboratorio e le regole della natura e per fornire una comprensione più realistica delle caratteristiche delle nanoplastiche. In questa tesi viene proposto un nuovo nanomateriale di riferimento per lo studio delle nanoplastiche ambientali, nominato “true-to-life nanoplastics” (T2LNPs), ottenuto per frammentazione meccanica in condizioni criogeniche di oggetti plastici di uso quotidiano. Nel Capitolo 1 viene descritto l’ambito di questo progetto di ricerca, ovvero l’inquinamento ambientale da plastica e i processi di degradazione che portano alla formazione di microplastiche e nanoplastiche. Viene anche presentato lo stato dell’arte riguardante lo studio delle nanoplastiche. Nel Capitolo 2 viene descritto il protocollo sviluppato in questo studio per la produzione di “T2LNPs” di polistirene, mediante frammentazione meccanica. Viene inoltre presentata una caratterizzazione morfologica e fisico-chimica dei campioni prodotti. Nel Capitolo 3 vengono discusse le prove preliminari condotte per la quantificazione dei campioni. Nel Capitolo 4 vengono presentati i risultati dello studio sull’interazione biologica dei campioni di “T2LNPs” in confronto alle nanoparticelle sintetiche di polistirene. Nel Capitolo 5 viene presentato lo studio sulla produzione e caratterizzazione di campioni “T2LNPs” di polietilene tereftalato (PET) e poliammide 66 (PA66), condotto adattando i protocolli sviluppati per lo studio del polistirene, comprensivi di frammentazione meccanica, caratterizzazione morfologica e fisico-chimica e studio delle interazioni biologiche. Il capitolo 6 riassume i principali risultati di questo lavoro di ricerca e introduce gli sviluppi e le prospettive futuri. A complemento dello studio sui materiali di riferimento per le nanoplastiche, durante il periodo di dottorato sono stati anche condotti studi relativi alla valutazione della sostenibilità di nuovi processi/materiali. Tali valutazioni, in parte correlate all’ambito principale della tesi, sono discusse in appendice alla tesi. Nell'Appendice A vengono brevemente introdotti i concetti di valutazione della sostenibilità ed economia circolare e viene proposto un nuovo strumento, denominato ESCAPE, per la valutazione precoce della sostenibilità di un nuovo materiale, nelle fasi di ricerca e sviluppo. Nell'Appendice B vengono discussi tre studi “proof-of-concept” per validare il metodo ESCAPE. Questo lavoro nasce da una collaborazione interdisciplinare tra il Laboratorio di Chimica per le Tecnologie DIMI, e il Laboratorio di Biochimica clinica e Biologia molecolare clinica DMMT, dell'Università degli Studi di Brescia. La ricerca è stata finanziata dal PON “R&I” 2014-2020: SIRIMAP—SIstemi di Rilevamento dell'Inquinamento MArino da Plastiche e successivo recupero-riciclo (N. ARS01_01183, CUP D86C18000520008) ed è in parte basata su COST Action CA20101 Plastics monitoring detectioniOn RemedIaTION recovery - PRIORITY.
Understanding the impact of micro and nanoplastics on the environment and the living organisms is becoming increasingly pressing, as highlighted by the exponential growth of literature regarding these pollutants. Nanoplastics form in the environment due to natural degradation processes of plastic wastes, such as photodegradation, mechanical fragmentation and biodegradation. However, environmental samples are difficult to manage, because of the extremely complexity, heterogeneity and the high level of natural impurities. For this reason, to date fundamental studies are mostly conducted by using model synthetic nanobeads, instead of natural nanoplastics. Moreover, almost all literature available on nanobeads is based on polystyrene nanobeads; however, nanoplastics in the environment are expected to derive from a variety of waste polymers. There is the need to create nanomaterials that better reflect the real characteristics of nanoplastics naturally formed, to close the gap between the laboratory practice and the rules of nature, and to provide more realistic understandings of the characteristics of nanoplastics. In this thesis, plastic nanoparticles obtained by mechanical fragmentation in cryogenic conditions of daily-life plastic items, “true-to-life” nanoplastics (T2LNPs), are proposed as a better reference nanomaterial for the study of environmental nanoplastics. Chapter 1 outlines the topic of the research project, related to the environmental plastic pollution and the degradation processes that lead to the formation of microplastics and nanoplastics. The state of the art in the study of nanoplastics is also discussed. In Chapter 2, the developed protocol for the production of polystyrene T2LNPs by means of mechanical fragmentation is described. A complete morphological and physical–chemical characterization of PS-T2LNPs is presented. In Chapter 3, preliminary tests for the quantification of PS-T2LNPs are discussed. Chapter 4 presents the investigation of PS-T2LNPs behavior at the biological interface, in comparison to the behavior of polystyrene nanobeads. Chapter 5 focuses on polymeric materials different from polystyrene. T2LNPs of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyamide 66 (PA66) are produced and characterized adapting the protocols developed for polystyrene, including mechanical fragmentation, morphological and physical–chemical characterization and the investigation of biological interactions. Chapter 6 summarizes the principal results of the research work and introduces future developments and perspectives. Complementary activities regarding the sustainability evaluation of new processes / materials have also been conducted during the PhD period. These evaluations, partially related to the main core of PhD research, are discussed in the Appendix of the thesis. Appendix A briefly discusses the concepts of sustainability evaluation and circular economy and presents a new tool, named ESCAPE, for early sustainability assessment of new materials, at research and development stages. Appendix B discusses three proof-of-concept studies of the proposed ESCAPE tool. This work is framed in an interdisciplinary collaboration between the Chemistry for Technologies Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, and the Clinical Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, of the University of Brescia. The research was funded by PON “R&I” 2014-2020: SIRIMAP—SIstemi di Rilevamento dell’Inquinamento MArino da Plastiche e successivo recupero-riciclo (No. ARS01_01183, CUP D86C18000520008) and partially based upon work from COST Action CA20101 Plastics monitoRIng detectiOn RemedIaTion recoverY - PRIORITY, supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology). www.cost.eu.

Comprendere l'impatto delle micro- e nanoplastiche sugli ecosistemi sta diventando sempre più importante, come evidenziato dalla crescita esponenziale della letteratura scientifica riguardante questi inquinanti. Le nanoplastiche si formano in ambiente a causa di processi naturali di degradazione dei rifiuti plastici. Tuttavia, i campioni ambientali sono difficili da gestire, a causa della loro complessità, eterogeneità e dell'alto livello di impurità naturali. Per questo motivo, la gran parte degli studi condotti finora si basa sull’utilizzo di nanoparticelle sintetiche, come modelli delle nanoplastiche naturali. Inoltre, quasi tutti gli studi pubblicati si basano su nanoparticelle di polistirene; tuttavia, è verosimile ritenere che le nanoplastiche naturalmente formate in ambiente derivino da una varietà di rifiuti plastici. È necessario creare nanomateriali che meglio rispecchino le caratteristiche delle nanoplastiche naturalmente formate, per colmare il divario tra la pratica di laboratorio e le regole della natura e per fornire una comprensione più realistica delle caratteristiche delle nanoplastiche. In questa tesi viene proposto un nuovo nanomateriale di riferimento per lo studio delle nanoplastiche ambientali, nominato “true-to-life nanoplastics” (T2LNPs), ottenuto per frammentazione meccanica in condizioni criogeniche di oggetti plastici di uso quotidiano. Nel Capitolo 1 viene descritto l’ambito di questo progetto di ricerca, ovvero l’inquinamento ambientale da plastica e i processi di degradazione che portano alla formazione di microplastiche e nanoplastiche. Viene anche presentato lo stato dell’arte riguardante lo studio delle nanoplastiche. Nel Capitolo 2 viene descritto il protocollo sviluppato in questo studio per la produzione di “T2LNPs” di polistirene, mediante frammentazione meccanica. Viene inoltre presentata una caratterizzazione morfologica e fisico-chimica dei campioni prodotti. Nel Capitolo 3 vengono discusse le prove preliminari condotte per la quantificazione dei campioni. Nel Capitolo 4 vengono presentati i risultati dello studio sull’interazione biologica dei campioni di “T2LNPs” in confronto alle nanoparticelle sintetiche di polistirene. Nel Capitolo 5 viene presentato lo studio sulla produzione e caratterizzazione di campioni “T2LNPs” di polietilene tereftalato (PET) e poliammide 66 (PA66), condotto adattando i protocolli sviluppati per lo studio del polistirene, comprensivi di frammentazione meccanica, caratterizzazione morfologica e fisico-chimica e studio delle interazioni biologiche. Il capitolo 6 riassume i principali risultati di questo lavoro di ricerca e introduce gli sviluppi e le prospettive futuri. A complemento dello studio sui materiali di riferimento per le nanoplastiche, durante il periodo di dottorato sono stati anche condotti studi relativi alla valutazione della sostenibilità di nuovi processi/materiali. Tali valutazioni, in parte correlate all’ambito principale della tesi, sono discusse in appendice alla tesi. Nell'Appendice A vengono brevemente introdotti i concetti di valutazione della sostenibilità ed economia circolare e viene proposto un nuovo strumento, denominato ESCAPE, per la valutazione precoce della sostenibilità di un nuovo materiale, nelle fasi di ricerca e sviluppo. Nell'Appendice B vengono discussi tre studi “proof-of-concept” per validare il metodo ESCAPE. Questo lavoro nasce da una collaborazione interdisciplinare tra il Laboratorio di Chimica per le Tecnologie DIMI, e il Laboratorio di Biochimica clinica e Biologia molecolare clinica DMMT, dell'Università degli Studi di Brescia. La ricerca è stata finanziata dal PON “R&I” 2014-2020: SIRIMAP—SIstemi di Rilevamento dell'Inquinamento MArino da Plastiche e successivo recupero-riciclo (N. ARS01_01183, CUP D86C18000520008) ed è in parte basata su COST Action CA20101 Plastics monitoring detectioniOn RemedIaTION recovery - PRIORITY.
Understanding the impact of micro and nanoplastics on the environment and the living organisms is becoming increasingly pressing, as highlighted by the exponential growth of literature regarding these pollutants. Nanoplastics form in the environment due to natural degradation processes of plastic wastes, such as photodegradation, mechanical fragmentation and biodegradation. However, environmental samples are difficult to manage, because of the extremely complexity, heterogeneity and the high level of natural impurities. For this reason, to date fundamental studies are mostly conducted by using model synthetic nanobeads, instead of natural nanoplastics. Moreover, almost all literature available on nanobeads is based on polystyrene nanobeads; however, nanoplastics in the environment are expected to derive from a variety of waste polymers. There is the need to create nanomaterials that better reflect the real characteristics of nanoplastics naturally formed, to close the gap between the laboratory practice and the rules of nature, and to provide more realistic understandings of the characteristics of nanoplastics. In this thesis, plastic nanoparticles obtained by mechanical fragmentation in cryogenic conditions of daily-life plastic items, “true-to-life” nanoplastics (T2LNPs), are proposed as a better reference nanomaterial for the study of environmental nanoplastics. Chapter 1 outlines the topic of the research project, related to the environmental plastic pollution and the degradation processes that lead to the formation of microplastics and nanoplastics. The state of the art in the study of nanoplastics is also discussed. In Chapter 2, the developed protocol for the production of polystyrene T2LNPs by means of mechanical fragmentation is described. A complete morphological and physical–chemical characterization of PS-T2LNPs is presented. In Chapter 3, preliminary tests for the quantification of PS-T2LNPs are discussed. Chapter 4 presents the investigation of PS-T2LNPs behavior at the biological interface, in comparison to the behavior of polystyrene nanobeads. Chapter 5 focuses on polymeric materials different from polystyrene. T2LNPs of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyamide 66 (PA66) are produced and characterized adapting the protocols developed for polystyrene, including mechanical fragmentation, morphological and physical–chemical characterization and the investigation of biological interactions. Chapter 6 summarizes the principal results of the research work and introduces future developments and perspectives. Complementary activities regarding the sustainability evaluation of new processes / materials have also been conducted during the PhD period. These evaluations, partially related to the main core of PhD research, are discussed in the Appendix of the thesis. Appendix A briefly discusses the concepts of sustainability evaluation and circular economy and presents a new tool, named ESCAPE, for early sustainability assessment of new materials, at research and development stages. Appendix B discusses three proof-of-concept studies of the proposed ESCAPE tool. This work is framed in an interdisciplinary collaboration between the Chemistry for Technologies Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, and the Clinical Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, of the University of Brescia. The research was funded by PON “R&I” 2014-2020: SIRIMAP—SIstemi di Rilevamento dell’Inquinamento MArino da Plastiche e successivo recupero-riciclo (No. ARS01_01183, CUP D86C18000520008) and partially based upon work from COST Action CA20101 Plastics monitoRIng detectiOn RemedIaTion recoverY - PRIORITY, supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology). www.cost.eu.

