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Journal articles on the topic 'Police Force'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 25 July 2025

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1

Laycock, Gloria, and Roger Tarling. "Police Force Cautioning: Policy and Practice." Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 24, no. 2 (1985): 81–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2311.1985.tb00518.x.

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2

Neyroud, P. "Use of Force." Policing 1, no. 3 (2007): 252–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pam045.

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3

Waddington, P. A. J. "Use of Force." Policing 1, no. 3 (2007): 249–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pam047.

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4

Yesufu, Shaka. "The continuity of police brutality in post-apartheid South Africa." ScienceRise, no. 2 (April 30, 2022): 21–29. https://doi.org/10.21303/2313-8416.2022.002408.

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The objects of this research are: First, to highlight that police brutality is still ongoing in South Africa despite the end of the apartheid regime in South Africa in 1994. Second, to explore the concept of police brutality and its definitional related concepts like excessive force, reasonable force, lethal force, and de-escalation. Third, to explore possible avenues of rebuilding citizens' loss of trust and confidence in the police. The researcher investigated the following problems: Police excessive use of force on citizens resulting in injuries or loss of lives, understanding of reasonable

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Lohse, Mikael. "Police Primacy: Organizing Police Powers under the Palestinian Authority." Journal of Strategic Security 15, no. 3 (2022): 80–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.15.3.2014.

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The Secretary of State established the Office of the United States Security Coordinator for Israel and the Palestinian Authority (USSC) in 2005 to meet U.S. commitments under the Middle East Roadmap for Peace. USSC’s vision is to strive for a civilian-controlled, self-sustaining, affordable, and accountable security structure, focused on “police primacy”, operating within the rule of law while providing necessary law enforcement to safeguard the Palestinian people. This vision is far from accomplished: Palestinian Authority (PA) security forces continue arbitrary detention, torture, and use of

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6

Lim, Chang-Ho. "A Study on Implications of British Transport Police System." Korean Association of Public Safety and Criminal Justice 31, no. 4 (2022): 251–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.21181/kjpc.2022.31.4.251.

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Today the changes of railway environment are further increasing the demand for railway policing. The South Korean Railway Police Force puts great efforts into protecting citizens’ lives and properties and maintaining order on trains and in train stations. In order for South Korean Railway Police Force to develop further from now on, it may be necessary to analyze the railway police system in advanced foreign countries and derive implications as many as possible for South Korean Railway Police Force. The purpose of this study is to analyse the organization and operation of the British Transport

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Yesufu, Shaka. "Human rights and the policing of disorder in South Africa: challenges and future directions." EUREKA: Social and Humanities, no. 3 (May 31, 2021): 72–84. https://doi.org/10.21303/2504-5571.2021.001861.

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Unarguably, the South African Police during the apartheid era was characterised by brutality and state repression, including the political executions of several South African citizens who dared oppose the apartheid regime. The post-apartheid era has also witnessed deaths of citizens at the hands of the police during demonstrations, demanding better service delivery, higher wages, improved working conditions, and an end to marginalisation and poverty. The author presents some cases of police human rights violations concerning policing citizen's protests. This is a qualitative study, relying on

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8

Chalfin, Aaron, Benjamin Hansen, Emily K. Weisburst, and Morgan C. Williams. "Police Force Size and Civilian Race." American Economic Review: Insights 4, no. 2 (2022): 139–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20200792.

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We report novel empirical estimates of the race-specific effects of larger police forces in the United States. Each additional police officer abates approximately 0.1 homicides. In per capita terms, effects are twice as large for Black versus White victims. Larger police forces also make fewer arrests for serious crimes, with larger reductions for crimes with Black suspects, implying that police force growth does not increase racial disparities among the most serious charges. At the same time, larger police forces make more arrests for low-level “quality-of-life” offenses, with effects that im

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9

Thayer, Frederick. "A Research Police Force?" Public Administration Review 58, no. 6 (1998): 547. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/977582.

