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Journal articles on the topic 'Police bias'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 14 February 2022

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1

Smith, Michael R., and Geoffrey P. Alpert. "Explaining Police Bias." Criminal Justice and Behavior 34, no. 10 (October 2007): 1262–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854807304484.

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Although recent empirical research has shown that Blacks and Hispanics are consistently overrepresented among police stops, searches, and arrests, few criminologists have attempted to provide a theoretical explanation for the disparities reported in the research literature. This article proposes a theory of individual police behavior that is grounded in social— psychological research on stereotype formation and that assumes a nonmotivational but biased response to minority citizens by the police. Accordingly, stereotype formation and its consequences are largely unintentional and are driven by social conditioning and the illusory correlation phenomenon, which results in the overestimation of negative behaviors associated with minority group members. After specifying the theory, the article presents a research agenda for empirically testing and verifying its propositions.

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2

Briones-Robinson, Rhissa, Ràchael A. Powers, and Kelly M. Socia. "Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes." Criminal Justice and Behavior 43, no. 12 (July 28, 2016): 1688–709. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854816660583.

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LGBT hate crimes are typically more violent and involve greater victim injury as compared to other victimizations, but they are substantially underreported. Victim reluctance to contact law enforcement may arise from perceptions of police bias. This study explores victim–police interactions, specifically reporting to the police, perceived police bias among victims who did not report, and differential police behavior among victims who reported. Using multiple years of National Crime Victimization Survey data, sexual orientation bias victimizations are compared with other forms of victimization. Logit regression models are examined before and after the Matthew Shepard Act. The pattern of results indicate that in the years following progressive policy reforms, LGBT bias victims continue to perceive the police as biased. Results do not significantly differ between sexual orientation bias victims and victims of other types of crime regarding police reporting and differential police response. Implications for policing efforts with the LGBT community are discussed.

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3

Steblay, Nancy K., and Gary L. Wells. "Assessment of bias in police lineups." Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 26, no. 4 (November 2020): 393–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/law0000287.

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4

Sim, Jessica J., Joshua Correll, and Melody S. Sadler. "Understanding Police and Expert Performance." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39, no. 3 (February 11, 2013): 291–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167212473157.

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In three studies, we examined how training may attenuate (or exacerbate) racial bias in the decision to shoot. In Experiment 1, when novices read a newspaper article about Black criminals, they showed pronounced racial bias in a first-person-shooter task (FPST); when they read about White criminals, bias was eliminated. Experts (who practiced the FPST) and police officers were unaffected by the same stereotype-accessibility manipulation. However, when training itself (base rates of armed vs. unarmed targets in the FPST, Experiment 2a; or special unit officers who routinely deal with minority gang members, Experiment 2b) reinforced the association between Blacks and danger, training did not attenuate bias. When race is unrelated to the presence/absence of a weapon, training may eliminate bias as participants learn to focus on diagnostic object information (gun vs. no gun). But when training actually promotes the utility of racial cues, it may sustain the heuristic use of stereotypes.

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Goncalves, Felipe, and Steven Mello. "A Few Bad Apples? Racial Bias in Policing." American Economic Review 111, no. 5 (May 1, 2021): 1406–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181607.

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We estimate the degree to which individual police officers practice racial discrimination. Using a bunching estimation design and data from the Florida Highway Patrol, we show that minorities are less likely to receive a discount on their speeding tickets than White drivers. Disaggregating this difference to the individual police officer, we estimate that 42 percent of officers practice discrimination. We then apply our officer- level discrimination measures to various policy-relevant questions in the literature. In particular, reassigning officers across locations based on their lenience can effectively reduce the aggregate disparity in treatment (JEL H76, J15, K42)

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6

Renauer, Brian C., and Emma Covelli. "Examining the relationship between police experiences and perceptions of police bias." Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 34, no. 3 (August 23, 2011): 497–514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13639511111157537.

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7

Kahn, Kimberly Barsamian, and Karin D. Martin. "The Social Psychology of Racially Biased Policing: Evidence-Based Policy Responses." Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7, no. 2 (October 2020): 107–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2372732220943639.