Comprendere l'impatto delle micro- e nanoplastiche sugli ecosistemi sta diventando sempre più importante, come evidenziato dalla crescita esponenziale della letteratura scientifica riguardante questi inquinanti. Le nanoplastiche si formano in ambiente a causa di processi naturali di degradazione dei rifiuti plastici. Tuttavia, i campioni ambientali sono difficili da gestire, a causa della loro complessità, eterogeneità e dell'alto livello di impurità naturali. Per questo motivo, la gran parte degli studi condotti finora si basa sull’utilizzo di nanoparticelle sintetiche, come modelli delle nanoplastiche naturali. Inoltre, quasi tutti gli studi pubblicati si basano su nanoparticelle di polistirene; tuttavia, è verosimile ritenere che le nanoplastiche naturalmente formate in ambiente derivino da una varietà di rifiuti plastici. È necessario creare nanomateriali che meglio rispecchino le caratteristiche delle nanoplastiche naturalmente formate, per colmare il divario tra la pratica di laboratorio e le regole della natura e per fornire una comprensione più realistica delle caratteristiche delle nanoplastiche. In questa tesi viene proposto un nuovo nanomateriale di riferimento per lo studio delle nanoplastiche ambientali, nominato “true-to-life nanoplastics” (T2LNPs), ottenuto per frammentazione meccanica in condizioni criogeniche di oggetti plastici di uso quotidiano. Nel Capitolo 1 viene descritto l’ambito di questo progetto di ricerca, ovvero l’inquinamento ambientale da plastica e i processi di degradazione che portano alla formazione di microplastiche e nanoplastiche. Viene anche presentato lo stato dell’arte riguardante lo studio delle nanoplastiche. Nel Capitolo 2 viene descritto il protocollo sviluppato in questo studio per la produzione di “T2LNPs” di polistirene, mediante frammentazione meccanica. Viene inoltre presentata una caratterizzazione morfologica e fisico-chimica dei campioni prodotti. Nel Capitolo 3 vengono discusse le prove preliminari condotte per la quantificazione dei campioni. Nel Capitolo 4 vengono presentati i risultati dello studio sull’interazione biologica dei campioni di “T2LNPs” in confronto alle nanoparticelle sintetiche di polistirene. Nel Capitolo 5 viene presentato lo studio sulla produzione e caratterizzazione di campioni “T2LNPs” di polietilene tereftalato (PET) e poliammide 66 (PA66), condotto adattando i protocolli sviluppati per lo studio del polistirene, comprensivi di frammentazione meccanica, caratterizzazione morfologica e fisico-chimica e studio delle interazioni biologiche. Il capitolo 6 riassume i principali risultati di questo lavoro di ricerca e introduce gli sviluppi e le prospettive futuri. A complemento dello studio sui materiali di riferimento per le nanoplastiche, durante il periodo di dottorato sono stati anche condotti studi relativi alla valutazione della sostenibilità di nuovi processi/materiali. Tali valutazioni, in parte correlate all’ambito principale della tesi, sono discusse in appendice alla tesi. Nell'Appendice A vengono brevemente introdotti i concetti di valutazione della sostenibilità ed economia circolare e viene proposto un nuovo strumento, denominato ESCAPE, per la valutazione precoce della sostenibilità di un nuovo materiale, nelle fasi di ricerca e sviluppo. Nell'Appendice B vengono discussi tre studi “proof-of-concept” per validare il metodo ESCAPE. Questo lavoro nasce da una collaborazione interdisciplinare tra il Laboratorio di Chimica per le Tecnologie DIMI, e il Laboratorio di Biochimica clinica e Biologia molecolare clinica DMMT, dell'Università degli Studi di Brescia. La ricerca è stata finanziata dal PON “R&I” 2014-2020: SIRIMAP—SIstemi di Rilevamento dell'Inquinamento MArino da Plastiche e successivo recupero-riciclo (N. ARS01_01183, CUP D86C18000520008) ed è in parte basata su COST Action CA20101 Plastics monitoring detectioniOn RemedIaTION recovery - PRIORITY.
Understanding the impact of micro and nanoplastics on the environment and the living organisms is becoming increasingly pressing, as highlighted by the exponential growth of literature regarding these pollutants. Nanoplastics form in the environment due to natural degradation processes of plastic wastes, such as photodegradation, mechanical fragmentation and biodegradation. However, environmental samples are difficult to manage, because of the extremely complexity, heterogeneity and the high level of natural impurities. For this reason, to date fundamental studies are mostly conducted by using model synthetic nanobeads, instead of natural nanoplastics. Moreover, almost all literature available on nanobeads is based on polystyrene nanobeads; however, nanoplastics in the environment are expected to derive from a variety of waste polymers. There is the need to create nanomaterials that better reflect the real characteristics of nanoplastics naturally formed, to close the gap between the laboratory practice and the rules of nature, and to provide more realistic understandings of the characteristics of nanoplastics. In this thesis, plastic nanoparticles obtained by mechanical fragmentation in cryogenic conditions of daily-life plastic items, “true-to-life” nanoplastics (T2LNPs), are proposed as a better reference nanomaterial for the study of environmental nanoplastics. Chapter 1 outlines the topic of the research project, related to the environmental plastic pollution and the degradation processes that lead to the formation of microplastics and nanoplastics. The state of the art in the study of nanoplastics is also discussed. In Chapter 2, the developed protocol for the production of polystyrene T2LNPs by means of mechanical fragmentation is described. A complete morphological and physical–chemical characterization of PS-T2LNPs is presented. In Chapter 3, preliminary tests for the quantification of PS-T2LNPs are discussed. Chapter 4 presents the investigation of PS-T2LNPs behavior at the biological interface, in comparison to the behavior of polystyrene nanobeads. Chapter 5 focuses on polymeric materials different from polystyrene. T2LNPs of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyamide 66 (PA66) are produced and characterized adapting the protocols developed for polystyrene, including mechanical fragmentation, morphological and physical–chemical characterization and the investigation of biological interactions. Chapter 6 summarizes the principal results of the research work and introduces future developments and perspectives. Complementary activities regarding the sustainability evaluation of new processes / materials have also been conducted during the PhD period. These evaluations, partially related to the main core of PhD research, are discussed in the Appendix of the thesis. Appendix A briefly discusses the concepts of sustainability evaluation and circular economy and presents a new tool, named ESCAPE, for early sustainability assessment of new materials, at research and development stages. Appendix B discusses three proof-of-concept studies of the proposed ESCAPE tool. This work is framed in an interdisciplinary collaboration between the Chemistry for Technologies Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, and the Clinical Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, of the University of Brescia. The research was funded by PON “R&I” 2014-2020: SIRIMAP—SIstemi di Rilevamento dell’Inquinamento MArino da Plastiche e successivo recupero-riciclo (No. ARS01_01183, CUP D86C18000520008) and partially based upon work from COST Action CA20101 Plastics monitoRIng detectiOn RemedIaTion recoverY - PRIORITY, supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology). www.cost.eu.

La pollution plastique océanique est l’une préoccupation majeure de notre siècle, avec plusieurs millions de tonnes de plastique déversées dans l'océan chaque année qui menacent la santé des écosystèmes. Les effets des plastiques ont été identifiés à tous les niveaux de la chaîne trophique, du zooplancton à la mégafaune, mais leurs effets sur la vie des microorganismes et sur leur rôle crucial dans le fonctionnement de l'écosystème océanique restent méconnus. L'objectif de cette thèse était d'étudier l'écotoxicité des plastiques en milieu marin. La première question traitée était : dans quelle mesure l'abondance, la diversité et l'activité de la vie bactérienne se développant sur le plastique, nommée «plastisphère», sont influencées par les propriétés chimiques du polymère et les changements environnementaux (chapitre 2)? Ce point a été abordé en immergeant pendant 2 mois dans l'eau de mer du Polyéthylène (PE), de l’acide polylactide (PLA) ainsi que du verre comme témoin, sous différentes formes : méso-débris (18 mm de diamètre), grands microplastiques (LMP; 3 mm de diamètre), et petits microplastiques (SMP; de 100 µm de diamètre de formes sphériques et irrégulières). Nous avons constaté que la composition chimique du plastique, les phases successives de formation du biofilm et les interactions phytoplancton-bactéries étaient des facteurs déterminants de l'abondance, de la diversité et de l'activité de la plastisphère a contrario de la taille et à la forme du matériau.La deuxième question traitée était : le microplastique (polystyrène PS; 50-100 µm; trois concentrations) ainsi que leur biofilm mature seraient-ils toxiques pour le filtre-filtreur marin Branchiostoma lanceolatum et dans quelles mesures la plastisphère peut-elle influencer cette toxicité (chapitre 3)? Nous avons utilisé un large éventail de techniques complémentaires pour suivre l'ingestion des microplastiques (quantification microscopique) à l’origine d’une potentielle modification du microbiote intestinal de l’hôte (séquençage 16S rRNA Illumina Miseq). La réponse physiologique de l’hôte a également été suivie au travers de l’expression génique du système immunitaire, du stress oxydatif et de l’apoptose (Nanostring) ainsi que par histopathologie ( La microscopie électronique à transmission). Aucune toxicité évidente n'a été observée, alors que les microplastiques pourraient être un vecteur de modification du microbiome intestinal, et qu’une plus grande différenciation des cellules a été observée au niveau des tissus intestinaux. La troisième question traitée était: Existe-t-il des alternatives aux microbilles pétrochimiques conventionnels utilisées en cosmétique biodégradables en milieu marin? (Chapitre 4). Nous avons utilisé une approche multidisciplinaire pour suivre les 4 étapes de biodégradation dont la 1/biodétérioration (granulométrie, gravimétrie et spectroscopie FTIR), 2/la biofragmentation (chromatographie d'exclusion de taille, résonance magnétique nucléaire 1H et spectrométrie de masse à haute résolution), 3/la bioassimilation et 4/la minéralisation (résonance magnétique nucléaire 1H et mesures de l'oxygène) sur différentes formes de microbilles en présence de bactéries marines. Après 60 jours d’incubation, nos résultats ont permis d’identifier des microbilles de polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalérate (PHBV) ou de riz et dans une moindre mesure de polycaprolactone (PCL) et d'abricot comme alternatives aux microplastiques conventionnels, en PE ou en polyméthacrylate de méthyle (PMMA) non biodégradés dans nos conditions. Fait remarquable, le PLA biosourcé n'était pas biodégradable, mais le PCL pétrochimique était biodégradable dans nos conditions marines
Oceanic plastic pollution is of major concern, with several million tons of plastic dumped in the ocean every year that are causing health threat to marine creatures. Impacts have been found at all the trophic chain levels from the zooplankton to the megafauna, but little is known on its impact on the microbial life and its crucial role in the oceanic ecosystem functioning. The objective of this thesis was to study the ecotoxicity of plastics in the marine environment. The first handled question was: how much the abundance, diversity and activity of bacterial life growing on plastic, i.e. the ‘plastisphere’ are driven by the chemical properties of the polymer and the environmental changes (Chapter 2)? Polyethylene (PE) and polylactide acid (PLA) together with glass controls in the forms of meso-debris (18mm diameter) and large-microplastics (LMP; 3mm diameter), as well as small-microplastics (SMP; of 100 m diameter with spherical and irregular shapes) were immerged during 2 months in seawater. We found that the plastic chemical composition, the successive phases of biofilm formation and the phytoplankton-bacteria interactions were more important factors driving the abundance, diversity and activity of the plastisphere as compared to material size and shape. The second handled question was: would the microplastic (polystyrene PS; 50-100 µm; three concentrations) together with their mature biofilm be toxic for the marine filter-feeder Branchiostoma lanceolatum and how much the plastisphere can influence this toxicity (Chapter 3)? We used a large set of complementary techniques to follow the microplastic ingestion (microscopy quantification) and the modification of the gut microbiota (16S rRNA Illumina Miseq sequencing), the gene expression of immune system, oxidative stress and apoptosis (Nanostring) and also histopathology (transmission electron microscopy). No obvious toxicity was observed, while microplastics could be a vector for bacteria to the gut microbiome, can induce more goblet cell differentiation and can surprisingly have a positive effect by supplying nutrients to amphioxus in the form of bacteria and diatoms from the plastisphere. The third handled question was: how much the conventional petroleum-based microbeads classically used in cosmetics can be substituted by other polymers for their biodegradability by the plastisphere in marine environment? (Chapter 4). We used complementary techniques to follow the 4 biodegradation steps including biodeterioration (granulometry, gravimetry and FTIR spectroscopy), biofragmentation (size exclusion chromatography, 1H nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resolution mass spectrometry), bioassimilation and mineralization (1H nuclear magnetic resonance and oxygen measurements). We concluded that microbeads made of polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) or rice and in a lesser extend polycaprolactone (PCL) and apricot were good candidates for substitution of conventional microplastics, classically made of PE or polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) that were not biodegraded under our conditions. Interestingly, the biobased PLA was not biodegradable but the petroleum-based PCL was biodegradable under our marine conditions

A discrepancy between high plastic production rates and low recycling rates contributes to a ubiquitous plastic pollution problem. If this discrepancy persists, it is estimated that approximately 12 billion tons of plastics will accumulate in the environment by 2050. Although many countries have issued policies to limit the utilisation of single use plastics, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased demands for plastics and overwhelmed waste management systems. Thus, plastic pollution will persist, especially in marine environments where most mismanaged plastics accumulate. Plastics in the marine environment slowly disintegrate into microplastics (<5 mm) and adversely affect many animals when ingested. Thus, microplastics have recently been identified as an emerging contaminant of concern internationally, resulting in an exponential growth in the number of microplastic studies within the last decade. Studies in some ecologically important animals such as jellyfish, however, are preliminary. For example, jellyfish are claimed to ingest microplastics via trophic transfer and have been promoted as bioindicators for plastic pollution despite limited evidence. Moreover, although microplastics in the field are covered by biofilms, all jellyfish and microplastic experiments have used virgin microbeads that might underestimate ingestion rates. This thesis, therefore, tested three hypotheses: 1) that jellyfish would ingest microplastics and they would be adversely affected by microplastic ingestion (chapter 2), 2) that jellyfish would mainly accumulate microplastics via indirect ingestion (i.e. trophic transfer) and biofilms would promote ingestion rates (chapter 3), 3) that jellyfish would be useful bioindicators of microplastic pollution and treated wastewater would be a significant source of microplastics in an estuary (chapter 4). Medusae of Aurelia coerulea were exposed to 2,000 polystyrene microbeads L-1 and determined numbers of microbeads ingested. In addition, impacts of microbead ingestion on respiration rates and histology of their gut tissues were assessed (Chapter 2). No tissue damage was observed and respiration rates were unaffected by ingestion of microbeads. Importantly, the medusae ingested less than 0.2% of microbeads offered, egested microbeads within eight hours and stopped ingesting the microbeads after 16 hours, suggesting that the medusae may recognise virgin microbeads as non-food items. I, therefore, exposed the medusae to microbeads with photosynthetic biofilms, microbeads with heterotrophic biofilms and virgin microbeads (Chapter 3). Medusae ingested more microbeads with photosynthetic biofilms than microbeads with heterotrophic biofilms or virgin microbeads. The results highlight that the use of aged microbeads in experiments is important as the ingestion rates may be underestimated if virgin microbeads are used. Although jellyfish are claimed to acquire microbeads via trophic transfer, no studies had tested whether trophic transfer is a dominant pathway as jellyfish can also ingest microplastics directly from their surrounding water. Thus, I exposed ephyrae of Aurelia coerulea to aged microbeads (to test direct ingestion) and to Artemia nauplii fed aged microbeads (to test trophic transfer), and quantifued numbers of microbeads in the gastrovascular cavities (Chapter 3). I found that the ephyrae ingested 35 times more microbeads via trophic transfer than direct ingestion, suggesting that trophic transfer is the primary pathway by which jellyfish acquire microbeads. Furthermore, I investigated whether jellyfish in the field are susceptible to microplastic ingestion and whether jellyfish can be bioindicators of microplastic pollution. Water samples and medusae of Chrysaora cf pentostoma were collected nearby and distant from treated wastewater diffusers in two estuaries (the Gold Coast Broadwater and the Tweed River Estuary) that receive contrasting amounts of wastewater, to test whether microplastics in the guts of medusae represented those in the environment (Chapter 4). Only 83% of the medusae sampled contained microplastics and types and colours of microplastics in the gastrovascular cavities of jellyfish differed to those in the surrounding water. Thus, medusae are not good bioindicators of microplastic pollution because not all medusae acquire microplastics and the microplastics they accumulated did not reflect those in their environment. I also tested whether the released treated wastewater would have significant effects on microplastic concentrations and compositions in the receiving waters of the estuaries as wastewater treatment plants are claimed to be one of the significant sources of microplastics. I found no significant difference between microplastic concentrations and compositions nearby and distant from wastewater releases in either estuary. Thus, treated wastewater had no detectable impacts on microplastic concentrations and compositions in the receiving waters. Results from both laboratory and field experiments (Chapter2; Chapter 3; Chapter 4) strongly indicated that jellyfish accumulate relativly small amounts of microplastics and are poor bioindicators for microplastic pollution.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Environment and Sc
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
Full Text