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10

Bazley, Thomas D., Kim Michelle Lersch, and Thomas Mieczkowski. "Police Use of Force." Criminal Justice Review 31, no. 3 (2006): 213–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734016806292764.

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11

Pairman, J. S. "The dental police force." British Dental Journal 218, no. 4 (2015): 212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2015.108.

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12

MacDonald, John M., Patrick W. Manz, Geoffrey P. Alpert, and Roger G. Dunham. "Police use of force." Journal of Criminal Justice 31, no. 2 (2003): 119–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0047-2352(02)00219-2.

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13

Frank Klahm IV, Charles, James Frank, and John Liederbach. "Understanding police use of force." Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 37, no. 3 (2014): 558–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-08-2013-0079.

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Purpose – The study of police use of force remains a primary concern of policing scholars; however, over the course of the last several decades, the focus has shifted from deadly and excessive force to a broader range of police behaviors that are coercive in nature, but not necessarily lethal, violent, or physical. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the critical disjuncture between the conceptualization of police use of force and operationalizations of the construct throughout policing literature. Design/methodology/approach – The current study provides a thorough, systematic review of

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14

Terrill, William, and Eugene A. Paoline. "Less Lethal Force Policy and Police Officer Perceptions." Criminal Justice and Behavior 40, no. 10 (2013): 1109–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854813485074.

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15

Terrill, William, Eugene A. Paoline III, and Jason Robert Ingram. "Beyond the final report." Policing: An International Journal 41, no. 2 (2018): 194–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-04-2017-0047.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a snapshot of key findings from research published from the Assessing Police Use of Force Policy and Outcomes study, a project funded by the National Institute of Justice. Design/methodology/approach Key findings from a national survey of police agencies on use of force policy and from an in-depth look at police use of force outcomes across eight cities published over the last ten years are synthesized to provide a cumulative perspective regarding the outcomes of the project. Findings The majority of police departments had a written force policy

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16

Dixon, Bill. "Who Needs Critical Friends? Independent Advisory Groups in the Age of the Police and Crime Commissioner." Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 14, no. 3 (2018): 686–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pay068.

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Abstract In the early 2000s, many police forces in England and Wales set up independent advisory groups (IAGs) following an inquiry into the flawed investigation of the murder of a black teenager, Stephen Lawrence, by London's Metropolitan Police. Members of IAGs were to act as critical friends of the police providing independent advice on policies, procedures and practices, thus ensuring that no section of their local community was disadvantaged through a lack of understanding, ignorance or mistaken beliefs. Based on a case study of an IAG in an English police force, this article reviews the

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17

Preito-Hodge, Kayla, and Donald Tomaskovic-Devey. "A Tale of Force: Examining Policy Proposals to Address Police Violence." Social Currents 8, no. 5 (2021): 403–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23294965211017903.

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We develop an explicitly organizational and relational approach to examine the problem of police violence, focusing empirically on prominent policy recommendations to increase officer demographic diversity, raise educational requirements for new officers, and implement community policing strategies. We first review prior research on these proposals, which is surprisingly thin and non-supportive of the proposals. To examine the baseline plausibility of these recommendations, we estimate cross-sectional negative binomial models, regressing counts of police department use of force on indicators o

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18

Walker, Jeffery T. "Police and Correctional Use of Force: Legal and Policy Standards and Implications." Crime & Delinquency 42, no. 1 (1996): 144–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128796042001009.

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In the 1980s, the police use of deadly force against nonviolent felons began to be questioned. This critical examination culminated in the decision in Tennessee v. Garner, which ruled that the police could use deadly force only in certain life-threatening situations. However, a decade after Garner, there are few limitations on the use of deadly force by correctional officers in situations where prisoners are attempting to escape. This article compares correctional deadly force policies and practices with current standards governing police use of deadly force. Court actions that might limit suc

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19

Esoimeme, Ehi Eric. "Using the lie detector test to curb corruption in the Nigerian Police Force." Journal of Financial Crime 26, no. 3 (2019): 874–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jfc-06-2018-0058.