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Police killings of unarmed African Americans, such as George Floyd in 2020, continue to cause nationwide protests and calls for change. Psychological science knows much about biased policing and can inform policy to promote equitable policing. Social psychology’s extensive findings on stereotyping, attitudes, and intergroup relations help clarify the role of officer racial bias. This article reviews implicit and explicit bias, race-crime stereotypes, intragroup bias, ingroup favoritism, stereotype threat, and dehumanization in policing interactions, all of which can lead to racially disparate use of force. Based on this science, some policy responses can mitigate bias: Officer level de-biasing training, body-worn cameras, automatic license plate readers, and federal policing reform legislation are discussed. The lack of a coordinated, national effort to collect and analyze police use of force data undermines tracking fatal incidents and bias therein, which are therefore harder to remediate.

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8

Cuadrado, Mary. "Female police officers: gender bias and professionalism." American Journal of Police 14, no. 2 (August 1995): 149–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07358549510102802.

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9

Sivasubramaniam, Diane, and Jane Goodman-Delahunty. "Ethnicity and Trust: Perceptions of Police Bias." International Journal of Police Science & Management 10, no. 4 (December 2008): 388–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2008.10.4.094.

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10

Fergusson, D. M., L. J. Horwood, and M. T. Lynskey. "Ethnicity and Bias in Police Contact Statistics." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 26, no. 3 (December 1993): 193–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000486589302600302.

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The relationships between ethnicity, self/parentally reported offending and rates of police contact were examined in a birth cohort of Christchurch (New Zealand) born children studied to the age of 15 years. This analysis suggested that whilst children of Maori/Pacific Island descent offended at a significantly higher rate than European (Pakeha) children, there were clear differences in the magnitude of ethnic differentials in offending depending on the way in which offending was measured. On the basis of self/parentally reported offending, children of Maori/Pacific Island descent offended at about 1.7 times the rate of Pakeha children. However, on the basis of police contact statistics these children were 2.9 times more likely to come to police attention than Pakeha children. These differences between self/parentally reported offending rates and rates of police contact could not be explained by the fact that Maori/Pacific Island children offended more often or committed different types of offences than Pakeha children. Logistic modelling of the data suggested that children of Maori/Pacific Island descent were in the region of 2.4 times more likely to come to official police attention than Pakeha children with an identical self/parental reported history of offending. These results are generally consistent with the hypothesis that official police contact statistics contain a bias which exaggerates the differences in the rate of offending by children of Maori/Pacific Island descent and Pakeha children.

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Ioimo, Ralph, Rachel S. Tears, Leslie A. Meadows, J. Bret Becton, and Michael T. Charles. "The Police View of Bias-Based Policing." Police Quarterly 10, no. 3 (September 2007): 270–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098611106296479.

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12

Mason, Gail, and Leslie Moran. "Bias Crime Policing: 'The Graveyard Shift'." International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 8, no. 1 (March 22, 2019): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v8i1.1137.

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Bias crime is crime that is motivated by prejudice or bias towards an attribute of the victim, such as race, religion or sexuality. Police have been criticised for failing to take bias crime seriously, and there is a pressing need to understand the reasons for this failure. This article aims to address this gap by presenting the results of the first empirical study of bias crime policing in the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW). Drawing on interviews with the NSW Police Force (NSWPF), the study found that sustainable reform in this domain has proven elusive. This can be attributed to a number of key challenges including reporting, recording, identification, framing, community engagement and leadership. The lessons that emerge from the findings have important ramifications for all police organisations.

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Mason, Gail, and Leslie Moran. "Bias Crime Policing: 'The Graveyard Shift'." International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 8, no. 2 (March 22, 2019): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v8i2.1137.