L’impacte de la contaminació per plàstics, especialment en forma de microplàstics, ha copsat l’atenció dels mitjans durant les últimes dècades. La seva distribució generalitzada i la facilitat per interaccionar amb multitud d’organismes, sobretot a través se la seva ingestió, ha fet qüestionar-se el seu potencial impacte sobre els organismes marins. L’objectiu de la present tesis és caracteritzar la ingestió de plàstics en dues espècies clau del Mar Mediterrani, els crustacis Aristeus antennatus i Nephrops norvegicus. Ambdues espècies, per la seva proximitat i estreta relació amb el fons marí, on suposadament s’acumulen els plàstics, així com un sistema digestiu de morfologia complexa que facilitaria la retenció dels plàstics, podrien estar experimentant uns nivells d’exposició als plàstics més elevats que la majoria d’organismes. Donat el seu alt valor comercial i rellevància ecològica és d’especial interès analitzar el potencial impacte dels microplàstics en elles. En aquest estudi es descriuren amb detall els nivells d’ingestió de plàstics, així com les seves característiques, en ambdues espècies al llarg de gradients espacials i temporals i s’analitza el seu potencial impacte sobre l’estat de salut dels organismes amb una aproximació multidisciplinari que utilitza marcadors de salut diversos com són els índexs de condició corporal, activitats enzimàtiques i tècniques histològiques. En general, s’observa que la ingestió de plàstics és un fenomen comú en ambdues espècies que s’estén fins a profunditats de 1870m en el cas de la gamba vermella. En ambdues espècies, els plàstics identificats corresponen majoritàriament a fibres sintètiques de dimensions, colors i composicions variades, tot i que destaquen en abundància el polièster, la poliamida i l’acrílic, tres polímers comuns en la indústria tèxtil. L’anàlisi de la presència i característiques dels plàstics a l’ambient revelen un possible origen dels plàstics ingerits en escamarlà en la columna d’aigua, mentre que en gamba s’observen correlacions entre la ingesta de plàstics i una dieta rica en preses endobentòniques que podria estar relacionada amb una ingestió passiva dels plàstics situats al sediment o bé una transferència tròfica. En tot cas, un cop ingerits els plàstics quedarien majoritàriament retinguts a l’estómac com suggereix el baix nombre de fibres identificades en els continguts intestinals en comparació amb els estomacals. A més de la morfologia del digestiu, la formació de cabdells de fibres, observada en algunes localitats en fins a un terç de la població, contribuiria a una major retenció en augmentar la mida dels ítems ingerits. Les comparatives espacials i temporals posen de relleu diferències en els valors d’ingestió de plàstics que podrien estar relacionades amb els valors ambientals de contaminació. Així per exemple, s’identifica recurrentment la zona propera a Barcelona com una zona d’elevada ingestió de plàstics. A nivell temporal en canvi, no hi hauria diferències destacades pel que fa a nivells d’abundància, però sí en la composició de polímers, el que podria estar relacionat amb canvis en les tendències de producció i ús. En general, la càrrega de plàstics ingerits no va mostrar una relació significativa amb els índexs de condició corporal, ni tampoc amb els marcadors enzimàtics, amb algunes excepcions particulars. No obstant, donada l’absència de patrons generals així com d’alteracions histopatològigues significatives potencialment associades a un impacte dels plàstics es considera que els individus, en termes generals, podrien ser capaços de fer front als nivells de plàstics ingerits observats actualment. Per últim, es discuteix l’ús de la prevalença dels cabdells com a potencial indicadora de la ingestió de plàstics, el que podria donar resposta a la necessitat d’indicadors assequibles per a programes de monitoreig de la contaminació per plàstics.
El impacto de la contaminación por plásticos, especialmente en forma de microplásticos, ha atraído la atención de los medios durante las últimas décadas. Su distribución generalizada y facilidad para interaccionar con multitud de organismos, especialmente a través de su ingestión, ha hecho cuestionarse su potencial impacto sobre los organismos marinos. El objetivo de la presente tesis es caracterizar la ingestión de plásticos en dos especies clave del Mar Mediterráneo, los crustáceos Aristeus antennatus y Nephrops norvegicus. Ambas especies, por su proximidad y estrecha relación con el fondo marino, donde supuestamente se acumulan los plásticos, así como un sistema digestivo de morfología compleja que facilitaría la retención de los plásticos, podrían estar experimentando unos niveles de exposición a los plásticos más elevados que la mayoría de organismos. Dado su elevado valor comercial y relevancia ecológica, es de especial interés analizar el potencial impacto de los microplásticos en ellas. En este estudio se describen con detalle los niveles de ingestión de plásticos, así como sus características, en ambas especies a lo largo de gradientes espaciales y temporales y se analiza su potencial impacto sobre el estado de salud de los organismos con una aproximación multidisciplinaria que utiliza diversos marcadores de salud, incluyendo índices de condición corporal, actividades enzimáticas y técnicas histológicas. En general, se observa que la ingestión de plásticos es un fenómeno común en ambas especies que se extiende hasta profundidades de 1870m en el caso de la gamba roja. En ambas especies, los plásticos identificados corresponden mayoritariamente a fibras sintéticas de dimensiones, colores y composiciones variadas, a pesar de que destacan en abundancia el poliéster, la poliamida y el acrílico, tres polímeros comunes en la industria textil. El análisis de la presencia y características de los plásticos del ambiente revelan un posible origen de los plásticos ingeridos en cigala en la columna de agua, mientras que en gamba se observan correlaciones entre la ingesta de plásticos y una dieta rica en presas endobentónicas que podría estar relacionada con una ingestión pasiva de los plásticos situados en el sedimento o bien una transferencia trófica. En todo caso, una vez ingeridos, los plásticos quedarían mayoritariamente retenidos en el estómago como sugiere el bajo número de fibras identificadas en los contenidos intestinales en comparación con los estomacales. Además de la morfología del digestivo, la formación de ovillos de fibras, observada en algunas localidades en hasta un tercio de la población, contribuiría a una mayor retención al aumentar el tamaño de los ítems ingeridos. Las comparativas espaciales y temporales ponen de relieve diferencias en la ingestión de plásticos que podrían estar relacionadas con los niveles de contaminación ambiental. Así por ejemplo, se identifica recurrentemente la zona próxima a Barcelona como una zona de elevada ingestión de plásticos. A nivel temporal en cambio, no habría diferencias destacadas en cuanto a niveles de abundancia, pero sí en la composición de polímeros, que podría estar relacionado con cambios en las tendencias de producción y uso. En general, los niveles de plásticos ingeridos no mostraron relación alguna con los índices de condición corporal, ni tampoco con los marcadores enzimáticos, con algunas excepciones particulares. No obstante, dada la ausencia de patrones generales, así como de alteraciones histopatológicas significativas potencialmente asociadas a un impacto de los plásticos se considera que los individuos, en términos generales, podrían ser capaces de hacer frente a los niveles de plásticos ingeridos observados. Por último, se discute el uso de la prevalencia de los ovillos como potencial indicadora de la ingestión de plásticos, lo que podría dar respuesta a la necesidad de indicadores asequibles para programas de monitoreo de la contaminación por plásticos.
The impact of plastic pollution, especially microplastics, has attracted media attention over the past decades. Their widespread distribution and ease of interaction with many organisms, especially through their ingestion, has raised questions about their potential impact on marine organisms. This thesis aims to characterise plastic ingestion in two key species of the Mediterranean Sea, the crustaceans Aristeus antennatus and Nephrops norvegicus. Both species, due to their proximity and relationship with the seabed, where plastics are supposed to accumulate, as well as a digestive system of complex morphology that would facilitate the retention of plastics, may be experiencing higher levels of exposure to plastics than most organisms. Given its high commercial value and ecological relevance, it is of particular interest to analyse the potential impact of microplastics in these species. Plastic ingestion levels, as well as their characteristics, are described in detail in both species and along spatial and temporal gradients. Moreover, their potential impact on organisms' health status is assessed with a multidisciplinary approach using various health markers, including body condition indices, enzymatic activities and histological techniques. Overall, plastic ingestion was common in both species and extended to depths of 1870m in the case of the blue and red shrimp. In both species, plastics identified were mostly synthetic fibres of varied dimensions, colours, and compositions, although polyester, polyamide and acrylic, three commonly used polymers in the textile industry, were the most abundant. Analysis of the presence and characteristics of plastics in the environment revealed that plastics ingested by Norway lobsters might primarily come from the water column. In contrast, in blue and red shrimp, correlations between the intake of plastics and a diet with endobenthic prey might be associated with passive ingestion of plastics located in the sediment or a trophic transfer. In any case, once plastics were ingested, they would be mostly retained in the stomach, as suggested by the low number of fibres identified in intestine contents. In addition to the digestive's morphology, the formation of tangled balls of fibres, observed in some locations in up to one-third of the population, would contribute to greater retention of plastics by increasing the overall size of items ingested. Spatial and temporal comparisons highlighted differences in plastic ingestion that may be related to differences in environmental pollution. For example, the area close to Barcelona was recurringly pointed out as a high plastic ingestion area. Regarding temporal comparisons, however, no noticeable differences were observed in terms of abundance. Only changes in the composition of polymers were observed, which may be related to changes in the production and usage trends. In general, levels of plastics ingested did not show significant relationships with body condition indices, nor with enzymatic markers, with some particular exceptions. However, given the absence of general patterns as well as significant histopathological alterations potentially associated with a plastic impact, individuals were considered in good health status overall, and that they might be able to cope with current levels of plastics ingested. Finally, the use of the prevalence of tangles as a potential indicator of plastic ingestion is discussed concerning the need for affordable indicators of plastic pollution in monitoring programs.
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Programa de Doctorat en Aqüicultura

Plastic debris is an emerging environmental issue, with >10 million tons of plastics debris per annum entering the sea. Exposure to marine conditions facilitates the exponential fragmentation of plastic to micro-sized particles (microplastics). Marine and coastal sediments are a sink for microplastic pollution. Consequently, the ingestion of microplastics by a range of benthic marine invertebrates, including polychaete worms, has been reported in situ. Microplastics are vectors for priority pollutants capable of eliciting adverse health effects. However, the particle and chemical toxicity which microplastics could incur to ecologically-important marine invertebrates is unknown. This thesis aims to determine the potential for microplastics to cause harm in the marine environment, with a focus on benthic polychaete worms. Specifically, it assesses the potential particle toxicity which could arise from chemical-free microplastics; and the potential chemical toxicity which could arise from leached endogenous chemical additives or sorbed chemical pollutants. To address these, an integrative approach was employed, primarily using laboratory-based whole-sediment in vivo exposures, established cellular and whole-tissue toxicity assays, and analytical chemistry. For the first time, this thesis reports that chemical-free microplastics cause particle toxicity in the lugworm Arenicola marina. Feeding activity was reduced during exposure to 5% microscopic unplasticised polyvinylchloride (UPVC) by sediment weight, whilst exposure to ≥1% UPVC by sediment weight significantly reduced energy reserves relative to control animals. Evidence for the transfer and toxicity of endogenous additives from PVC to lugworms is provided. Lugworms exposed to 1% PVC by sediment weight exhibited a 70% increase in additive concentration, coinciding with inhibited mucus production and enhanced lipid reserves and oxygen consumption, compared to control lugworms. Ragworms (Hediste diversicolor) exposed to leached toxicants from bioplastic cigarette debris were found to exhibit significantly longer burrowing times, >30% weight loss, and >2-fold increase in DNA damage compared to control ragworms. Bio-concentration factors for nicotine – the biomarker of exposure - were 500 fold higher from leachates in seawater than from microfibres in sediment. Overall, this thesis provides evidence to suggest that the incorporation of microplastics into marine sediments can significantly impact the health of marine polychaete worms due to both particle and chemical effects. This emphasises the need to reconsider the classification of plastic as non-hazardous and questions whether we as humans are also at risk.

The production and the usage of plastic material increases since the decade of 1950. Nowadays, the elevated production rate, the misusing and the waste turned plastic material in an urgent environmental and economic problem. One of the major environmental problems related to this issue is the contamination of marine environments by microplastics. These constitute plastic particles of size between 1 and 5 mm. Microplastics might occur by breaking of larger plastic pieces or as a manufactured product. The plastic pellets are among this second class, these are small plastic spherules (≥ 5 mm) used in the plastics industry as raw material for the production of manufactured products. It is hypothesized that plastic pellets reach the marine environment due to losses in port terminals or accidental and intentional releases by commercial ships. The present study evaluated the contamination of the coastal zone by microplastics in different spatial and temporal scales. This evaluation approached the dispersion of microplastics in coastal zones, and used the spatial distribution, the stranding and the accumulation of plastic pellets in sandy beaches as a proxy to disclose the behavior of the variation of microplastics in coastal zones. The results of the present paper reveal that microplastics vary both in small and large temporal and spatial scales. Therefore, the present paper brings new insights to the knowledge on microplastics pollution in coastal zones, which might give a new baseline to methodological approaches adopted in management and monitoring programs.
A produção e o consumo de plásticos vêm aumentando desde a década de 1950. Nos dias de hoje, a taxa elevada de produção, o mal-uso e o desperdício tornaram os plásticos em um problema ambiental e econômico urgente. Um dos principais problemas relacionados à esta questão é a poluição dos ambientes marinhos por microplásticos. Estes constituem partículas de plástico de tamanho que varia entre 1 e 5 mm. Microplásticos podem ocorrer em decorrência da quebra de pedaços de plásticos grandes ou podem ocorrer como um produto fabricado. Os grânulos de plástico estão nesta segunda categoria, estes são pequenas esférulas de plástico (≥ 5 mm) utilizadas como matéria prima para a produção de utensílios variados pela indústria dos plásticos. A hipótese é de que os grânulos de plástico cheguem ao ambiente marinho a partir de perdas em terminais portuários ou após liberações acidentais ou intencionais por embarcações comerciais. O presente estudo avaliou a contaminação da zona costeira por grânulos de plástico em diferentes escalas espaciais e temporais. Esta avaliação abordou a dispersão de microplásticos em regiões costeiras e utilizou a distribuição espacial o aporte e o acúmulo de grânulos de plástico como um modelo para desvendar o comportamento da variação de microplásticos em zonas costeiras. O presente estudo revelou que os microplásticos varia em escalas espaciais e temporais grandes e pequenas. Os resultados apresentados aqui podem conferir embasamento e questões metodológicas para serem adotadas em estratégias de monitoramento e gestão.

Nous avons étudié la pollution marine des sédiments et des eaux côtières de la presqu’ile du Cap-Vert et de la Petite côte. Les résultats montrent que la perception des populations n’est pas toujours en phase avec les observations scientifiques. La population signale un niveau de pollution principalement modérée mais qui s’est aggravé ces dix dernières années. La majorité des sites étudiés n’est pas conforme aux qualités microbiologiques de l’eau de baignade d’un point de vu microbiologique. Les quantités de microplastiques de certains sites sont élevées. Les macroplastiques en mer, ne sont pas significativement présents sur tous les sites échantillonnés. Pour les ETM seuls le chrome et le nickel sont au-dessus de la concentration d'effet probable (CEP) sur les organismes marins en ce qui concerne la fraction ≤ 100 μm. Les premiers niveaux trophiques de la chaine alimentaire du milieu marin ne semblent pas être affectés par la toxicité des sédiments alors que les niveaux moyens et supérieurs le sont davantage. La majorité (81%) des sites étudiés ont révélé un niveau d’écotoxicité supérieur à 20%, via le test d’embryotoxicité de Magallana gigas reconnu pour sa plus grande sensibilité par rapport aux autres bioessais. Par conséquent, l'évaluation de la toxicité des sédiments marins montre que la majorité des sites sélectionnés apparaissent dans un mauvais état écotoxicologique. La variabilité inter-sites des résultats sont dues aux caractéristiques des sites
We studied the marine pollution of the sediments and coastal waters of the Cape Verde peninsula and the Petite Côte. The results show that the perception of the population is not always in line with scientific observations. The population reports a mainly moderate level of pollution, which has worsened over the last ten years. The majority of the sites studied do not comply with the microbiological quality of bathing water from a microbiological point of view. The quantities of microplastics at some sites are high. Macroplastics at sea are not significantly present at all the sites sampled. For TMEs only chromium and nickel are above the probable effect concentration (PEC) on marine organisms for the fraction ≤ 100 μm. The first trophic levels of the marine food chain do not seem to be affected by sediment toxicity, whereas the middle and upper levels are more affected. The majority (81%) of the sites studied revealed a level of ecotoxicity greater than 20%, via the Magallana gigas embryotoxicity test, which is known to be more sensitive than other bioassays. Consequently, the assessment of the toxicity of marine sediments shows that the majority of the selected sites appear to be in a poor ecotoxicological state. The inter-site variability of the results is due to the characteristics of the sites

Plasticozoic excavates humanity’s relationship to nature and to ourselves through plastic artifacts of consumer culture, which were recovered from oceans and beaches by the artist, or sent to her from around the world. Through created specimens and collected fragments of the Anthropocene, it considers the precariousness of our place in time, where misperceptions of reality and the collective impact of our every day lives can have global effects. "Future geologists will be able to precisely mark our era as the Plasticozoic, the place in the sands of time in which bits of plastic first appeared." -Oceanographer A. Sylvia Earle, The World is Blue: How Our Fate and the Ocean's Are One