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Purpose This paper aims to critically examine the lie detector test policy of the Nigeria Police Force to determine if the policy is capable of curbing corruption in the Nigerian Police Force. Design/methodology/approach The analysis took the form of a desk study, which analyzed various documents and reports such as the report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the National Bureau of Statistics titled “Corruption in Nigeria – Bribery: Public Experience and Response,” Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index 2017, the report by the International Police Science

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20

Atherley, L. T., and M. J. Hickman. "Controlling Use of Force: Identifying Police Use of Excessive Force through Analysis of Administrative Records." Policing 8, no. 2 (2014): 123–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pau003.

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21

Ankomahene, Emmanuel, and Kassim Asimah. "Facilitating colonial exploitation of resources of the Gold Coast: The role of the Police force, 1894-1914." Abibisem: Journal of African Culture and Civilization 8 (December 1, 2019): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.47963/ajacc.v8i.853.

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Euro-African interactions between the 15th and 20th centuries were mainly motivated by the desire to exploit the economic resources of Africa. To ensure a peaceful exploitation of resources in the Gold Coast, the British policed their forts and castles for the peaceful conduct of trade. Even though policing in the Gold Coast was not a structured institution before its official establishment in 1894 by the British, it was an important institution in the administration of the colony. After the enactment of the 1894 ordinance, the Gold Coast Constabulary was renamed the Gold Coast Police Force. T

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22

Kim, Dae-Young, Scott W. Phillips, and Stephen A. Bishopp. "Exploring the police use of force continuum with a partial proportional odds model." Policing: An International Journal 45, no. 2 (2021): 252–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-08-2021-0105.

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PurposeThe present study examines a range of police force on the continuum (firearms, TASER/chemical spray and physical force) to see whether they are associated with individual (subject and officer), situational and/or neighborhood factors.Design/methodology/approachA partial proportional odds model is used to analyze police use of force data from 2003 to 2016 in Dallas. Independent variables are allowed for varying effects across the different cumulative dichotomizations of the dependent variable (firearms vs TASER/chemical spray and physical force and firearms and TASER/chemical spray vs ph

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23

Crow, Matthew S., and Brittany Adrion. "Focal Concerns and Police Use of Force." Police Quarterly 14, no. 4 (2011): 366–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098611111423740.

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The use of force by police officers is a regular source of interest among the public, media, scholars, and criminal justice professionals. Tasers have emerged as an important and increasingly popular technology for police departments. Despite the increasing adoption and use of Tasers and the controversy surrounding their use, relatively little prior research examines the factors associated with Taser use by police officers. Guided by the focal concerns theoretical perspective, the current study uses data from a medium-size police department to analyze the factors that influence Taser use. Logi

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24

Czudnochowski, David, and Franziska Ludewig. "A driving force, a driven force? Social media and police self-legitimacy." International Journal of Police Science & Management 25, no. 3 (2023): 226–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/14613557231173499.

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Social media (SM) have changed the conditions and forms of public communications and have been part of the standard communication repertoire of police authorities for a while now. Despite their importance, many aspects have been insufficiently researched, including their role in the self-legitimisation of the police. This article examines the SM strategies of police press and public relations in the context of an increasingly critical public in Germany. Based on expert interviews with press officers from German police authorities, it shows how police organisations are evaluating the changing c

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25

FRIESENDORF, CORNELIUS. "Police assistance as foreign policy: Explaining donor practices." Review of International Studies 42, no. 2 (2015): 377–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210515000297.