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Bias crime is crime that is motivated by prejudice or bias towards an attribute of the victim, such as race, religion or sexuality. Police have been criticised for failing to take bias crime seriously, and there is a pressing need to understand the reasons for this failure. This article aims to address this gap by presenting the results of the first empirical study of bias crime policing in the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW). Drawing on interviews with the NSW Police Force (NSWPF), the study found that sustainable reform in this domain has proven elusive. This can be attributed to a number of key challenges including reporting, recording, identification, framing, community engagement and leadership. The lessons that emerge from the findings have important ramifications for all police organisations.

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14

MacDonald, John M., and Jeffrey Fagan. "Using Shifts in Deployment and Operations to Test for Racial Bias in Police Stops." AEA Papers and Proceedings 109 (May 1, 2019): 148–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20191027.

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We rely on a policy experiment in the New York City Police Department (NYPD) to address the well-known problems of omitted variable bias and infra-marginality in traditional outcomes tests of racial bias in police stops. The NYPD designated specific areas as impact zones and deployed extra officers to these areas and encouraged them to conduct more intensive stop, question, and frisk activity. We find that the NYPD are more likely to frisk black and Hispanic suspects after an area becomes an impact zone compared to other areas of the city.

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15

Lim, Hyeyoung. "Police Bias, Use of Deadly Force, Public Outcry." Criminology & Public Policy 16, no. 1 (February 2017): 305–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12293.

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16

Oliveira, Alessandro, and Kristina Murphy. "Race, Social Identity, and Perceptions of Police Bias." Race and Justice 5, no. 3 (December 10, 2014): 259–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2153368714562801.

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17

Mason, Gail. "A Picture of Bias Crime in New South Wales." Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 11, no. 1 (March 27, 2019): 47–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ccs.v11.i1.6402.

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Bias Crime is crime where the victim is targeted because of an aspect of their identity, including race, ethnicity, religion or sexuality. It is an extreme manifestation of cultural tension and conflict. Bias crime remains under-researched in Australia. While there has been some investigation into different types of bias crime, such as racist and homophobic offences, there is little analysis of the nature and extent of bias crime across these categories. For the first time, this article presents the results of a study into official records of bias crime held by the New South Wales Police Force. The study shows that crimes motivated by bias based on the victim’s race/ethnicity and religion are by far the most common types of bias crime reported in NSW. People from Asian, Indian/Pakistani and Muslim backgrounds are the most likely victims to report bias crime. The study also shows that there is much work to be done to encourage bias crime reporting amongst marginalised communities and improve the capacity of police to identify and accurately record bias crime. We argue that civil society has an important role to play in building partnerships with police to achieve positive change in the policing of bias crime.

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18

James, Lois. "The Stability of Implicit Racial Bias in Police Officers." Police Quarterly 21, no. 1 (September 21, 2017): 30–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098611117732974.

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Research on police officers has found that they tend to associate African Americans with threat. Little is known however about the stability of implicit racial bias in police officers, whose attitudes could be expected to fluctuate based on their day-to-day encounters or from internal stressors such as fatigue. To investigate, this study tested 80 police officers using the Weapons Implicit Association Test (IAT) on four separate occasions. Officers’ sleep was also monitored using wrist actigraphy. Officers’ IAT scores varied significantly across the testing days ( f = 2.36; df = 1.468; p < .05), and differences in IAT scores were associated with officers’ sleep ( f = 6.49; df = 1.468; p < .05). These findings indicate that implicit racial bias was not stable among officers, and that when officers slept less prior to testing they demonstrated stronger association between Black Americans and weapons. The implications of these findings within the current climate of police–citizen unrest are discussed.

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19

Spano, Richard. "Potential sources of observer bias in police observational data." Social Science Research 34, no. 3 (September 2005): 591–617. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2004.05.003.

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20

Jackson, Jessi Lee. "The Non-Performativity of Implicit Bias Training." Radical Teacher 112 (October 23, 2018): 46–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/rt.2018.497.

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Implicit bias training is an increasingly common educational intervention in institutions throughout the U.S. I explore the potential of implicit bias training to challenge violent police racism through participant observation in a training for police officers. I pay special attention to what is missing: the voices of those targeted by racist policing, and what is treated as equivalent: white male experience and the figure of the human. Implicit bias trainings risk promoting more adaptive racism in policing through the coaching of participants into the performance of colorblind racism. The training functions as what Sara Ahmed has identified as “the non-performativity of anti-racism”—ostensibly anti-racist (non)practices that maintain contemporary racist realities.