The irreversibility and global ubiquity of marine litter pollution and plastic, in particular, make this material a potential planetary boundary threat. Although the growing attention from the scientific community and the increasing number of peer-reviewed papers, the occurrence and distribution of plastic litter in the Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and its impacts and effects on marine wildlife remain still poorly investigated. Within the Plastic Busters MPAs project, this PhD thesis provided a comprehensive assessment of marine litter pollution in the sea surface waters and beaches of the Pelagos Sanctuary and the Tuscan Archipelago National Park and the potential physical and chemical impacts related to plastic ingestion on several Mediterannean bioindicators. The experimental designs planned ad-hoc for the selected study areas (Chapter 3), harmonised and implemented the current methods for sampling marine litter in the different environments and defined a new simultaneous multilevel approach reflecting the strong pressure that marine litter, and in particular plastics, exert on organisms inhabiting the protected areas. A total of 273 monitoring transects of floating macrolitter, 141 manta trawl and 14 beaches were sampled and monitored evaluating the occurrence, abundances and composition of marine litter according to the characterization protocols implementing the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) (Chapter 4). Particular attention was applied to investigate the potential influences of environmental and anthropic variables affecting the litter distribution and to identify potential hotspot accumulation areas representing a major hazard for marine organisms. Several species were collected, starting from invertebrates to cetaceans, to evaluate the frequency of ingestion and confirm/validate their potential role as marine litter bioindicators (Chapter 5). For the first time, an exhaustive analysis of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) presence was assessed on different organisms and biological tissues through the GC-MS analysis (Chapter 5). Strong litter inputs were identified to originate from the mainland and accumulate in coastal waters within about 10-15 nautical miles. Harbours and riverine outfalls may contribute significantly to plastic pollution representing the main sources of inputs as well as areas with warmer waters and weak oceanographic features could facilitate the accumulation of litter. The high concentrations of plastics floating on the sea surface (399 items/km2 for macrolitter and 259,490 items/km2 for MPs) and stranded on beaches (up to 1,033 ± 915 items/100m) indicate a potentially threatening trend of particle accumulation that may pose a serious risk to organisms living in the Pelagos Sanctuary. The twofold monitoring approach, simultaneously investigating plastic and MP ingestion in several species and concentrations of plasticizers has allowed gaining information on the direct link between synthetic particle ingestion and its additive substances release. Microplastic ingestion was assessed for the first time in the Mediterranean Sea in Velella velella organisms (0.71 items/ind), filter-feeding organisms such as the Mobula mobular (23 items/ind.) and Balaenoptera physalus (35 items/ind.), as well as in poorly investigated species i.e. seabirds, lanternfishes and odontocete cetaceans. Phthalate acid ester loads (mainly DIBP, DBP and DEHP compound) and their pattern of accumulation were evaluated in several species and different biological tissues respectively, according to their feeding behaviour, long life span and spatial distribution. Finally, the spatial risk assessment (Chapter 6) indicated the Gulf of La Spezia and the National Park of the Tuscan Archipelago as the most affected by the accumulation of plastic waste and at higher risk of exposure to organisms as well as the Genova canyon and the seamount area. The results obtained here provide further indications for dealing with plastic pollution in MPAs and could facilitate future recommendations for the management and use of the marine and coastal environment of these protected areas.

Les plastiques sont des matériaux techniques nécessaires au fonctionnement des sociétés industrialisées. Cependant, au début des années 2000, des particules de plastique de l’ordre de la dizaine de microns sont observées dans des échantillons d’eau de mer. Ce sont des « microplastiques ». Leur présence dans la plupart des milieux a progressivement été mise en lumière au point d’en faire un marqueur de l’anthropocène. Par ailleurs, ces particules interagissent avec leur environnement et peuvent être vectrices d’additifs toxiques ou de micropolluants. Face aux risques que représentent ces particules, il est important de pouvoir évaluer leur dangerosité pour l’homme et les écosystèmes. Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de ce travail de thèse sont (1) de déterminer les conditions d’extraction des microplastiques présents dans le sable les plus efficaces et les moins coûteuses et (2) de traduire en terme de toxicité les interactions entre micropolluants et plastiques vieillis dans le milieu marin. Pour cela, un prototype de système d’élutriation a été construit et un protocole adapté a été mis en place pour permettre d’extraire les microplastiques du sable. Afin de faciliter la détermination des vitesses de flux optimales pour permettre une élutriation efficace, un modèle numérique simple reposant sur des équations d’hydrodynamique a été développé. La confrontation des résultats théoriques et expérimentaux a ensuite permis de le valider. Ces résultats ont également permis de mettre en évidence que des ajustements du dimensionnement du système d’élutriation étaient nécessaires. En se basant sur différentes contraintes, par exemple sur le temps nécessaire pour réaliser l’élutriation ou encore sur la taille de la colonne, de nouvelles données de dimensionnement ont été acquises. Le vieillissement de 3 types de plastique (PVC, PET et PBAT) dans le port de Kernevel (Larmor- Plage) a été étudié en suivant l’évolution de l’état de surface et la toxicité de ces matériaux durant 502 jours d’immersion. Cette étude a montré des comportements très différents de ces trois plastiques au cours du temps. Ainsi, le PBAT vieillit plus vite que le PVC alors que le PET évolue peu. Le vieillissement du PVC s’accompagne d’une perte de ses composés à activité œstrogénique et d’une adsorption de métaux lourds. En milieu marin, en se dégradant la surface du PBAT forme des cavités dans lesquelles se piègent des argiles ; de plus en vieillissant ce matériau peut présenter une forte activité œstrogénique ponctuelle
Plastics are technical materials necessary for industrialized societies. However, in the early 2000s, plastic particles of about ten microns were observed in seawater samples. These are called "microplastics". Their presence in most environments has been progressively highlighted making it an anthropocene marker. Moreover, these particles interact with environments and may carry toxic additives or micropollutants. However, scientific and technical barriers limit this accurate evaluation. In this context, the aims of this work are (1) to determine the most efficient and cost- effective extraction conditions of microplastics trapped in sand and (2) to evaluate the toxicity due to the interactions between micropollutants and aged plastics, which can occur in the marine environment. Thus, an elutriation system prototype has been built and an adapted protocol developed to efficiently extract microplastics from sand. In order to determine the optimal elutriation flow velocities, a simple numerical model based on hydrodynamic equations has been developed. This numerical model has been validated by comparing theoretical and experimental results. However, these results also demonstrate that process optimization was required: based on different constraints, for example the time needed to achieve the elutriation or the size of the column, new data on the design have been acquired. The evolution of the surface state and the toxicity of 3 types of plastic (PVC, PET and PBAT) immersed in the marine environment during 550 days was studied on Kernevel harbor (Larmor-Plage, France). The results of the plastics ageing show very different behaviors. PBAT ages faster than PVC whereas PET does not exhibit large modifications. The aging of PVC is accompanied by a loss of compounders characterized by an estrogenic activity and by the adsorption of heavy metals. In the marine environment, the degradation of the PBAT surface forms cavities in which clay particles can be trapped. Moreover, in a more punctual manner than PVC, this material exhibit strong estrogenic activities

Microplastics represent persistent and highly dispersal pollutants in the marine environment. The knowledge about ingestion and relative effects in large marine vertebrates, such as sea turtles, is still fragmentary. To date, studies on MP accumulation in these animals were based on the analysis of gastrointestinal tracts obtained after necropsy. In this study, we developed a protocol that allows the study of the MP through faecal material from alive turtles, that can be used in rescue centres in several locations. Specifically, faecal samples from 45 specimens of Caretta caretta, rescued along the coast of Emilia-Romagna and Marche (Italy) from 2016 to 2019 were assessed for MP content through different hospitalization periods. A unique sample was collected from 24 animals, while for 21 specimens two samples were obtained. This allowed us to quantify and characterize the MPs and to evaluate putative differences in the excreted particles during the hospitalization period. All individuals showed MPs in the faeces, for an average value of 6 ± 6.09 particles/animal. The maximum number of particles found in a single individual is 34 MPs. Filamentous particles were the most represented shape and transparent/white and red colours prevailed over the other colours. Analyses of data about first sampling show a significant negative correlation between MP number and turtle’s size. This could be due to the different feeding behaviours that occur in these animals according to their life stage. The absence of significant differences between classes and categories of shape and colours particles could be due to the high contamination of the preys in the Adriatic Sea. The absence of significant differences between the first and second sampling (where available), suggests that during the hospitalization period there might have been external influences that affected the results, including MP intake with diet, which would be considered in future studies.

Os plásticos têm trazido grandes benefícios aos humanos, sendo utilizados em diversas atividades como em aplicações médicas, entretenimento e na indústria de alimento. O uso crescente de plástico e seu descarte não adequado têm contribuído para o acúmulo deste detrito no meio ambiente, em especial nos oceanos onde tendem a acumular. Dentre os detritos de plástico de maior importância atualmente estão os microplásticos, que são partículas de plástico de tamanho entre 1 μm e 5 mm. Os principais riscos que os microplásticos oferecem são sua grande capacidade de persistência e dispersão no ambiente marinho, sua grande afinidade por poluentes persistentes orgânicos, sua a ingestão pela biota e a transferência para a teia trófica marinha. Dentre os ambientes marinhos mais impactados por microplásticos, estão as praias arenosas, onde estas partículas tendem a acumular após encalharem ao serem trazidas pelo mar. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a contaminação por microplásticos em uma praia de uma área de proteção marinha costeira e avaliar a toxicidade de pellets virgens e coletados nesta praia no desenvolvimento embriolarval de mexilhão marrom Perna perna. Foram realizadas coletas de microplásticos entre o período de fevereiro de 2014 a fevereiro de 2015 na praia de Paranapuã em duas regiões do perfil da praia (linha de maré alta e supralitoral). As partículas foram analisadas individualmente em laboratório e quanto a composição de seu polímero por Espectrofotômetro de Infravermelho por Transformada de Fourier (FT-IR). Os resultados sugerem que a poluição por microplásticos na praia de Paranapuã ocorre ao longo do ano inteiro, porém variando em concentração ao longo do tempo e com um padrão de distribuição espacial irregular na praia. A concentração de microplásticos está aparentemente relacionada com a direção do vento, tendendo a ser maior quando a direção do vento é a favor da praia. A concentração de microplásticos na praia de Paranapuã (4,72 microplásticos/m²) é próxima àquela encontrada em outras praias no mundo e da região. Os experimentos de toxicidade demonstraram que tanto pellets de plástico virgens como aqueles coletados na praia inibem o desenvolvimento embriolarval de mexilhão marrom. Entretanto, os pellets coletados na praia mostraram uma alta toxicidade que resultou numa porcentagem de larvas anormais ou mortas de 100%, significativamente superior aos pellets virgens que foi de 23,5%. Acredita-se que a diferença de toxicidade entre os pellets virgens e coletados na praia pode ser causada por contaminantes adsorvidos na superfície dos pellets coletados no campo. Os resultados deste estudo sugerem que praias de áreas de proteção marinha costeira próximas a zonas urbanas e regiões portuárias apresentam risco de contaminação por plásticos. Apesar de terem acesso restrito a humanos, os microplásticos entram nestas praias através do ambiente marinho, podendo causar efeitos adversos na fauna destes ambientes. As informações deste trabalho contribuem para a melhor compreensão dos efeitos da contaminação de ambientes costeiros por microplásticos, fornecendo informações básicas para o desenvolvimento de políticas públicas voltadas para uma gestão deste tipo de poluição em áreas de proteção ambiental.
Plastics have great benefits to humans, used in various activities such as medical applications, entertainment and food industry. The increasing use of plastic and your inappropriate disposal have contributed to the accumulation of this debris in the environment, particularly in the oceans where they tend to accumulate. Among the most important plastic waste are the microplastic which are plastic particles of size between 1 μm and 5 mm. The main risks that microplastics offer are your large capacity persistence and dispersal in the marine environment, your great affinity for persistent organic pollutants and their ingestion by biota and transfer to the marine food web. Among the marine environments most impacted by microplastics are sandy beaches where these particles tend to accumulate after carried by sea. This study evaluate the contamination by microplastics on a beach of a coastal marine protected area, and assess the virgin pellets toxicity and collected on this beach in embryo-larval development of brown mussel Perna perna. Microplastics samples were collected in the period from February 2014 to February 2015 on the beach of Paranapuã in two regions of the beach (high tide line and supralittoral). The particles were analyzed individually in the laboratory and the composition of your polymer was identified for Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The results suggest that pollution microplastics in Paranapuã beach is continuous in entire year, but varying in concentration over time and with a pattern irregular of spatial distribution on the beach. The microplastics concentration is apparently related to the wind direction, tends to be higher when the wind direction is downwind. The concentration of microplastics on the beach Paranapuã (4.72 microplastics/m²) is similar to other beaches in the world. The toxicity experiments showed that both virgin plastic pellets as those collected on the beach inhibit embryo-larval development of brown mussels. However, the pellets collected at the beach showed high toxicity resulting in abnormal or percentage of dead larvae 100%, significantly higher than for virgin pellets, which was 23.5%. It is believed that the difference in toxicity between the virgin pellets and collected on the beach can be caused by high concentration of adsorbed contaminants on the surface of the pellets collected in the field. The results of this study suggest that beaches areas of coastal marine protection near urban areas and port areas have high risk of contamination by plastics. Although this beach has access restricted to humans, microplastics enter these beaches through the marine environment, potentially causing adverse effects on the local fauna of these environments due to your high toxicity. The information from this study contribute to a better understanding of the effects of contamination of coastal environments by microplastics, providing basic information for the development of public policies for management of this type of pollution in the areas of environmental protection.

This study aims to detect how many microplastics and what kind are released from the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) Skebäck, in Örebro. The study was limited to the analysis of three filters with 50 μm mesh size and one filter with 300 μm mesh size. The samples were taken at different times, two in the fall of 2019 and one in the spring of 2020. Visual characterization was used for the quantification of microplastics, and a lower and upper bound was used. The lower bound represents particles that were deemed identifiable as plastic with high certainty, while the upper bound also includes particles that may have been microplastic. An additional ATR-FTIR analysis was performed on selected microplastics >300 μm.  The presence of microplastics in the effluent from Skebäcks WWTP could be confirmed. The quantity of microplastics per m​3​ (MP/m​3​) trapped on the 50 μm filters were quantified in a range between 0 MP/m​3​ to 291 MP/m​3​ for the lower bound, and 72 MP/m​3​ to 435 MP/m​3​ for the upper bound. The 300 μm filter had considerably less microplastics than the 50 μm filter with 1.8 MP/m​3​. The quantification of fibers on the 50 μm filter and 300 μm filters was not possible due to high blank contaminations. According to the concentration of 63 MP/m​3​ of the lower bound count on the 50 μm filters and the amount of water flowing through Skebäck in 2019, 17 818 935 m​3​, 1.1 billion microplastic particles were released into Svartån that year. In comparison the highest value of the upper bound count, 435 MP/m​3​, gave a release of 7.7 billion microplastic particles. Using the concentration of the 300 μm filter 1.8 MP/m​3​, 32 million microplastics/year were released from Skebäck in 2019. The amount of spheres 50-300 μm released in the effluent from Skebäck was estimated to be 3.7 kg in 2019.

Plastic, including microplastic, is a common product in the society today and is starting to be more common in oceans where it can stay for a long time. Microplastic is defined usually in the size range five millimeter and smaller and together with the important Chao Phraya river in Bangkok, Thailand, the main subject of this paper is described. More clearly, the aim of this paper is to provide a first-hand quantification of microplastics flowing into the Chao Phraya River. Samples were taken at upstream, middle and downstream locations in the river with a pump-system and were then analyzed in a lab. The result showed an increasing load of microplastic entering the river from Bangkok, for example the result for size range five to one millimeter showed a six times increase of microplastic between the upstream and downstream point.
Plast, däribland mikroplaster, är en vanlig förekommande produkt i samhället idag och börjar bli allt vanligare i hav där det också kan stanna ett långt tag efter att det hamnat där. Mikroplaster definieras oftast med storleks intervallet fem millimeter och mindre och tillsammans med den viktiga floden Chao Phraya i Bangkok, Thailand, är huvudämnet för denna studie beskriven. Mer tydligt, målet för denna studie är att förse en första kvantifiering av mikroplaster som flödar in till Chao Phraya floden. Prover togs på platser som var uppströms, i mitten och nedströms på floden och sedan analyserades dessa prover i ett laboratorium. Resultatet som framkom visade på ökande belastning av mikroplaster i floden från Bangkok, exempelvis visade resultatet för storleks intervallet fem till en millimeter på en sex gånger ökning av mikroplaster mellan uppströms platsen och nedströms platsen. Ökningen som troligen kommer från innerstaden kan bero på olika faktorer såsom väder, stadens avfallshantering och användningen av engångsprodukter som är av plastmaterial. Således påvisar detta vikten av, bland annat, en fungerande avfallshantering.