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AbstractPolice assistance is an important, albeit understudied aspect of foreign policy. While many scholars have studied international and transnational policing, it remains largely unknown why donor police forces often support their colleagues in fragile states in different ways. This article discusses a variety of potential explanations of police assistance: a domestic rational actor model; a constructivist focus on international norms; and theories on the use of force by democracies. While all of these explanations are relevant, this article shows that they remain incomplete without studyi

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26

Ross, Darrell L., and Mark Jones. "Frequency of Training in Less-than-Lethal Force Tactics and Weapons: Results of a Two-State Survey." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 12, no. 3 (1996): 250–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104398629601200304.

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Failing to train police officers in the use of less-than-lethal force tactics and equipment increases the police department's liability risk. Police officers in Michigan and North Carolina (N=482) responded to a questionnaire pertaining to the training their departments have provided in less-than-lethal force tactics and equipment since graduating from the police academy. A number of respondents were unaware that their department had a non-deadly force policy, and a majority of those who were aware of a policy had never been tested in its contents. Patrol officers as a group had received train

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27

Weaver, Michael. "The New Science of Policing: Crime and the Birmingham Police Force, 1839–1842." Albion 26, no. 2 (1994): 289–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4052309.

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After years of tinkering with the notion of police reform, Parliament in 1829 passed the Metropolis Police Improvement Act, which established the famous Metropolitan Police Force, England's first body of uniformed, fulltime “professional” police. Bodies of the “new police” were allowed to spread outside of London by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. These provincial forces answered to local authorities, a pattern disrupted in 1839 when Parliament passed three bills establishing centrally-controlled police forces for Birmingham, Bolton, and Manchester. These Acts were emergency measures,

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28

Buuren, J. v. "Runaway Bureaucracy? The European Police Chiefs Task Force." Policing 6, no. 3 (2012): 281–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pas015.

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Konieczny, Marcin Krzysztof. "The press officer in conditions of military and police operations." Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces 197, no. 3 (2020): 546–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.3925.

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The article presents the characteristics of the service of a press officer of the Armed Forces and the Police. The article discusses the role of press spokesmen as a media liaison in the field of information, responsible for creating an image and shaping the relations of the uniformed formation represented with the media. The role of the Military Public Communication Service in shaping the information policy and the image of the Armed Forces is also presented. Furthermore, the role of police spokesmen, who play a particular role in shaping a positive image of the police force and overall publi

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HOFFMANN, Tomasz. "INTERNAL COMMUNICATION IN POLICE FORCE." Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces 163, no. 1 (2012): 28–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0002.3226.

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Internal communication is the cornerstone in police force. It improves its functioning, and also provides a framework for internal communication processes taking place in this organization. Without adequate communication in its various resources, police force is no longer useful. Hence, effective management requires the use of appropriate communication tools to support current management, the use of the appropriate methods of communication, motivation and support system using communication tools to identify the development needs of managers.The purpose of this paper is to present the essence o

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Lee, Hoon, and DongLyoul Kim. "A Study on Police Immunity to Criminal Liability that Results from Use of Excessive Force." Korean Association of Public Safety and Criminal Justice 33, no. 1 (2024): 227–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.21181/kjpc.2024.33.1.227.

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Public distrust of police grew over two police officers’ poor response to an attempted murder case in Incheon, Korea on November 15, 2021. The incident resulted in a public outcry for police reform and measures to address police incompetence as a female officer left the crime scene while a victim was stabbed in her neck. After the incident, the Korean National Police Agency initiated a revision to the Act of the Performance of Duties by Police Officers on the ground that the potential for criminal liability from use of police force is a primary obstacle to officers’ proactive law enforcement i

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Ojedokun, Usman Adekunle. "Situational and Contextual Factors Sustaining Police Impersonation in Nigeria." Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 14, no. 2 (2018): 428–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pay024.