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21

Murphy, Kristina, Robert J. Cramer, Kevin A. Waymire, and Julie Barkworth. "Police Bias, Social Identity, and Minority Groups: A Social Psychological Understanding of Cooperation with Police." Justice Quarterly 35, no. 6 (August 10, 2017): 1105–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1357742.

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22

Winters, Clyde A. "Socio-Economic Status, Test Bias and the Selection of Police." Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles 65, no. 2 (April 1992): 125–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032258x9206500205.

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Many psychology tests used in the employment field have potential ethnic bias. In a study of college students in a mid-Western Junior College, students were asked to answer selected items from the Inwald Personality Inventory to determine the impact critical items from this inventory might have on the selection of police. The test results show that economic status can affect the score of minority applicants on the IPI test. This paper will show that a comparison of the test scores of the subjects of this study, and the overall success rate of African-American candidates for the Chicago Police Department indicate that selected “critical items” from the IPI test can negatively affect the employment opportunity of African-Americans as police officers.

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23

Bohn, Sarah, Matthew Freedman, and Emily Owens. "The Criminal Justice Response to Policy Interventions: Evidence from Immigration Reform." American Economic Review 105, no. 5 (May 1, 2015): 214–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151042.

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Changes in the treatment of individuals by the criminal justice system following a policy intervention may bias estimates of the effects of the intervention on underlying criminal activity. We explore the importance of such changes in the context of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA). Using administrative data from San Antonio, Texas, we examine variation across neighborhoods and ethnicities in police arrests and in the rate at which those arrests are prosecuted. We find that changes in police behavior around IRCA confound estimates of the effects of the policy and its restrictions on employment on criminal activity.

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Cano, Ignacio. "Racial bias in police use of lethal force in Brazil." Police Practice and Research 11, no. 1 (February 2010): 31–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614260802586350.

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25

Blalock, Garrick, Jed DeVaro, Stephanie Leventhal, and Daniel H. Simon. "Gender bias in power relationships: evidence from police traffic stops." Applied Economics 43, no. 29 (December 2011): 4469–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2010.491467.

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26

Borooah, Vani K. "Racial bias in police stops and searches: an economic analysis." European Journal of Political Economy 17, no. 1 (March 2001): 17–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0176-2680(00)00026-4.

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27

Walker, Samuel, and Charles M. Katz. "Less than meets the eye: police department bias crime units." American Journal of Police 14, no. 1 (April 1995): 29–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07358549510799099.

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28

Kagehiro, Dorothy K., Ralph B. Taylor, William S. Laufer, and Alan T. Harland. "Hindsight bias and third-party consentors to warrantless police searches." Law and Human Behavior 15, no. 3 (1991): 305–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01061715.

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29

Li, Yudu, Ling Ren, and Fei Luo. "Is bad stronger than good? The impact of police-citizen encounters on public satisfaction with police." Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 39, no. 1 (March 21, 2016): 109–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-05-2015-0058.

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Purpose – Drawing upon the negativity bias theory, the purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of positive and negative perceptions of police-initiated or citizen-initiated contacts on three distinctive dimensions of public satisfaction with police (PSWP). Design/methodology/approach – The data were obtained from a random-sample telephone survey of 1,143 residents in Houston in 2012. The OLS regressions were conducted with variables derived from the contact model and neighborhood context model that were often employed in the PSWP research. Particularly, five dichotomous variables were created to tap into the nature and quality of the police-citizen encounters. Findings – The results confirm the negativity bias theory that “bad is stronger than good,” suggesting that the negative-contact variables have stronger influences on PSWP than the positive-contact variables, net of neighborhood context and demographic background. Originality/value – This study expands the scope of the investigation on PSWP by exploring the effects of the nature and quality of the police-citizen contacts on the respondents’ sentiments toward the police.