Estamos en la era biodegradable, en los últimos años la conciencia por el cuidado y sostenibilidad ambiental ha estado en constante crecimiento. Este crecimiento ha sido proporcional con el interés de los consumidores por disminuir y reemplazar los productos plásticos derivados del polímero, con productos biodegradables y compostables que, a pesar tener precios más elevados, son atractivos para los consumidores debido a la satisfacción personal y ambiental que conlleva su compra. Este cambio en el estilo de vida del consumidor peruano se ha reflejado en el interés del Gobierno por regular el consumo de productos de plástico de un solo uso y no compostables en los negocios locales. Por lo que, se aprobó la ley N° 30884 que según el diario “El Peruano” tiene “La finalidad de la ley es contribuir en la concreción del derecho que tiene toda persona a gozar de un ambiente equilibrado y adecuado al desarrollo de su vida, reduciendo para ello el impacto adverso del plástico de un solo uso, de la basura marina plástica, fluvial y lacustre y de otros contaminantes similares, en la salud humana y del ambiente”. El objetivo de The Green Alternative es brindar a este segmento de mercado una solución completa y accesible para reemplazar los productos de plástico, así como crear consciencia a los interesados por cuidar el medio ambiente e incrementar nuestra participación en el mercado.
We are in the biodegradable age, in recent years awareness of environmental care and sustainability has been constantly growing. This growth has been proportional to consumers' interest in diminishing and replacing polymer-derived plastic products, biodegradable and compostable products that, despite having higher prices, are attractive to consumers because of the personal and environmental satisfaction that comes with their purchase. This change in the lifestyle of the Peruvian consumer has been reflected in the government's interest by regulating the consumption of single-use, non-compostable plastic products in local businesses. Therefore, Law No. 30884 was passed, which according to the newspaper "El Peruano" has "The purpose of the law is to contribute to the realization of the right that every person has to enjoy a balanced environment reducing the adverse impact of single-use plastic, plastic, river and lake litter and other similar pollutants, in human health and the environment." The green alternative aims to provide this market segment with a complete and accessible solution to replace plastic products, as well as raising awareness for those interested in taking care of the environment and increasing our market share.
Trabajo de investigación

O lixo marinho é um problema discutido desde a década de 1970, quando cientistas começaram a observar e quantificar materiais diversos nos mares e costas de alguns países, como por exemplo os plásticos. Nessa categoria se encontram os pellets de plástico, que constituem a matéria-prima de base para a produção da indústria mundial de insumos plásticos. Desde então o tema é tratado entre as formas de poluição marinha e costeira mais observadas. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida no litoral do Estado de São Paulo (Brasil), na qual se avaliou a presença de pellets e os mecanismos de sua distribuição, realizada em duas etapas: a primeira, em 55 praias de 15 municípios entre o Litoral Norte, a Baixada Santista e o Litoral Sul. A segunda, em 9 praias da Região Metropolitana da Baixada Santista. Pesquisa bibliográfica, documental, trabalhos de campo e de laboratório formaram as etapas da investigação, para a qual foram usados métodos de amostragem. Os resultados obtidos levaram à conclusão da maior concentração de pellets nas praias próximas às áreas consideradas pelo estudo como fontes emissoras do material no mar, como as zonas portuárias / industriais de São Sebastião, Santos e a de Paranaguá (Paraná). Ao longo das praias, foi constatado que os eventos extremos de ressacas / marés meteorológicas são os principais responsáveis pela distribuição dos pellets de plástico nas praias. A principal contribuição do trabalho foi a inclusão da temática da poluição costeira nos estudos de Geografia do Litoral, uma demanda desafiadora para a Geografia brasileira.
Marine debris is an issue discussed since the 1970s, when scientists began to observe and quantify different materials in the seas and coastlines of some countries, such as plastics. In this category are the plastic pellets, which are the basic raw material for the production of plastics industry worldwide inputs. Since then the issue is treated between forms of marine pollution and more coastal observed. The research was conducted in the São Paulo state coast (Brazil), in which it evaluated the presence of pellets and the mechanisms of its distribution, carried out in two stages: the first, on 55 beaches in 15 municipalities across the North Coast, the Baixada Santista and the South Coast. The second, on 9 beaches of Baixada Santista. Bibliographical research, documental, field work and laboratory formed the stages of the investigation, for which sampling methods were used. The results led to the conclusion of the higher concentration of pellets at the nearby beaches to areas considered by the study as sources emitting material at sea, such as port / industrial areas of São Sebastião, Santos and Paranaguá (Paraná). Along the beaches, it was found that extreme storm surge events are mainly responsible for the distribution of plastic pellets on beaches. The main contribution of this study was the inclusion of the issue of coastal pollution in the studies of Geography of the Coastline, a challenging demand for Brazilian Geography.

Plastic pollution is one of if not the biggest threat against earth’s ecosystems. Almost 400 million tons of plastic is produced every year and most of it is discarded outside of the recycling systems. Marine ecosystems are extra exposed due to microplastics which are plastic smaller than 5 mm. The most common type of plastic is PET. Plastic in general is very chemically stable and hard to degrade but scientists have found a bacterium named I.sakaiensis that can degrade PET with a two-enzyme system called PETase and MHETase. Due to being exo-enzymes, they have to be secreted to function, the thermostability of these enzymes are very low so most research has been focused on increasing the thermal stability with its enzyme activity. This report focuses on what structures are important for the PET degrading ability of MHETas and PETas and how they can be applied to cleaning marine ecosystems. A key to solving environmental issues is creating environmentally aware students through the education system. Studies about Context based education have indicated that it sparks motivation and interest in students and the lessons seem more relevant. This report is also about how context-based education can be used to create an environmental perspective in secondary education.

Atualmente, a poluição marinha por microplásticos é uma grande preocupação ambiental, considerando principalmente a capacidade de dispersão e resistência à degradação que estes materiais possuem. A matéria prima plástica é normalmente comercializada na forma de \"pellets\", grânulos com cerca de 5 mm de diâmetro, que são encontrados em ambientes marinhos e costeiros de todo mundo, inclusive do Brasil. Estes podem ser perdidos nas etapas pré-consumo da cadeia produtiva dos plásticos e chegar direta ou indiretamente ao mar. Embora possam causar impactos ambientais e, eventualmente à saúde humana, há poucos registros formais sobre suas fontes. Assim, o presente projeto configura-se como um estudo para o entendimento da origem e de possíveis soluções para esta questão, a medida em que objetiva mapear e entender os diferentes processos de perda destes microplásticos para o meio ambiente, visando o desenvolvimento de orientações capazes de levar à redução desta perda. As conclusões apontam que as soluções para o problema passam por uma articulação multissetorial e definição de diretrizes para reduzir a perda adequadas à realidade brasileira. Estas diretrizes devem ser implementadas por meio de políticas públicas e instrumentos de comando e controle, que preferencialmente devem estar associados a mecanismos de regulação de mercado. Para efetivação destas políticas torna-se necessário ainda um enquadramento dos pellets como poluentes.
Currently, the plastic and microplastic marine pollution is a major environmental concern considering the difficulty in dealing with the dispersal capacity and resistance to degradation of these materials. The plastic material is usually marketed as plastic pellets, granules of about 5 mm of diameter, which are found in marine and coastal environments worldwide, including in Brazil. Possibly due to losses on the pre-consumer stages of production - on pellets producers, transporters and/or processors - arriving directly to the sea or indirectly by rivers and urban run-off. Although they can cause impacts to environment and, eventually, to human health, there are few formal records of its occurrence and its sources, essential information for managing this issue. Thus, this project is configured as a strategic study for understanding the origin and possible solutions for this issue. The main objective is to map and understand the different processes of these microplastics loss to the environment, aiming the development of guidelines to reduce this loss. The results indicate that the solutions to the problem undergo a multi-sectoral articulation and definition of appropriate guidelines to reduce the loss in the Brazilian reality. These guidelines should be implemented through public policies and instruments of command and control, which should preferably be associated with mechanisms of market regulation. In order to these changes take effect it is needed a clear framing of lost plastic pellets as pollutants.

In the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the environmental protection of the marine environment was first addressed in a comprehensive manner on an international level. However, the Convention distinguishes between four different sorts of pollution depending on which source the pollution originates from. Still, one of these sources play a more crucial role in the protection of the marine environment than the other since that source is estimated to stand for 80 percent of all the marine pollution; namely marine pollution from land-based sources. As the throw-away culture has led to products being disposed of at a faster rate than ever before, in particular plastic products, the amount of land-based debris has also substantially increased over the last decades. This increased disposal rate of products in combination with poor waste treatment has consequently led to many kinds of wastes ending up in the ocean and causing severe harm, not only to the marine environment and its living species, but also to humans that eat the fish and use the many other ecosystem services of the Sea. In this thesis, some prominent international conventions on marine pollution from land-based sources are examined; namely the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, as well as the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. To achieve United Nations Sustainable Development Goal number 14.1 to significantly reduce marine pollution from land-based sources by 2025, this thesis claims that international laws addressing this sort of pollution need to be implemented. Moreover, this thesis rests on the belief that regional implementation is a crucial component in making states align with international law. However, while regional implementation has been ambitious in the European Union Law, many regions still lack enforceable frameworks that aim to reduce and prevent marine pollution from land-based sources.

De nos jours, les déchets plastiques ont envahi l’ensemble des écosystèmes marins du monde en n’épargnant aucune zone. La demande mondiale de plastique ne cesse de croitre d’année en année, malgré l’impact dramatique qu’il provoque sur l’environnement lorsqu’il est laissé dans la nature. On estime que chaque année entre 4.8 et 12.7 millions de tonnes de plastiques finissent dans les océans. Les travaux de cette thèse s’inscrivent dans le cadre de cette urgence environnementale, en permettant de mieux identifier les biofilms bactériens attachés aux différents plastiques (« plastisphère) et de mieux caractériser le phénomène de biodégradation de certains polymères en milieu marin. Dans un premier temps, l’analyse d’échantillons prélevés pendant deux expéditions (l’expédition Tara-Méditerranée et Tara-Pacifique) ont permis de caractériser la biogéographie des biofilms bactériens spécifiques des plastiques. Cette comparaison a permis de mettre en évidence une niche écologique à la surface des plastiques distincte de l’eau environnante, nettement influencé par la géographie, expliqué principalement par la température. L’étude taxonomique a permis de mettre en évidence un « core microbiome », dominé par un genre de cyanobactérie (Rivularia sp.) et des familles connues (Rhodobacteraceae et Flavobacteraceae) comme étant colonisateurs de plastique en milieu marin. Dans un second temps, la colonisation bactérienne sur différents polymères a été étudiée grâce à des aquariums en circuit ouvert sur la baie de Banyuls. Le processus de biodégradation a été étudié en milieu artificiel sans source de carbone que le polymère, imitant l’environnement marin et en suivant plusieurs paramètres expérimentaux. Dans notre étude aucune spécificité des communautés microbiennes liées à la nature des polymères a été observée pendant la phase de croissance du biofilm. Le processus de biodégradation à pu être mis en évidence sur certains polymères tels que le PHBV, Bioplast, Mater-Bi et la cellulose grâce notamment à une activité bactérienne maintenue tout au long de l’incubation. Dans un troisième temps, une souche provenant du biofilm mature du PHBV a pu être isolée pour étudier spécifiquement son processus de biodégradation. L’analyse du génome d’Alteromonas sp., a révélé la présence de 4 dépolymérases dont 3 externes et 1 interne, expliquant sa capacité à dégrader le PHBV. L’étude du génome a aussi permis de mettre en évidence deux voies de synthèse des PHA l’une permettant la synthèse de PHASCL et l’autre de PHAMCL. Enfin, l’étude de la biodégradation du PHBV par un consortium naturel a été approfondi grâce à un marquage isotopique du polymère. Cette nouvelle expérimentation couplée à une analyse métagénomique a permis d’étudier des communautés fonctionnelles pouvant assimiler le carbone du polymère. Les travaux menés durant cette thèse permettent de mieux identifier les biofilms bactériens se développant à la surface de polymères biodégradables et non dégradables, et également d'affiner la caractérisation du processus de biodégradation en milieu marin grâce à l'utilisation de différents paramètres tels que la production bactérienne, la respiration, la perte de poids, le suivi de l’assimilation du carbone marqué ou l’imagerie en microscopie. Ces études sont primordiales pour mieux comprendre le processus de biodégradation des plastiques en mer et ainsi proposer des adaptations aux normes de standardisations régissant l’environnement marin et actuellement peu représentative
Nowadays, plastic waste has invaded all of the world's marine ecosystems, sparing no area. The global demand for plastic continues to grow year after year, despite its dramatic impact on the environment when plastic is left in nature. It is estimated that each year between 4.8 and 12.7 million tonnes of plastics end up in the oceans. This PhD aims and works fall within the framework of this environmental emergency, by making possible to better identify the bacterial biofilms attached to different plastics (the so called "plastisphere) and to better characterize the biodegradation process of certain polymers in the marine environment. The first stage, was to analyse the microbial diversity of samples taken during two expeditions (the Tara-Mediterranean expedition and Tara-Pacific) in order to characterize the biogeography of bacterial biofilms specific to plastics. The comparison between samples from the Pacific and the Mediterranean see allow to highlight an ecological niche on the surface of plastics distinct from the surrounding water. Niche which is clearly influenced by geography, explained mainly by temperature. The taxonomic study revealed a "core microbiome" dominated by a genus affiliated to the cyanobacteria and families (Rhodobacteraceae and flavobacteraceae) known to be colonizers of plastic in the marine environment. Then, the bacterial colonization on different polymers was studied in aquarium using uninterrupted circulation of seawater collected continuously from the Banyuls Bay. The biodegradation process was studied using an artificial environment without any other carbon source than the polymer in order to mimic the marine environment, and by following several experimental parameters (Bacterial production, respiration, loss of mass). In our study we observed during the growth phase of the biofilm no specific microbial communities related to the nature of the polymers. The biodegradation process has been demonstrated on certain polymers such as PHBV, Bioplast, Mater-Bi and cellulose, in particular due to the bacterial activity maintained throughout the incubation. Next, a strain Alteromonas sp., isolated from the mature biofilm of the PHBV allow us to explore its biodegradation capabilities. The analysis of the genome of Alteromonas sp. revealed the presence of 4 depolymerases, with 3 external and 1 internal, explaining its ability to degrade PHBV. The study of the genome also revealed two pathways for the PHA synthesis, one allowing the synthesis of PHASCL and the other of PHAMCL. Finally, the study of the biodegradation of PHBV by a natural consortium was done using isotopic labelling of the polymer. This experiment, coupled with metagenomic analysis, allowed the study of functional communities that can assimilate the carbon of the polymer. Thus, this PhD work enhanced the identification of the bacterial communities inhabiting the biofilms developed on the surface of polymers (biodegradable and non-degradable), and also to refine the characterization of the biodegradation process in the marine environment owing the use of various parameters such as the bacterial production, respiration, weight loss, monitoring of labeled carbon and microscopy. These studies are essential for a better understanding of the biodegradation process of plastics at sea and thus to propose adaptations to the standards methods governing the marine environment and currently not very representative