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Abstract Police impostors are not only undermining the performance of the Nigeria Police Force, but they are also impinging on the image of the organization. In view of this, this article examined the situational and contextual factors sustaining police impersonation in Nigeria. Situational choice theory was employed as conceptual framework. The existence of six major conditions in Nigeria is encouraging criminally-minded individuals to illegally take-up police identity. Police impersonation is inhibiting the service delivery capacity of the Nigerian police officials in a number of ways. There

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33

Bleakley, Paul. "A State of Force." Contention 6, no. 2 (2018): 44–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/cont.2018.060204.

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Australian history is littered with examples of situations in which police have engaged in the use of force—in some cases, disproportionate violence—to maintain order and stability. In addition to this effort to control the population and ensure social order, extreme use of force was a key factor in repressing civil dissent and preventing marginalized communities from exercising their voice within the social discourse. Former Queensland Police Commissioner Frederic Urquhart was at the forefront of several high-profile examples of police enforcing social control during his tenure with the Queen

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34

Rappert, B. "Continuing the Discussion on Use of Force, Issue 3 * Policing & the Use of Force: Less-lethal Weapons." Policing 1, no. 4 (2007): 472–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/police/pam066.

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35

Dr.K.M., Ashifa. "Psychosocial Support Assessment among Women Police force in India." International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation 23, no. 3 (2019): 811–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.37200/ijpr/v23i3/pr190369.

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36

Norman, Ishmael. "The Police Use of Force Mandate in West Africa." Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 8, no. 5 (2021): 341–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.85.9933.

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This paper reviewed Police use of force mandate of the Constitutions of Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Gambia, to determine if the mandate is a contributory factor for increased police killings. The evidence support the finding that, police policy on the use of force contributes to increased extralegal killings, in the absence of field protocols for its engagement. There is the need for clear articulation of how, when, where force may be applied to cause arrest or suppress crime or riot. This paper aims to contribute to knowledge on limiting the use of force abuses within West Africa.

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Lee, Hoon. "A Study on the Necessity to Revise Crime of Police Violence: A Focus on Police Use of Force Situations." Korean Association of Public Safety and Criminal Justice 33, no. 4 (2024): 253–84. https://doi.org/10.21181/kjpc.2024.33.4.253.

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Abusive use of police force is harshly punished as a criminal offence under the Criminal Act of South Korea. Nevertheless, potential litigation risk that police officers face in the line of duty undermines police commitment to the rule of law, which, in turn, endangers the safety and security of the public. Police officers, convicted of using excessive force involving the restraint of the human body, are more likely to encounter Ipso Facto retirement under the Article 27 of the Police Official Act in Korea. Despite the importance of criminal liability issues related to excessive use of police

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38

Wood, David. "Police Accountability for Lethal Force." Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles 77, no. 1 (2004): 55–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1350/pojo.77.1.55.31515.

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Juniper, Dean. "Stress in a Police Force." Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles 69, no. 1 (1996): 61–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032258x9606900108.

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40

Belur, Jyoti. "Police Use of Deadly Force." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 25, no. 2 (2009): 237–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043986209333594.

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41

HUNT, JENNIFER. "Police Accounts of Normal Force." Urban Life 13, no. 4 (1985): 315–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0098303985013004001.

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Waddington, P. A. J. "Police use of deadly force." Policing and Society 22, no. 4 (2012): 538–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2012.657195.

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Hall, C. A., K. Votova, G. Randhawa, et al. "LO082: EMS response to police use of force events: periods of personal and professional risk in prehospital care." CJEM 18, S1 (2016): S58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cem.2016.119.

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Introduction: This study provides an estimate of the number of EMS calls related to police use of force events that involve struggling, intoxicated and/or emotionally distressed patients. We hypothesized there would be under-reporting of EMS risk by paramedic agencies due to lack of standardized reporting of police events by EMS services and lack of a common linked case number between prehospital agencies in Canada. Methods: Data were collected during a multi-site, prospective, consecutive cohort study of police use of force in 4 Canadian cities using standardized data forms. Use of force was

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44

Denis da Costa, Leon. "A DEFESA PESSOAL COMO NÍVEL DE FORÇA POLICIAL: Avaliação das técnicas do Manual de Defesa Pessoal Policial da Polícia Militar de Goiás." Revista Científica da Polícia Militar de Mato Grosso do Sul - RevPMMS 2, no. 1 (2025): 241–61. https://doi.org/10.62927/revpmms.v2i1.65.