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30

Sommers, Samuel R., and Satia A. Marotta. "Racial Disparities in Legal Outcomes." Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1, no. 1 (October 2014): 103–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2372732214548431.

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Life-altering decisions are made every day in the legal world. Police officers make split-second judgments about whether an individual poses a threat. Prosecutors sort through conflicting accounts of an event in determining whether to charge a suspect. Juries try to reconcile complex evidence in criminal trials and render a unanimous verdict. These decisions often hinge on interpretations of subjective, ambiguous information. Besides being difficult, these decisions are also ripe with the potential for bias, despite their high-stakes nature. The present article focuses on one potential bias, racial disparity in legal outcomes. Here, “bias” refers not just to intentional discrimination or decisions based on overt prejudice (although, of course, as for everyone, some police officers, attorneys, judges, and jurors likely hold conscious prejudices and act on them). Rather, our review of the behavioral science research literature indicates that unconscious—or implicit—racial biases also taint legal decision making. Specifically, this review examines the influence of race on (a) policing, (b) charging decisions, and (c) criminal trial outcomes. Policy interventions include bias training, increasing institutional diversity, and empirically documenting the disparities’ scope. Addressing these disparities also requires acknowledging that all of us, regardless of personal ideology or professional oath, are susceptible to such biases, even when making life-and-death decisions.

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Nunn, Samuel. "‘Wanna still nine hard?’: Exploring Mechanisms of Police Bias in the Translation and Interpretation of Wiretap Conversations." Surveillance & Society 8, no. 1 (November 16, 2009): 28–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.24908/ss.v8i1.3472.

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Wiretaps permit police to intercept telephone conversations among targets of investigation, some of which are judged to be incriminating by those listening to the real-time conversations. How is the information intercepted from wiretaps interpreted, understood, and used? What is required to transform raw communications intercepts into evidence of probable cause? Forensic linguists have studied transcripts of intercepted conversations, focusing on the wiretap entextualization process—that is, the ways in which intercepted conversations are classified as incriminating, and converted into evidence of crimes. They hypothesize the wiretap entextualization process is prejudiced in favor of police theories of criminal actions. This paper considers forensic linguists’ police bias arguments, and offers details into mechanisms that create police predispositions to interpret conversations intercepted under a wiretap order as crimes. The analysis applies Shuy’s (2005) conversational strategies to create crime to nine conversations intercepted in a federal wiretap. Transcripts are examined by comparing conversations with their police translations. Findings suggest police bias is embedded deeply into wiretap operations, and that there are several means by which police preconceptions of crime undergird wiretap transcripts.

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Hockin, Sara M., and Rod K. Brunson. "The Revolution Might Not Be Televised (But It Will Be Lived Streamed)." Race and Justice 8, no. 3 (November 7, 2016): 199–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2153368716676320.

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Fiery nationwide protests in response to a recent string of dubious police killings of unarmed Black men have sparked a renewed social movement, drawing increased attention to fragile police–minority relations and allegations of racial bias in the criminal justice system. A wealth of research exists concerning African American youths’ accounts of poor treatment at the hands of police. To a lesser extent, prior scholarship reveals the importance of looking beyond citizens’ direct police experiences to family, peer, and mainstream media accounts of negative police encounters. Scholarly examinations of social media regarding how individuals make sense of their own and others’ experiences with, and attitudes toward police are limited, however. This is surprising given that social media has become especially important for youths and represents a new mechanism for the American public to learn about unsettling police behaviors. Moreover, social media represents a largely untapped, but potentially rich data source for researchers and policy makers. Special consideration is given to the role that the Black Lives Matter movement plays for obtaining improved understandings of police–minority relations and informing criminal justice.

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Worrall, John L., Stephen A. Bishopp, Scott C. Zinser, Andrew P. Wheeler, and Scott W. Phillips. "Exploring Bias in Police Shooting Decisions With Real Shoot/Don’t Shoot Cases." Crime & Delinquency 64, no. 9 (March 8, 2018): 1171–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128718756038.