La prise de conscience récente de la menace qui pèse sur les océans, réceptacle final de la pollution plastique, a donné lieu à une effervescence dans le domaine scientifique. On estime que plus de 5,25 milliards de particules plastiques flottent dans les océans. Ces travaux de thèse s’inscrivent dans le cadre de cette préoccupation environnementale de premier ordre, en apportant de nouvelles connaissances sur le compartiment bactérien qui se développe sur les débris plastiques en mer, appelé « plastisphère ». L’analyse des prélèvements effectués pendant l’expédition Tara-Méditerranée a permis de caractériser, pour la première fois dans cette zone, un biofilm abondant et spécifique des plastiques par comparaison aux communautés bactériennes attachées aux particules organiques ou libres dans l’eau de mer. Ensuite, la cinétique de colonisation bactérienne sur différents polymères a été étudiée grâce à la mise en place de microcosmes en circulation ouverte sur le milieu naturel. Le couplage original de données biologiques et physico-chimiques des surfaces plastiques a permis de constater un développement bactérien plus important sur des plastiques « biodégradables » (notamment des espèces hydrocarbonoclastes) par rapport aux polymères conventionnels. Enfin, de fortes activités hétérotrophes et ectoenzymatiques ont été constatées sur les polymères par rapport à l’eau de mer. Encore une fois, des différences en fonction des types de plastiques et du stade de formation du biofilm ont été observées. Les travaux menés pendant cette thèse mettent en lumière l’existence d’une nouvelle niche écologique sur les plastiques, distincte de celle de l’eau de mer environnante
The increasing awareness on the impact of plastic pollution within the marine environment has stimulated countless of scientific studies. For the past decade, researchers have quantified plastic waste and assessed its fate at sea. It is estimated that more than 5.25 billion plastic particles float within the world’s oceans today. This PhD work is a result in part of this major environmental concern. It brings with it new knowledge about the marine bacterial communities that develop on plastic debris, also termed as the "plastisphere". The analysis of samples taken from the Tara-Mediterranean expedition allowed us, for the first time, to characterize, and quantify communities specific towards plastic biofilms in comparison to the communities attached to organic matter in surrounding seawater. Bacterial colonization and its evolution on different types of polymers was studied using microcosm experiments with open seawater circulation. The unusual coupling of biological and physicochemical data of plastic surfaces revealed a greater bacterial development on "biodegradable" polymers compared to conventional polymer types (especially hydrocarbonoclastic species). We showed that the composition of the polymer, together with its hydrophobicity and roughness, influences the diversity of bacterial communities during the early colonization steps. Finally, a greater bacterial biofilm activity (e.g. heterotrophic productions) was observed on polymer surfaces compared to seawater. Once again, differences according to plastic types have been observed. This present work highlights the existence of a new ecological niche on plastics that are distinct from the surrounding seawater

Since 1950, the plastic production has increased radically from 1.5 to 280 million tons in 2012. The increased production of plastic has led to oceans becoming more polluted than ever. Micro plastic particles originate from large floating plastic debris by undergoing degradation caused by UV-radiation. Due to their small size, density and colour micro plastic particles resemble marine organisms’ natural prey and are therefore ingested. This report discuss the hypotheses that there are micro plastic particles present in oceans outside of the Costa Rican west coast (hypothesis 1), that the location between the South and North Pacific gyres will result in an accumulation of plastic (hypothesis 2) and that different sampling methods will generate different types of data which makes it difficult to compare results (hypothesis 3). A manta trawl was used to collect samples in size range 1-2mm and they were quantified with a microscope. To simplifying transportation and storing, aluminum foil was used instead of glass jars to collect samples. Thereby the need of transferring material from a glass jar to a flat surface for quantifying with microscope was eliminated. One area contained 56.5 % of all gathered particles together. The result also showed that micro plastic particles are present even in protected areas.

Le risque environnemental lié à la présence de plastiques dans les milieux aquatiques a été suggéré, pour le milieu marin, dès les années 1970. Même s’il reste incomplètement cerné (d’un point de vue écotoxicologique essentiellement), il ressort de la littérature qu’il est significatif. Même si certains travaux suggèrent qu’une grande partie de ces plastiques provient des eaux continentales, il n’existe aujourd’hui peu d’étude sur les niveaux d’imprégnation des milieux aquatiques en milieu continental et aucune à l’échelle des bassins versants urbains pour préciser l’importance des différentes sources urbaines.Dans cette étude, les macroplastiques (> 5 mm) ainsi que les microplastiques (<5 mm) sont considérés. Les flux de macroplastiques dans la Seine ont été estimés à l’aide d’une étude de terrain mais aussi à l’aide d’une approche théorique. En ce qui concerne les microplastics, les fibres (synthétiques et artificielles) ainsi que les fragments ont été étudiés dans différent compartiments du système urbain. L’air intérieur, les retombées atmosphériques, les eaux de ruissellement, les effluents et affluents de stations d’épuration ainsi que les rejets urbains en temps de pluie ont été étudiés.Les concentrations en microplastiques dans le milieu récepteur ont aussi été estimées. Le suivi de la contamination des eaux de surface a été abordé selon deux méthodes d’échantillonnage distinctes : échantillonnage par un filet avec une maille de 80 μm et par un filet de 330 µm. L’homogénéité des fibres le long de la section a aussi été estimée, tout comme la variabilité temporelle à court terme. Pour finir, un suivi mensuel sur 19 mois a été effectué en amont et en aval de Paris.Cette étude a permis de montrer que les flux de microplastiques dans la Seine représentent une masse négligeable par rapport aux flux de macroplastiques. Elle confirme aussi l’ubiquité des fibres dans tous les compartiments. Les fragments sont quant à eux particulièrement concentrés dans les rejets urbains en temps de pluie. Pour la première fois, il a été montré que le compartiment atmosphérique jouait un rôle potentiellement important, autant que source de microplastiques
Plastic pollution has been widely studied in marine environment since 1972 and mostly since 2004. Investigations on plastic pollution in freshwater and especially in urban catchments just started at the beginning of the decade, and urban plastic pollution sources and its related fluxes in rivers remains mainly unknown. Thus a specific attention should be paid to the plastic contamination in catchments exposed to severe anthropogenic pressure, especially within the urban areas. This PhD thesis focuses on the case of the Paris agglomeration and its impact on the Seine River. A double approach was carried out as both macro- (>5mm) and micro- (<5mm) plastics were considered.The amount of macroplastics conveyed by the Seine River was estimated with a field study and with a theoretical approach.Regarding microplastics, fibers (made with synthetic but also man-made polymers) and fragments were both investigated in different compartments of the urban system. The study focused on the air compartment (indoor and outdoor air as well as atmospheric fallout), the sewer system (from the washing machine disposals to the WWTP influents and effluents), and the inputs during wet weathers periods, i.e, runoff and combined sewer overflows. Fibers and fragments were also examined on the Seine River.This work aimed at providing relevant methodological keys to address sampling of microplastic in rivers. Two mesh size nets were tested (80 µm vs. 300 µm). The homogeneity of fibers distribution in rivers was also verified as the short term temporal and spatial variabilities were evaluated. In order to highlight the potential impact of the Paris agglomeration, a monthly monitoring on 5 sites upstream and downstream Paris was carried out as well.This thesis mainly highlighted the ubiquity of fibers in all compartments. Fibers were predominant in comparison to fragments in all compartments. Combined sewer overflows exhibited particularly high amounts of fragments. On the other hand, the flux of microplastics in the Seine River was proved be negligible in terms of mass in comparison to macroplastics. This study is also the first one showing that the atmospheric compartment needs to be considered as a potential significant source of microplastics

Le comportement joue un rôle crucial dans la survie des organismes en leur permettant de s'adapter à leur environnement particulièrement variable. De nos jours, les réponses comportementales des organismes aux changements environnementaux doivent faire face à des défis sans précédents en raison des changements rapides et néfastes provoqués par l'ère Anthropique. En particulier, la pollution plastique se distingue comme l'une des préoccupations les plus pressantes dans les habitats marins. Au-delà des dommages physiques évidents, les plastiques peuvent libérer un cocktail nocif de molécules chimiques, compromettant les organismes marins à de nombreux niveaux. Liant les individus au fonctionnement des écosystèmes et aux processus évolutifs, le comportement des organismes reste cependant peu étudié dans la littérature sur l'impact des lixiviats de plastique. Ce travail de thèse vise à combler les lacunes existantes dans la littérature en ce qui concerne les organismes et les polymères étudiés. Après une revue approfondie de la littérature, ce travail se concentre sur l'étude de l'impact des lixiviats de plastique, issus de bio-polymères et de polymères conventionnels sur les comportements liés à l'anxiété chez le crabe Hemigrapsus sanguineus, les comportements de déplacement du foraminifère Haynesina germanica et les comportements cirraux de la balane Austromonius modestus. Les résultats révèlent des modifications significatives de ces comportements, qui dépendent de l'espèce, du type de polymère et de la concentration des lixiviats, et compromettent l'équilibre délicat de l'écosystème. Notamment, le lixiviat de bio- polymère entraine des altérations comportementales similaires, voire plus prononcées, que ceux issus de polymères conventionnels, soulevant des inquiétudes significatives quant à la sécurité environnementale des alternatives aux plastiques
Behaviors play a pivotal role in organisms' survival, enabling organisms to cope with their ever-changing environment. Nowadays, adaptive behavioral responses to environmental changes face unprecedented challenges due to the rapid and detrimental effects of the Anthropocene era. Noticeably, plastic pollution stands out as one of the most pressing concerns in marine habitats. Beyond causing conspicuous physical damages, plastics may leach a cocktail of harmful chemicals impairing marine organisms at various levels. Despite its role in connecting individuals to ecosystem functioning and evolutionary processes, organism behavior remains scarcely studied in the plastic leachate literature. This PhD thesis aims at to address the gaps in existing literature concerning the organisms and polymers considered. After an extensive review of the plastic leachate literature, this work focuses on investigating the impact of plastic leachates from both bio and conventional polymers on the anxiety-related behaviors of the crab Hemigrapsus sanguineus, the motion behaviors of the foraminifera Haynesina germanica and the cirral activity of the barnacle Austrominius modestus. The results reveal significant modifications in behaviors, highlighting species, polymer and dose dependencies, posing a threat to the delicate ecosystem balance. Noticeably, the biopolymer leachate results in similar or even more behavioral alterations than leachates from conventional polymers, raising significant concerns about the environmental safety of plastic alternatives

A constatação do crescente acúmulo de lixo, proveniente de plásticos sintéticos que agridem o ecossistema, principalmente o solo, devido ao longo tempo de permanência no ambiente, levou à idéia de desenvolvimento de plásticos biodegradáveis para substituição parcial dos plásticos de origem petroquímica. No presente trabalho, conduzido em laboratório, analisouse a biodegradação da blenda poli (?-caprolactona) e amido de milho adipatado (PCL/A) e do polietileno. Após a etapa de biodegradação foi avaliado o impacto da adição daqueles materiais na microbiota do solo e testada a toxicidade do plástico no solo sobre a emergência e desenvolvimento de plântulas de arroz (Oryza sativa L.), cultivar 202 IAC. Foram usados dois solos: Nitossolo Vermelho eutroférrico com textura argilosa e Argissolo Vermelho Amarelo distrófico com textura arenosa. Os plásticos utilizados no experimento foram incorporados em três diferentes granulometrias: 0,007, 0,196 e 19,5 cm2. Para cada granulometria foram incorporadas ás amostras de solo seis doses de plástico equivalentes a 0, 50, 100, 150, 200 e 250 mg C 100g-1 de solo. O delineamento experimental, para cada solo, foi inteiramente casualizado, com três repetições, em fatorial: na fase de biodegradação: 6 x 2 x 3 (6 doses, 2 plásticos e 3 granulometrias), para as análises microbiológicas e para a fase de toxicidade do plástico no solo 5 x 2 x 1(5 doses, 2 plásticos e 1 granulometria). Cada dose de plástico foi incorporada em 200g de terra dentro de frasco respirométrico hermeticamente fechado a 28°C. A mineralização do plástico foi determinada pela captura de CO2 liberado durante um período de 120 dias. Confirmou-se mais uma vez que o polietileno é um material quase não biodegradável sendo que a dose e a granulometria não afetam sua mineralização. O PCL/A é um material biodegradável. No solo argiloso a maior porcentagem de mineralização foi de 72,47 % e para o arenoso de 60,46%, na granulometria 0,007 cm2 e dose 50 mg C 100g-1 de solo, em 120 dias foi observado que a textura do solo é fator que afeta a mineralização de compostos orgânicos, sendo esta maior em solo de textura argilosa. Nas maiores doses de PCL/A, independentemente do tipo de solo, a porcentagem de biodegradação diminuiu, provavelmente pelo aumento do conteúdo orgânico adicionado, que pode ter suplantado a capacidade de degradação dos microrganismos contidos nos solos. Não houve alterações no carbono e nitrogênio da biomassa microbiana do solo pela adição de polietileno e PCL/A. Em teste de toxicidade do plástico no solo avaliada através da emergência e desenvolvimento de plântulas de arroz (Oryza sativa L.) cultivar 202 IAC, o polietileno e o PCL/A mostraram-se inertes, não alterando a porcentagem de germinação, o índice de velocidade de germinação das sementes, a massa seca da parte aérea e a massa seca da raiz das plântulas.
Evidences of the increasing amount of waste coming from synthetic plastics that damage the ecosystem, mainly the soil, due to their long permanence in the environment, suggested the idea of developing biodegradable plastics in order to partially replace plastic of petrochemical origin. The current trial, accomplished at laboratorial conditions, was firstly developed to analyse the biodegradation of poly (?-caprolactone) and adipate modified corn starch blend (PCL/A) and of polyethylene. After wards e the impact of the addition of these materials on the soil microbiota was evaluated and the toxicity of plastic in the soil during the emergence and development of rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L.) 202 IAC cultivar was tested as well. Two types of soil were used: Red Dusky Podzol with clayey texture and Paleudult (Ultisol) soil with sandy texture. The plastics used in this experiment were added in three different granulometries: 0.007; 0.196 and 19.5 cm2. For each granulometry, six doses were added to the soil samples, 0; 50; 100; 150; 200 and 250 mg C 100g-1 of soil. For each soil, the experiment had a completely randomized factorial design, with three replications: for biodegradation, 6 x 2 x 3 (6 doses, 2 plastics and 3 granulometries); in the microbiological test and in the toxicity test in the soil 5 x 2 x 1(5 doses, 2 plastics and 1 granulometry). Each plastic dose was added to 200g of soil and placed in a hermetically closed respirometric jar at 28°C. The plastic mineralization was determined by CO2 evolution during a 120 day period. Once again it was confirmed that polyethylene is an almost non biodegradable material considering that the dosage and the granulometry do not affect the mineralization. The PCL/A is a biodegradable material. For the clayey soil the mineralization percentage was 72.47 % and for the sandy one, it was 60.46%, in 120 days, for granulometry 0.007 cm2 and dosage 50 mg C 100g-1 of soil. Soil texture affects the kynetics mineralization of the plastic probes, being higher for clayey soil. In the highest dosages of PCL/A, regardless the type of soil, the biodegradation percentage decreased, probably because of the increase in the organic content added, that may have surmounted the degradation capacity of soil microorganisms. There were no changes in the carbon and nitrogen of soil microbiological biomass by adding polyethylene and PCL/A. During the tests of plastic toxicity in the soil, evaluated by the emergence and development of rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L.) 202 IAC cultivar, the polyethylene and the PCL/A showed no effect, without changes on the germination percentage, speed of seed emergence index, shoot and root dry matter mass of seedlings.