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This article aims to present an assessment of police self-defense techniques implemented by the Military Police of Goiás as a level of force to respond to police calls and interventions. The study was conducted based on 649 responses from military police officers who joined the force in 2023 and completed the training course. The questionnaire included closed-ended questions about the effectiveness and degree of learning difficulty in relation to the techniques set out in the manual and which were taught inclasses inMilitary Police Academy. The results suggest that most respondents positively

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45

Nabawanda, Violla. "The Legal Framework for Women in the Police in Uganda – Existing Structures, Options for Improvement to Ensure a More Efficient Role of Women." KAS African Law Study Library - Librairie Africaine d’Etudes Juridiques 10, no. 4 (2023): 499–511. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/2363-6262-2023-4-499.

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The paper explores the meaning of gender equity and equality in ensuring gender mainstreaming and women’s active participation in governance, rule of law and decision making processes. The paper makes an inquiry into the specific legal, policy and strategic framework that provides for gender mainstreaming in the Uganda police specifically focusing on women’s role within the Uganda Police Force. Further, the paper provides an insight on the challenges faced by women serving in Uganda’s police force. Lastly, the paper provides recommendations that can be put in place to ensure and enable women p

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Rhodes, Dasha J., David L. Robinson, Paul C. Archibald, and Laurens Van Sluytman. "A Decade's Tale." Advances in Social Work 19, no. 1 (2020): 217–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.18060/22599.

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According to the U.S. Department of Justice (US DOJ, 2016), African Americans have experienced disproportionate instances of police use of excessive force as a result of discriminatory practices and insufficient training. Officers are permitted to use appropriate force in specific situations; however, when force is excessive and deemed unnecessary, it then becomes an issue of concern. The U.S. Department of Justice was invited to investigate police departments that participated in the use of excessive force and a consent decree was developed with those departments to remedy the DOJ's findings.

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47

Collins, Amelia, Sherah Basham, and Rick Dierenfeldt. "Retributive Attitudes and Perceptions of Police Use of Excessive Force." American Journal of Undergraduate Research 20, no. 2 (2023): 79–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.33697/ajur.2023.089.

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Public opinions of police use of force vary widely. Previous studies, however, have framed their examinations around the factors that influence support of police use of force in general, as compared to a focus on excessive force. This study utilized linear regression to examine the relationship between perceptions of police use of excessive force and retributive attitudes. The study employed a sample of 5,527 respondents from the American National Election Studies (ANES) 2020 Time Series Survey. Findings indicated that respondents’ perceptions of the frequency of police use of excessive force

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48

MARTIN, S. E. "Police Force or Police Service? Gender and Emotional Labor." ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 561, no. 1 (1999): 111–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716299561001008.

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Martin, Susan Ehrlich. "Police Force or Police Service? Gender and Emotional Labor." ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 561, no. 1 (1999): 111–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000271629956100108.

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Gulpham, Dr Shahanshah, and Dr Dimple T. Raval. "Status of Women Police in India: An Analytical Study of Uttar Pradesh State Police." Journal of Women Empowerment and Studies, no. 46 (October 1, 2024): 11–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.55529/jwes.46.11.24.

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Despite a number of efforts by the Government to increase the representation of women in police, it has continued to be relatively sluggish. The Government's data shows that there were a total of 2,17,026 women in police forces, which made up 10.5 percent of the entire police force in the country. Very few women police are recruited for leadership positions. The reasons behind the lesser representation of women police in the police department include the working conditions, societal status of women, recruitment rules, retention and promotion discrimination, inadequate infrastructure, and the p

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