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The controversy surrounding recent high-profile police shootings (e.g., Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri; Laquan McDonald in Chicago) has prompted inquiry into the possible existence of bias in officers’ use-of-force decisions. Using a balanced mix of shoot/don’t shoot cases from a large municipal police department in the Southwestern United States, this study analyzed the effect of suspect race on officers’ decisions to shoot—while accounting for other theoretically relevant factors. Findings suggest that Black suspects were not disproportionately the target of police shootings; Black suspects were approximately one third as likely to be shot as other suspects. This finding challenges the current bias narrative and is consistent with the other race-related findings in recently published research.

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Hardin, Rebecca S. "The Criticality of a Community Perspective." Industrial and Organizational Psychology 9, no. 3 (September 2016): 561–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/iop.2016.55.

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To enhance interactions between police officers and citizens, industrial–organizational (I-O) psychologists will have to utilize a systems thinking approach to understand the multifaceted challenges facing Baltimore and other cities across the nation and develop holistic solutions that include the whole community. Ruggs et al. (2016) overlooked the systems view of Baltimore's challenges by focusing solely on isolated incidents of racial bias and proposing solutions predominantly inside the police station. To develop a comprehensive solution that has the potential to truly extinguish Baltimore's flames, we must also account for the interplay of police bias where it exists in the community; otherwise, we risk simply fanning the flames and escalating the challenges further with linear solutions.

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Afful, Irene. "The impact of values, bias, culture and leadership on BME under-representation in the police service." International Journal of Emergency Services 7, no. 1 (May 8, 2018): 32–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijes-05-2017-0028.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to critically examine whether the individual values and bias of police officers could be frustrating attempts to achieve black and ethnic minority (BME) representation within the police service, especially at senior levels. It focusses on the micro-individual level, examining perceptions, values and attitudes towards equality and diversity, unconscious bias and the impact of leadership in addressing these issues. Design/methodology/approach The paper reviews the literature on values, police culture and leadership. It draws upon data produced from a very small study undertaken within a local police service specialist unit where the author was employed, by means of semi-structured interviews with a selection of staff and senior officers, and values and attitudes surveys. Data were examined from a national survey of BME officers and Human Resources Leads, conducted by the College of Policing’s BME Progression 2018 Programme. Finally, unconscious bias test data of samples of police officers, including senior leaders and HR professionals were examined. Findings The interview data show that equality and diversity are perceived to be largely embedded by organisational members. This is contradicted by the data from the values and attitudes survey which show that equality is not fully embedded in the culture, and the data from BME officers survey supports this. Leader role models and behaviours were found to play a crucial role in embedding these values, along with training. The findings also demonstrated a higher level of unconscious bias among senior officers and HR professionals, responsible for recruitment and selection, than police employees in general. Research limitations/implications This exploratory research is concerned with policing in England and Wales. The very small sample limits inferences possible in the findings but is highly relevant to current and future policing. Practical implications The paper highlights some potential barriers to achieving a representative police service at an individual rather than organisational level and makes a number of recommendations on the role of leaders now, and crucially in the future, to fully embed equality and diversity into police culture to address under-representation, a phenomenon which has plagued the police service throughout its entire history. Originality/value There appears to be a dearth of studies examining the issue of under-representation at the micro-individual level within British police organisations. The current, exploratory research study seeks to contribute to closing this gap.

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36

Mieczkowski, Tom, Kim Michelle Lersch, and Michael Kruger. "Police Drug Testing, Hair Analysis, and the Issue of Race Bias." Criminal Justice Review 27, no. 1 (May 2002): 124–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073401680202700107.

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37

Littmann, Laszlo, and Michael H. Monroe. "Is There a Need for “Bias Police” in Industry-Sponsored Research?" Mayo Clinic Proceedings 91, no. 1 (January 2016): 120–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.10.015.

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38

Miller, Catina, and Brigitte Vittrup. "The Indirect Effects of Police Racial Bias on African American Families." Journal of Family Issues 41, no. 10 (June 11, 2020): 1699–722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513x20929068.