Der Sprengstoff PETN ist äußerst schwer zu detektieren. Ein verbesserter anti-PETN-Antikörper wurde durch Anwendung des Bioisosterie-Konzepts entwickelt. Diese polyklonalen IgGs sind sehr selektiv und sensitiv. Die Nachweisgrenze des ELISAs beträgt 0,15 µg/L. Der Messbereich des Immunoassays liegt zwischen 1 und 1000 µg/L. Die Antikörper sind recht pH-stabil als auch robust gegen Lösungsmittelzusätze. Für die Umweltanalytik von TNT wurde eine HPLC-kompatible Affinitätssäule mit porösem Glas als Trägermaterial hergestellt. Um die anti-TNT-Antikörper selektiv aus den TNT-Seren zu isolieren, wurde eine Trennung an einer Dinitrophenyl-Affinitätssäule durchgeführt. Zur Optimierung der Kopplungsmethode wurden orangefarbene Dabsyl-Proteine synthetisiert und auf der Oberfläche gebunden. Die Färbung wurde als Indikator für die Ligandendichte verwendet. Wegen der hohen Affinitätskonstanten der anti-TNT-IgGs lässt sich TNT nicht reversibel von der TNT-Affinitätssäule eluieren. Daher wurde eine neuartige Elutionsmethode entwickelt, die thermische Online-Elution. Die maximale Kapazität einer TNT- Affinitätssäule betrug 650 ng TNT bzw. 10 µg/mL Säulenvolumen. Um die Ligandendichte der TNT-Affinitätssäulen zu bestimmen, wurde ein neues Verfahren entwickelt, da die spektroskopischen Proteinbestimmungsmethoden nicht geeignet waren. Zur Proteinbestimmung wurde eine HPLC-Trennung der Aminosäuren Tyr und Phe ohne vorherige Derivatisierung entwickelt. Die Proteinhydrolysezeit wurde durch Einsatz einer Mikrowelle von 22 h auf 30 min verkürzt. Zur internen Kalibrierung wurden HTyr und FPhe verwendet. Die Nachweisgrenze bei 215 nm ist sowohl für Tyr als auch für Phe 0,05 µM (~ 10 µg/L). Dieses neue Verfahren, das als Aromatische Aminosäureanalyse (AAAA) bezeichnet werden kann, wurde zur Proteinbestimmung von homogenen Proben mit NIST-BSA validiert, wobei die Nachweisgrenze für Proteine 16 mg/L (~ 300 ng BSA) ist. Die relative Standardabweichung incl. der Hydrolysestufe beträgt 5%.
The explosive Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) is extremely difficult to detect. An improved antibody against PETN was developed by using the bioisosteric concept. These polyclonal antibodies are highly selective and sensitive. The limit of detection (LOD) of the ELISA was determined to be 0.15 µg/L. The dynamic range of the assay was found to be between 1 and 1000 µg/L. The antibodies are sufficiently pH-stable and resistant to solvent additives. An HPLC-compatible TNT-affinity column with porous glass as support material was prepared for the environmental analysis. In order to isolate the anti-TNT antibodies of the TNT sera a separation was carried out on a dinitrophenyl-affinity column. To optimize the immobilization method, orange-coloured dabsyl proteins were synthesized and bound to the surface. The colour intensity was found to be an indicator for the immobilization rate. In consequence of the high affinity constants of the anti-TNT antibodies, TNT can''t elute by a typical acidic elution step. Therefore, a novel separation approach, the thermal online-elution was developed. The maximum capacity of an affinity column was 650 ng TNT or 10 µg/mL of column volume. To quantify the immobilization rate of proteins, a new method has been developed, because the usual protein determination methods were unsuitable. Therefore an HPLC separation method of Tyr and Phe was developed without prior derivatization. Two internal standard compounds, HTyr and FPhe, were used for calibration. The LOD was estimated to be 0.05 µM (~ 10 µg/L) for Tyr and Phe at 215 nm. The protein hydrolysis time was reduced from 22 h to 30 min using microwave technique. This procedure, that was termed aromatic amino acid analysis (AAAA), has been validated for protein determination of homogeneous samples with NIST-BSA. The LOD for proteins was calculated to be below 16 mg/L (~ 300 ng BSA absolute). The relative standard deviation, including the hydrolysis step, is 5%.

L'industrie sucriere, basee sur la betterave a sucre, donne une quantite importante de pulpe, un dechet dont il n'a pas encore ete trouve d'utilisation en tant que source de materiaux. Cette pulpe de betterave est compose essentiellement de polysaccharides et est particulierement riche en fonctions hydroxyles. Alors que l'oxypropylation de la cellulose, de la lignine et plus recemment du chitosane, aient ete etudiees, aucune investigation equivalente sur la pulpe de betterave n'a ete conduite avant ce travail. Le but de cette etude a ete de transformer un solide insoluble dans tous les solvants en un polyol liquide visqueux adapte a l'elaboration de polyurethanes apres melange avec des polyisocyanates. La premiere etape de ce travail consistait a examiner la faisabilite puis a optimiser la reaction d'oxypropylation de la pulpe de betterave a sucre. La reaction a ete menee en suspendant la pulpe dans de l'oxyde de propylene (op) en presence de differents catalyseurs basiques et en chauffant ce melange sous pression. En faisant varier differents parametres, on obtient des polyols possedants des viscosites et des indice d'oh differents. Il s'avere que ces liquides visqueux sont en fait des melanges homogenes de pulpe oxypropylee et d'homopolymeres de op. Ces polyols ont ete utilises seuls ou en combinaison avec des extenseurs de chaines (diols d'origines diverses) pour l'elaboration de polyurethanes a la fois sous forme de materiaux pleins (en utilisant le procede rim) et de mousses. Les cinetiques de ces polymerisations ainsi que la caracterisation des materiaux obtenus ont ete correlees avec la composition du melange reactionnel. Les proprietes de ces nouveaux polyurethanes suggerent que la pulpe de betterave a sucre peut constituer un dechet agroindustriel viable, base sur l'exploitation agricole d'une ressource renouvelable, pour l'elaboration de materiaux polymeres originaux.

碩士
崑山科技大學
視覺傳達設計研究所
106
Invention of plastics adds comfort to our everyday lives. Plastics are successfully used in all kinds of products that make variety of interventions be created and presented and also are one of excellent materials to create modern crafts, such as architecture materials, daily life’s electronic products, and daily utility. Mass production of plastic objects changes relationship of people and objects. Plastic objects make life more convenient, but at the same time increase people’s desires and demands to objects. Even if in recent years plastics has gradually brought about environmental concerns, consumer behavior in general capitalism abandons limited use of natural resources and “disposable lifestyle” concept has rooted deeply into people’s daily lives. Disposal and replacement becomes a reasonable market mechanism. Plastics add convenience, but also become an irresistible and disregarded “necessity” and cause imbalance to human civilization and natural environment. This research uses “Plastic Pollution” as core topic, individual illustration performance as foundation, and poster creation as media. At first, focus on “Ocean and Plastics” topic, understand plastic pollution impacts to ocean environment, then discuss potential problems about “Food Chain and Plastics” topic, and finally discuss initiator of plastics, coexistence relationship of “People and Plastics”. These three-series creations provide introspects and express how people in the modern world should be more conscious about using plastic objects in our daily lives.

Plastic pollution has become of public concern recently and only in the last decades the need of quantifying loads of plastic in the marine environment and identifying their ultimate destination has been urged as a mean to point at where interventions should concentrate. The Arabian seas (Red Sea and Arabian Gulf) have oceanographic features that candidate them as accumulation zones for marine plastics, but, especially the Red Sea, are largely unexplored. The dissertation here presented provides significant advances in the understanding of the marine plastic distribution in the two basins. Despite the initial hypothesis, the Red Sea was found to hold a remarkably low abundance of plastic particles in its surface waters. Similarly, previous assessments have reported the same in the Arabian Gulf. In line with the global estimates, only a small portion of the plastic that is discarded yearly in the marine environment is found in its surface waters, implying the presence of removal processes. However, the unexpectedly low loads of floating plastics in the Arabian seas indicate that sinks are likely more significant here than elsewhere. In the Red Sea, an extensive survey of macroplastic stranded on shores, globally considered a major sink of marine plastic, has indicated that Avicennia marina mangrove forests, through the mesh created by their pneumatophores, contribute significantly more than unvegetated shores in retaining plastics. Loads of plastic in the Arabian Gulf mangrove stands, more impacted by coastal development than stands in the Red Sea, are even larger. The role of mangroves as significant sinks of plastics is further corroborated by the finding that the burial rates of plastic in their sediments follow an exponential increase in line with the global plastic production increase, ultimately demonstrating that plastic is likely sequestered there permanently. Mangrove forests alone are, however, not enough to justify the mismatch between plastic inputs and loads in surface waters. The experimental finding showed here that coral structures can passively trap substantial loads of microplastics and the large extension of reefs, especially in the Red Sea, suggest that reefs might constitute a missing sink of marine plastic in the basin worth exploring.

Plastic pollution is a burgeoning global issue that has detrimental impacts on the health, wildlife, economies and livelihoods of our terrestrial, coastal, and marine communities and ecosystems. Given the exponential rise in plastic pollution entering the environment, and the growing awareness of this issue, governments are increasingly turning their efforts to the development and implementation of policies and strategies to effectively manage and reduce this pollution and its associated harm. Although international organisations and national and state governments enact change and legislation that address mitigation and reduction of plastic pollution, it is primarily the responsibility of municipal governments to implement strategies on-ground that fulfil the legislative directives and policies. While each municipal government implements numerous strategies, the effectiveness of these measures often goes untested. Consequently, municipal governments and waste managers do not know what strategies are working, what strategies they should be focussing their efforts on and where improvements can be made to achieve better management of waste. The overall objective of the research was to investigate how crucial on-ground municipal waste management teams are responding to the exponential rise in plastic pollution and what styles of management strategies are best at reducing it. This research conducted the first continent-wide evaluation of municipal government strategies to evaluate the relationship between such strategies and coastal litter. Focussing on Australian municipalities, the research undertaken explored what strategies have been used to reduce plastic pollution, whether these strategies have changed over a 6-year period, what has driven municipalities to change their strategies, and the effect changes in strategies have had on plastic pollution in the Australian coastal environment. This thesis begins with a general introduction of the context, state of knowledge, and scale of the issue in Chapter 1. As most of the plastic pollution in the coastal environment is sourced from urban centres, Chapter 2 investigates the historical accumulation trend of plastic pollution from one of Australia’s oldest urban centres, Hobart, Tasmania. The research employed a novel method of enumerating microplastics in isotopic-aged sediment cores from an urbanised estuary and showed that plastic has accumulated in the sediment at a similar rate to global plastic production. Chapter 3 evaluates the types of municipal strategies that were most effective at reducing plastic pollution from entering the environment in 2013. Specifically, this chapter explores the success of using infrastructure, policies, and outreach programs in reducing plastic pollution along the Australian coastline. The chapter demonstrates that a combination of community engagement through outreach programs and adequate waste infrastructure was the most successful catalyst for reducing plastic pollution across Australia’s coastal regions at a national scale. Chapters 4 and 5 build upon this finding by assessing how plastic pollution and waste management have changed across Australia between 2013 and 2019. This component of the thesis involved conducting follow up interviews with municipal waste managers and resurveying the density and distribution of plastic pollution along the Australian coastline at a national scale. Chapter 4 introduces a theoretical framework that combines the Theory of Planned Behaviour, Situational Crime Prevention and Economic Rationality, and explores whether municipal waste managers have changed their plastic pollution management efforts and what factors have driven those changes. Chapter 5 investigates whether these strategic changes have led to a reduction in plastic pollution observed along the Australian coastline. Next, Chapter 6 presents a case study that focused on how to best implement actions to yield a reduction in a specific type of plastic pollution, one that is abundant and widespread, beverage containers. Here, the research investigates the success of installing water refill stations to reduce plastic bottle litter along an urbanised river, showing that the correct placement and implementation of litter reduction strategies are critical to their success. Chapter 7 provides an overall synthesis and discussion of the results and implications from each chapter. Together, this thesis investigates and highlights the diverse ways in which municipal governments are successfully reducing plastic pollution. Australian municipal governments have changed their waste management strategies over the last 6 years with most increasing their efforts towards strategies that simplify waste disposal for the community and using financial incentives/disincentives to reduce the consumption and littering of plastic products. The theoretical framework proved valuable in framing and analysing the styles and drivers of plastic pollution management strategies employed by municipalities around Australia and how these strategies have changed over a 6-year period. The findings underline the importance of municipalities adapting their strategies and efforts to the social and environmental nuances of their jurisdiction and highlight the important role local management plays in successfully reducing the global issue of plastic pollution. Knowledge of what strategies work best in which environmental and social contexts will enable managers around the world to focus their efforts and resources towards strategies that can successfully reduce plastic pollution and the harm it has on the environment, wildlife, people and economies.

Plastic is an integral part of our life, being present in most of the products that we use daily. Due to the production and consumption patterns of society, plastics are accumulating in the environment, which causes pollution issues, and intergenerational impacts on the life and health of organisms. We hypothesize that different actinobacteria strains are capable of degrading different types of (micro)plastics by using them as a carbon source, and then transformed them into bioplastics. In this way, this study aimed to find and develop solutions and sustainable methods to mitigate this environmental problem, focusing on the study of the ability of marine actinobacteria to accelerate plastics biodegradation. In this work, the screening of thirty-six marine-derived actinobacteria strains was performed to evaluate their polyvinylidene fluoride, polystyrene, and polylactic acid biodegradability potential. The selected actinobacteria (Streptomyces gougerotti, Micromonospora matsumotoense, M. terminaliae, and Nocardiopsis prasina) were used in the plastic biodegradation assays using plastic films and testing different conditions. Half of the plastic films used in the assays were pre-treated with UV irradiation and yeast extract was added to culture media to perceive its influence in biodegradation. In both cases, enhanced degradation by the microorganisms was observed. Biodegradation of films was monitored by weight loss, which was detected in all the inoculated films, except for LDPE UV films inoculated with M. terminaliae. The maximum weight loss percentage was 1.27% for PLA inoculated with N. prasina. Nocardiopsis was identified as a new genus with the ability to degrade PLA. Biodegradation was also accessed based on changes in surface chemical structure (by infra-red spectroscopy) and mechanical properties (tensile strength). The absorptions bands of carbonyl groups are the most related to biodegradation. The maximum decrease in Young modulus was 59% for polystyrene films inoculated with S. gougerotti. We conclude that S. gougerotti, M. matsumotoense, and N. prasina had the potential to use conventional plastics as a carbon source. Furthermore, S. gougerotti and M. matsumotoense were able to biodegrade conventional plastics and possibly transform them into bioplastics, through the pro-duction of PHA inclusions.