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This qualitative study investigated the personal experiences of police racial bias and brutality among 18 African-American parents, the effect these experiences have had on them, how they discuss such incidents with their children, and which sources of strength the rely on during difficult times. Results revealed that both the participants and some of their children had endured negative encounters with law enforcement, and most of them suffered mental health consequences as a result, including fear, anger, and chronic stress. Most of the participants reported engaging in various forms of preparation for bias, including preparation for interaction with the police. For many, this was in order to ensure their children’s survival. Despite the negative and sometimes traumatic experiences, participants indicated that they found strength primarily in their faith and their families. Implications of these findings are discussed.

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WARREN, PATRICIA, DONALD TOMASKOVIC-DEVEY, WILLIAM SMITH, MATTHEW ZINGRAFF, and MARCINDA MASON. "DRIVING WHILE BLACK: BIAS PROCESSES AND RACIAL DISPARITY IN POLICE STOPS." Criminology 44, no. 3 (August 2006): 709–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00061.x.

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Shechory Bitton, Mally, and Liza Zvi. "Chivalry and attractiveness bias in police officer forensic judgments in Israel." Journal of Social Psychology 159, no. 5 (August 28, 2018): 503–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1509043.

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Venema, Rachel M. "Police Officers’ Rape Myth Acceptance: Examining the Role of Officer Characteristics, Estimates of False Reporting, and Social Desirability Bias." Violence and Victims 33, no. 1 (2018): 176–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.33.1.176.

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This study examines police officers’ perceptions of sexual assault and those who report sexual assault to the police, using a revised version of the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale along with a measure of social desirability bias. The study includes survey responses from 174 officers from 1 mid-sized police department in the Great Lakes region. Results show low to moderate levels of rape myth acceptance scores on the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, with highest scores related to victim lying. Officers report very high estimates of false reporting, indicating some rape myth acceptance. Officer level of education, rank, and estimates of false reporting influence rape myth acceptance; however, social desirability bias is an important explanatory factor. Implications for measurement and training are discussed.

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KNOX, DEAN, WILL LOWE, and JONATHAN MUMMOLO. "Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing." American Political Science Review 114, no. 3 (May 21, 2020): 619–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003055420000039.

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Researchers often lack the necessary data to credibly estimate racial discrimination in policing. In particular, police administrative records lack information on civilians police observe but do not investigate. In this article, we show that if police racially discriminate when choosing whom to investigate, analyses using administrative records to estimate racial discrimination in police behavior are statistically biased, and many quantities of interest are unidentified—even among investigated individuals—absent strong and untestable assumptions. Using principal stratification in a causal mediation framework, we derive the exact form of the statistical bias that results from traditional estimation. We develop a bias-correction procedure and nonparametric sharp bounds for race effects, replicate published findings, and show the traditional estimator can severely underestimate levels of racially biased policing or mask discrimination entirely. We conclude by outlining a general and feasible design for future studies that is robust to this inferential snare.

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Millar, Hayli, and Tamara O’Doherty. "Racialized, Gendered, and Sensationalized: An examination of Canadian anti-trafficking laws, their enforcement, and their (re)presentation." Canadian Journal of Law and Society / Revue Canadienne Droit et Société 35, no. 1 (April 2020): 23–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cls.2020.2.

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AbstractIn Canada, there are persistent allegations and some empirical evidence suggesting racialized police bias; certain (non-White) groups appear to face over-enforcement as criminal suspects and under-enforcement as victims. Yet, it is challenging to prove or disprove these claims. Unlike other countries, where governments routinely publish police-reported crime and criminal court data identifying the race/ethnicity of criminal suspects and victims, Canada maintains a ban on the publication of such data. In this article, using an intersectional and critical analysis, we examine 127 prosecuted (predominantly domestic sex) trafficking cases and explore related claims of racial and gender bias together with sensationalism in the enforcement of Canadian anti-trafficking in persons laws. Our findings align with other empirical research observing the racially selective identification and prosecution of sex trafficking cases through a heteronormative and gender binary lens. Whether real or perceived, racial—alongside gender, sexuality, economic, citizenship, and occupational—bias has significant adverse consequences for the equality, liberty, security, mobility, labour, and access to justice rights of the Indigenous, Black, Arab/Muslim and other racialized communities being policed. Our data reveal a clear and pressing need to publish race-disaggregated crime and criminal court data and to challenge deeply ingrained stereotypes using various means.

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Bailey, Rachel L., Glenna L. Read, YaoJun Harry Yan, Jiawei Liu, David A. Makin, and Dale Willits. "Camera Point-of-View Exacerbates Racial Bias in Viewers of Police Use of Force Videos." Journal of Communication 71, no. 2 (April 1, 2021): 246–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab002.

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Abstract The implementation of body-worn cameras (BWC) by policing agencies has received widespread support from many individuals, including citizens and police officers. Despite their increasing prevalence, little is known about how the point-of-view (POV) of these cameras affects perceptions of viewers. In this research, we investigate how POV interacts with skin color of citizens in police use of force videos to affect perceptions of procedural justice. In an experimental study, participants watched eight police use of force videos—half recorded from BWC and half from an onlooker’s perspective—in which skin tone of the citizen varied. Results indicate that POV interacts with citizen skin tone such that, compared to the onlooker perspective, the BWC exacerbated viewer racial bias against dark skin tone citizens. Furthermore, identification with the police officer fully mediated this relationship. Results are discussed in relation to media theory and practical implications.

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Murray, Sarah E. "Seeing and Doing Gender at Work: A Qualitative Analysis of Canadian Male and Female Police Officers." Feminist Criminology 16, no. 1 (April 10, 2020): 91–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557085120914351.

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This qualitative study examines the ways in which male and female police officers view and enact gender in their workplace. Data were generated from in-depth interviews with 20 active police officers working in a populous Canadian province. Although most male officers deny gender differences and gender bias, female officers describe experiences of workplace sexism and deploy adaptive strategies daily in their workplaces to resist gender inequality. Both men and women describe a masculine-coded ideal police officer and disparage the “old police culture” and “old boy’s club.”

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Maynard, Douglas W., and David Schelly. "Tunnel vision in a murder case: Telephone interaction between police detectives and the prime suspect." Discourse Studies 19, no. 2 (March 20, 2017): 169–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461445617691703.

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The article analyzes an interactional form of tunnel vision or cognitive bias in a series of mundane police–suspect interactions. The data come from a murder case in which the suspect, later convicted and then released from prison with the help of the Wisconsin Innocence Project, frequently calls police detectives to inquire about his confiscated van. As he is operating in a context in which accusations are rarely made explicit, we highlight the suspect’s use of a complaint-denial device to tacitly claim innocence. The police respond by focusing on the complaint rather than the denial part of the device. The use of the complaint-denial device is compared to more formal inquiries in which accusations are overt. We discuss the implications of a sociological understanding of cognitive bias – how it may operate in practices of talk and social interaction during informal encounters – for other criminal justice settings.

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Davis, Corey S. "Bias Against People Who Inject Drugs Undermines Police Training on Needlestick Injury." American Journal of Public Health 109, no. 6 (June 2019): 839–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2019.305096.

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MacEwan, Neil. "Police Officers and CPS Solicitors Serving on Juries: The Appearance of Bias." Journal of Criminal Law 72, no. 4 (August 2008): 283–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1350/jcla.2008.72.4.283.

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Wogalter, Michael S., Laura J. Van't Slot, and Michael J. Kalsher. "Bias in Police Lineups and its Reduction by an Alternative Construction Procedure." Proceedings of the Human Factors Society Annual Meeting 35, no. 20 (September 1991): 1561–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193129103502030.

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Wu, Yuning, Brad W. Smith, and Ivan Y. Sun. "Race/Ethnicity and Perceptions of Police Bias: The Case of Chinese Immigrants." Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 11, no. 1-2 (January 1, 2013): 71–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2012.735989.

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