Anthropogenic marine debris, mainly of plastic origin, is accumulating in estuarine and coastal environments around the world, causing damage to multiple species of fauna and flora, as well as habitats. Plastics have the potential to accumulate in food webs, and cause economic losses to tourism and sea-going industries, like commercial fishing. The production and use of plastic products is growing, from 230 million tonnes produced globally in 2005 to 320 million tonnes in 2015, a 40% increase in production over 10 years. If we are to manage the increasing input and threat, we must understand where plastic pollution is accumulating in the environment and what the impacts to organisms in these areas are. The goal of this thesis was to explore the dispersal and risks of plastic pollution in the coastal environment, at a scale that is useful to local management authorities. I used four research aims to achieve this goal. The aim of the first data chapter (Chapter 2) was to prioritise research that would improve modelling outputs in the future. In the second data chapter (Chapter 3), the aim was to locate the areas of highest exposure to plastic pollution for three vulnerable habitats. In the third data chapter (Chapter 4), I aimed to explore the dominant sources and processes of plastic accumulation. Lastly, in the final data chapter (Chapter 5), I aimed to understand the sublethal consequence of plastic exposure on a tropic reef fish. The first data chapter of my thesis presents an advection-diffusion model that includes beaching, settling, resuspension/re-floating, degradation and topographic effects on the wind in nearshore waters to quantify the relative importance of these physical processes in governing plastic debris accumulation. I found that the source location has by far the largest effect on the accumulation location of the debris. The diffusivity, used to parameterise the sub-grid scale movements, and the relationship between debris resuspension/re-floating from beaches and the presence of a wind shadow created by high islands also has a dramatic impact on the modelled accumulation areas. The rate of degradation of macroplastics into microplastics also had a large influence in the prediction of debris dispersal and accumulation. These findings may help prioritise research on the physical processes that affect plastic accumulation, leading to more accurate modelling, and subsequently an improved empirical basis for management in the future. In the second data chapter, I used the model described in Chapter 2 to predict the potential exposure of vulnerable habitats and species to plastic pollution using a spatial risk assessment approach. The effect of plastics on the marine environment is well documented, however the physical location of these interactions are largely unknown. I assessed the potential exposure of mangroves, coral reefs and marine turtles to plastics during the two main wind conditions of the region; the trade winds and monsoon wind seasons. By creating relative exposure categories based on the density of particles in modelling outputs of nil, low, medium and high exposure. I found that in the trade wind season (April to September, dominated by strong south-easterly winds) marine turtles, mangroves and reef habitats had lower exposure than during the monsoon wind season (October to March, dominated by lighter and more variable winds). A small proportion of coral reef habitat was in the high exposure categories, whereas the turtle home-range had a large area in high exposure categories (16% and 26% exposed to high microplastics during monsoon season, respectively). Unlike the other two case studies, the mangrove habitat had consistent hotspots of high exposure across both wind seasons. The outputs of this chapter can inform local scale management action, for example turtle management and recovery plans. The method presented here can also be transferred to other species and habitats and scaled up for larger jurisdictions. In the third data chapter, I built on Chapter 2 (a sensitivity analysis of physical/modelled processes) by using field data for macro- and microplastics to interrogate the model. The aim was to find the likely sources of plastics to the Whitsunday region and understand the limitations for the model in a complex coastline and at a management-relevant scale. I found that, for microplastics, offshore sources are likely to be more important than onshore, and for macroplastics, local (onshore) sources are more important than they are for microplastics. Of the physical characteristics I examined, I found none that make a site more or less predictable in the modelling. Field data on sources at local scales is necessary, although, this is recognised as a difficult task. In the last data chapter, I assessed the consequence of plastic exposure by quantifying the effect of microplastic exposure on juveniles of a widespread and abundant planktivorous fish (Acanthochromis polyacanthus). Under five different plastic concentrations, with plastics the same size as the natural food particles (mean 2 mm diameter), consumption of microplastic was low and there was no significant effect of plastic exposure on fish growth, body condition or behaviour. However, the number of plastics found in the gut of the fish vastly increased when plastic particle size was reduced to approximately one quarter the size of the normal food particles, with a maximum of 2102 small (< 300 μm diameter) particles present in the gut of individual fish after a 1-week plastic exposure period. Under conditions where food was replaced by plastic, there was a negative effect on the growth and body condition of the fish. These results suggest plastics could become more of a problem as they breakup into smaller size classes, and that environmental changes that lead to a decrease in plankton concentrations likely have a greater influence on fish populations than microplastic presence alone. The risks of plastic pollution to environmental features remain largely unquantified. However, my thesis demonstrates significant gains in understanding of mechanisms that can be used to determine where plastics are likely to accumulate, and identifies priorities for future research to improve the statistical power of the models. For example, by understanding the resuspension of plastic in areas without wind driven waves. This thesis also highlights the need to understand different types of plastics separately, microplastics have different consequences to macroplastics, different areas of accumulation and different sources, therefore the risks and appropriate management actions are very different.

Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is defined as any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment. Mostly consisting of plastic, marine debris is polluting global oceans at an increasing rate. Plastic items of all shapes and sizes can have detrimental impacts on marine fauna, and increases the stress on marine organisms. Beach clean-ups are one way to reduce plastic pollution but such actions only remove a small fraction of the debris currently present in the ocean, and they will need to occur frequently and indefinitely with existing levels and the current rates of use and production of plastics in society. Instead, identifying preventative techniques for reducing the inputs of debris in the environment or stopping it before it reaches ocean is the key to successfully reducing marine debris pollution in the long-term. Doing this will require multidisciplinary research, including understanding human behaviours, monitoring plastic loads from specific sources, and implementing a wide range of infrastructure and policy to create change. My overall thesis aim is to provide meaningful insights into plastic pollution management using inter-disciplinary research on marine debris abundance, education and source reduction in Queensland, Australia. To do this, my thesis is split into four research themes. Theme 1 is to understand the distribution patterns of marine debris on Queensland reefs to narrow down potential sources (Chapter 2). Theme 2 is to identify exactly how plastic is entering the aquatic environment (Chapter 3 and 4). Theme 3 is to identify ways to monitor macroplastics (>5mm in size) and microplastics (plastics <5mm in size) to identify impacts, create baselines, and monitor change (Chapter 3, 4 and 5). Lastly, theme 4 is to understand community awareness and concern about marine debris to reduce land based sources, such as that from littering (Chapter 6). In my first data chapter, I use citizen science data to determine the distribution of subtidal marine debris on reefs in Queensland coastal waters. Using this dataset, I identified the average debris loads collected during reef-health impact surveys completed since 2001. Results showed that debris is present in the highest abundances on the reefs near urban communities, particularly in South East Queensland. Debris loads near the Gold Coast were the highest with a maximum of 27 items per surveys (400m²). There was a wide range of items recorded on surveys, however fishing and boating related debris were among the highest observed. This suggests that debris effecting subtidal reefs are more likely to be sourced by fishing and boating, and therefore, targeted messaging and source-reduction plans, specifically for recreational fishers and boaters are needed to reduce debris on the reef itself. In my second data chapter, I monitored debris loads adjacent to and outside stormwater effluents after rainfall events to determine how much plastic was originating from urban sources, using Ross River in Townsville, Queensland as a case study. No seasonal differences in debris abundance were observed, however, I found that even during below-average rainfall years, there was a relatively high and constant flow of debris items entering the river system year-long. In addition, I found that the likely origin of debris items was site dependent. For example, in one of the monitored sites the proportion of the most common plastic debris items in the river matched those found in the nearby park. Whereas, in the other site, the proportion of debris items varied from the types of items found in nearby parks, suggesting that debris may be traveling longer distances via storm drains to enter the river system. These results suggest that the placement of infrastructure, such as drain socks and river booms may be more helpful in some sites, but not others. As a result, this data chapter provides insight into the pathways in how debris can enter aquatic systems, which ultimately flush into the ocean. Most importantly, my chapter suggest relatively small cities, such as Townsville, can contribute to plastic loads in the ocean. In my third data chapter, I monitored microplastic loads (plastics <5mm) within Ross River, to identify potential sources in local aquatic systems. Sediment and water samples were collected throughout the freshwater section of the river, within the estuary, and within Cleveland Bay both before and after the wet season. Similar to my 2nd data chapter, I did not find any seasonal difference in plastic loads within any section of the river. However, the abundance of plastics within the freshwater sediments was high, with highest concentrations matching levels found in rivers and lakes in Europe. As a result, this data chapter suggests that even in low rainfall years, the Ross River retains a high abundance of plastics in the sediments. Since the rainfall that occurred did not show measurable differences of microplastic abundances within the bay after the wet season, I hypothesise that after heavy rainfall (in excess of the 687 mm that occurred during the sampling period) a proportion of these plastics will be flushed to into sea. In addition, this chapter identifies that the majority of the plastic particles were fragments from degraded larger plastic items, indicating that the reduction of macro debris in the river long term would likely reduce the amount of microplastics in the system. In my fourth data chapter, I identify ways to monitor microplastic pollution on reef systems by using bioindicators. Currently, there is little information on the degree to which microplastics interact with benthic organisms. Therefore, in this Chapter, I assess new ways to monitor plastic loads by performing experiments using two filter feeders, a sponge, Carteriospongia foliascens and a soft coral species, Lobophytum sp. In this experiment, I fed two different concentrations of fluorescent microspheres to both species for three days, and determined how much plastic was ingested, how long it was retained, and whether or not the organisms can detect differences in concentration loads. In addition, I observed how plastics interact with the organism, finding that much of the microspheres adhere to the surface of the organism, which is then removed via mucus production. I found that ingestion rates for both species were low, with neither able to detect differences in concentration loads. Sponge species, C. foliascens ingestion rates were higher (>1% of the total exposed particles), and able to retain the microspheres up to 7 days. Alternatively, the coral species, Lobophytum sp. was low (less than 1% of the total exposed particles), but retained the small amount of ingested particles for the full 14 day experiment. Interestingly, differences in plastic concentrations found on the surface of the organism shed by mucus was detected. Therefore, to monitor microplastic loads on reef systems, it is possible to collect mucus off of benthic species to monitor plastic loads. This has broad implications on potential non-invasive monitoring techniques. Lastly, my fifth data chapter uses social surveys to understand the community knowledge and perception of marine debris and its sources, again using Townsville, Queensland as a case study. Previous research has shown that the increased awareness, knowledge, concern, and feelings of responsibility for environmental issues have been found to directly link to the likelihood for people to show pro-environmental behaviour such as responsible plastic use and disposal. Therefore, these themes were used to provide information on the current understanding of marine debris and its sources from Townsville residents. Questionnaires distributed online and in-person identified that approximately 70% of Townsville residents had a relatively high awareness of marine debris, and its sources. In addition, a large portion of participants were able to correctly identify that litter occurring inland, such as that from storm drains and within the river system can contribute to marine debris. My results also showed that over 70% of residents believed that individuals had the most responsibility regarding reducing the inputs of marine debris into the environment, and I found a strong connection between people and the Great Barrier Reef. Therefore, in this chapter, I suggest that future messaging to focus on the individual responsibility, pride, and identity to reduce litter in the urban environment, and ultimately, reduce debris from arriving to the ocean. Overall, in this thesis, I use interdisciplinary research to make a novel contribution to science which can be directly useful to local managing agencies in Australia. For the first time, I collected data of plastic abundances on the Great Barrier Reef, and a local river system, creating baselines for future research, and provided new insights on the possible pathways in which plastic enters the aquatic environment. I identified ways to improve local management, by providing advice on the placement of infrastructure, and identifying the current views and perspectives of marine debris and littering in Townsville.

Plastics have been accumulating in marine environment was a result of human behaviour. Plastic debris are the most common type of marine litter found, creating a seriously environmental threat. In this context, the first aim of this work was to study the current knowledge about plastic pollution as well as to analyse what has been done to mitigate the problem. The literature review (Chapter II) revealed an increase interest in the study of the effects of micro(nano)plastic pollution at a biological level from organisms in base of the food chain to human. The literature review highlighted an increasing trend in society involvement in the mitigation of plastic pollution and its impacts but also the need to further investigate the social perceptions about the problem, considering the current scarcity of scientific studies that allow a more comprehensive understanding of this complex process. In this context, selfreport questionnaires were developed to study the perception of society about this environmental problem evaluating their knowledge, impacts perception, pro-environmental behaviours and factors which can predict these behaviours (Chapter III). The study involved 428 participants, living in Portugal, that answered the questionnaires voluntarily, anonymously and online. In general, the results revealed a recognition of plastic pollution as a threat to the environment, the knowledge of the public about plastic behaviour and its biota impacts. The participants expressed a higher frequency in individual environmental behaviours than group behaviours. The data of the study revealed that the lack of resources and information was the most explaining factor for not adopting environmentally friendly behaviours. However, participants recognized that they would adopt if financial incentives were given. Age, gender, general and specific knowledge of plastic pollution revealed to be important factors to adopt pro-environmental behaviours. The factors underlying perceptions on the building of environmental awareness, the sociodemographic characteristics which can be influence perception, and the potential target public to educational intervention were also evaluated (Chapter IV). The results showed that the older and less educated participants were less aware of the problem, revealing higher confidence in mass media message whereas younger and more educated participants privileged expert scientific knowledge. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd cycles were identified as important target public to be included in environmental education at school curricula. In general, this work allowed us to conclude that the public perception and socio-demographic characteristics influence pro-environmental behaviours. In the future, environmental education in school context but also involving general society should be adopted, with higher focus toward male public.
Os plásticos têm se acumulado no ambiente marinho devido ao comportamento humano. Assim, é o tipo de lixo marinho mais comummente encontrado criando uma séria ameaça ambiental global. Neste contexto, o primeiro objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar o conhecimento atual sobre a poluição por plásticos marinha bem como analisar o que se tem vindo a desenvolver para mitigar o problema. A revisão da literatura (Capítulo II) revelou um crescente interesse em estudar os efeitos da poluição por micro(nano)plásticos ao nível biológico desde a base da cadeia alimentar até ao homem. Embora a revisão da literatura tenha evidenciado uma tendência crescente da sociedade em se envolver na mitigação da poluição por plásticos e seus impactos, evidenciou, igualmente, a necessidade de aprofundar a investigação sobre as perceções sociais sobre o problema, considerando a ainda atual escassez de estudos científicos que permitam uma compreensão mais abrangente deste processo complexo. Neste contexto, foram desenvolvidos questionários de auto-relato de forma a estudar a perceção que a sociedade tem sobre este problema ambiental avaliando o seu conhecimento, perceção de impactos, comportamentos pro-ambientais e fatores que predizem estes comportamentos (Capítulo III). O estudo contou com 428 participantes, residentes em Portugal, que responderam de forma voluntária, anónima e via online aos questionários. No geral, os resultados revelaram um reconhecimento da poluição por plástico como uma ameaça ao ambiente, o conhecimento do público acerca do comportamento do plástico no ambiente e seus impactos na biota. Os participantes revelaram uma maior frequência de comportamentos ambientais individuais do que em grupo. Os dados do estudo revelaram que não adotam determinados comportamentos mais amigos do ambiente por falta de recursos e de informação, mas reconhecem que os adotariam havendo contrapartidas ou incentivos financeiros. A idade, o género, o conhecimento geral e específico da poluição por plástico revelaram ser fatores importantes para a adoção de comportamentos pro-ambientais. Os fatores que influenciam a perceção na construção da consciência ambiental, as características sociodemográficas que podem influenciar essa perceção e os potenciais públicos alvo para intervenção educacional foram igualmente avaliados (Capítulo IV). Os resultados demonstraram que os mais velhos e menos escolarizados têm menor consciência do problema, apresentando maior confiança na informação apresentadas pelos meios de comunicação social, enquanto que os mais escolarizados e mais jovens privilegiam mais o conhecimento científico. O 1º, 2º e o 3º ciclo foram identificados como público alvo prioritário para investimento na inclusão da educação ambiental nos currículos escolares. Em suma, este trabalho permite-nos concluir que a perceção do público e as características sociodemográficas influenciam os comportamentos proambientais. No futuro, deve-se investir na educação ambiental no âmbito escolar e também na sociedade com maior foco no género masculino.
Mestrado em Ecologia Aplicada

Since its invention, in the 1950s, plastic can be found in almost every object or structure. It has created numerous opportunities in many fields, boosting markedly mankind’s development and even its life span. However, combined with modern consumption patterns, in a world that is more and more urban and technological, plastic amounts have reached proportions never seen before. Consequently, plastic waste quantities are also exceeding all the limits reached so far and it is ending in our oceans for two main reasons: reckless behaviour of consumers and improper waste management. National waste management systems worldwide are facing severe challenges, especially at the moments of collection and disposal. That happens particularly in Asia and the causes are lack of money and structures, and governments and citizens lack of interest. Marine plastic pollution has been affecting all humanity for several decades but only recently it has been recognised. Each year, at least eight million tonnes of plastics leak into the oceans. Its sources are numerous and can be land-based (80%) – dumps, littering, sewage, industrial activities – or sea-based (20%) – commercial fisheries and offshore oil and gas platforms. Ironically, the characteristics that make plastic so useful – lightness, durability, low cost and malleability – are the same that transform plastic in a long-term problem for the environment. Once in nature, plastics never disappear, they just disintegrate into smaller and smaller particles, while they quickly spread across all the geographic divisions and layers of the ocean. Plastics from all sizes can entangle marine animals and/or can be ingested by them, causing injuries, gut obstructions and death. Plastic waste is even responsible for heavy economic losses. Furthermore, microplastics are entering the human food chain and the consequences are unknown. Several existing legal instruments, of regional and international scope, are capable of addressing different aspects of marine litter. Some national initiatives are of utility as well. Nevertheless, few countries or regions have an overarching legal framework to tackle the problem. It is clear though that it is impossible to maintain the actual production and consumption patterns, and that is imperative to implement effective plastic waste management.