Academic literature on the topic 'Pollution - South Africa - Jukskei River'

River water quality is an important health issue as the water is utilised for drinking, domestic and agricultural use in developing countries. This study aimed to investigate the effect water from a major city has on the water quality of the Jukskei River that daylights in Johannesburg, South Africa. The river water samples were analysed for physio-chemical properties, microbiology, antibiotic resistance of bacterial isolates, genetic markers, and potentially toxic metals. Data analysis revealed increased electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity since 2010. Total Coliform and Escherichia coli detected were above the South African water quality guidelines for domestic, recreational, and irrigation purposes. Additionally, sodium, zinc, nickel, lithium, and lead exceeded the guidelines in domestic, recreational, and irrigation water. Pathogenic strains of E. coli (aEPEC, EHEC, EIEC, and EAEC) were isolated from the water. Various other potentially pathogenic organisms that have been implicated as causes of gastro-intestinal, and a wide range of other diseases, were also detected and demonstrated multiple levels of resistance to antibiotics tested. The results show that the river water is a potential health threat to downstream users. These results will feed into the environmental management action plan for Water for the Future (NGO group).

Although the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry has committed itself to public participation with regard to water quality management in South Africa, no formal structure exists as yet within which this can take place. The Jukskei River Water Quality Steering Committee, which consists of representatives of various government departments, the Provincial Government, local authorities as well as non-government organisations and community-based organisations, therefore functions without a legal framework and without funds of its own. Nonetheless, the committee has been highly successful in co-ordinating various actions such as an in-depth study of the catchment and various public awareness campaigns. The latter were specifically aimed at changing the value systems of the community in the Jukskei River Catchment, as this was found to be one of the major stumbling blocks in addressing the various water quality problems in the catchment.

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are considered to be environmental pollutants due to their toxicity, persistence and ubiquity in the environment. Little information is known about the presence of brominated flame retardants in South Africa's water systems. Therefore, this study examined and compared different extraction methods (liquid–liquid (LL) vs. solid phase (SP) for water, Soxhlet extraction (SE) vs. ultrasonic for sediment) for extraction efficiencies in the determination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) in water and sediment from Jukskei River. Clean-up of sample extracts was performed using disposable Pasteur pipettes containing neutral, acidified and basic silica gel. Final extracts, after concentration and dilution to 200 μL were analyzed by injecting 1 μL in the GC-ECD and GC-MS. Results obtained showed good recoveries for most of the tested analytes in water; for LLE, values ranged between 80.5 ± 10.22% and 126.6 ± 1.94%; SPE, 70.41 ± 2.01%–124.78 ± 3.78% (n = 3) and for sediment (73–114%, with an RSD <17%) using SE. The ultrasonic extraction method gave less than 50% recovery for most of the congeners. The concentrations of the BFRs in water samples were less than the detection limit while the concentrations in sediment ranged from 1.95 to 36.61 ng g−1 dry weight for Σ11 BFRs. Dichloromethane and n-hexane : acetone (2 : 1, v/v) gave optimum value of recovery for water and sediment respectively.

This study was done to assess the pollution of Apies River using both chemical and microbiological methods. The pollution index of the river revealed that the concentration of most pollutants downstream is more than 50% of the upstream concentration. The natural sources of the pollution in Apies River are the weathering of geological formations; whereas the anthropogenic sources are agriculture; Municipal WWTW and direct deposit of waste into the river. The natural sources of pollution contributed towards chemical pollution; whereas the anthropogenic sources contributed both chemical and microbiological pollution. The Apies River is hypertrophic downstream of the Rooiwal WWTW; however the current physiochemical state of the River warrants its ability to be used for safe irrigation in agricultural practices. The current microbiological state of the River does make it harmful for human consumption especially as drinking water; however, the water should be boiled prior to use to inactivate the bacteria present in the water. The study was able to provide in analysis the variation of the contaminants in the River.

Thesis (MTech (Environmental Health))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2008
The lower Diep River is a major freshwater ecosystem in the Western Cape. The river is surrounded by many possible sources of metal pollution such as an oil refinery, industries, a sewage treatment plant and a landfill site. However, metal contamination levels have not been monitored in this river. The aim of the study was therefore to monitor the degree of metal pollution in the lower Diep River, over a period of one year, and to investigate the use of the sedge Bolboschoenus maritimus, as biomonitor species. Three sampling sites were used. Site I was located in the vicinity of landfill sites and farm areas. Site 2 was located I km upstream from a wetland reserve, surrounded by heavy industrial activity and continuous residential developments. Site 3 was located downstream of the wetland reserve, 2 km from the river mouth. The following metals were investigated: aluminium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel and zinc. Water and sediment samples were collected every two months for a period of one year. Plant specimens (roots, leaves and stems) were collected seasonally from site I and site 3. Samples were acid digested and metal analysis was done using an ICP - AES (Inductively Coupled Plasma- Atomic Emission Spectrophotometer). Statistical analyses were done to investigate possible differences between the sites, sampling occasions and various plant components.

Chemical pollution of freshwater is a worldwide environmental problem
eutrophication, heavy metals and salinity are amongst the most widely used indicators of pollution. The aim of this study was to assess the status of nutrients, heavy metals and salinity, and the seasonal variation int he Bottelary River.

There is growing concern that commonly used Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and pesticides are entering and contaminating drinking water supplies. The use of targeted quantitation of PPCP has been well established but there is an emerging trend to also screen for and identify unexpected environmental pollutants. Chemicals like pesticides hormones and antibiotics are especially of interest because of proven endocrine disrupting effects and a possible development of bacterial resistance. Powerful screening methods are required to detect and quantify the presence of these compounds in our environment. PPCP encompass a wide range of pollutants, including Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDC), pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, drugs of abuse, x-ray contrast agents and drinking water disinfection by-products to name a few. In order to properly assess the effects of these compounds on our environment, it is necessary to accurately monitor their presence. The diversity of chemical properties of these compounds makes method development challenging. LC/MS/MS is able to analyse polar, semi-volatile, and thermally labile compounds covering a wide molecular weight range. The new AB SCIEX TripleTOF™5600 LC/MS/MS was used to profile environmental samples for unexpected pollutants, to identify and characterise the chemical composition and structure of the pollutants, and to quantify (based on intensity) the concentration in collected water samples. Liquid Chromatography coupled to tandem Mass Spectrometry (LCMS/ MS) is able to analyse polar, semi-volatile, and thermally labile compounds covering a wide molecular weight range, such as pesticides, antibiotics, drugs of abuse, x-ray contrast agents, drinking water disinfection by-products etc. More recently there is a growing interest from environmental researchers to also screen for and identify non-targeted compounds in environmental samples, including metabolites and degradates, but also completely unexpected pollutants. The new AB SCIEX TripleTOF™5600 LC/MS/MS system is capable of performing highly sensitive and fast MS scanning experiments to search for unknown molecular ions while also performing selective and characteristic MS/MS scanning for further compound identification and, therefore, is the instrument of choice for this challenging task. General unknown screening workflows do not use a target analyte list and compound detection is not based on any prior knowledge, including retention times and information on possible molecular and fragment ions. Therefore, acquired chromatograms are very rich in information and can easily contain thousands of ions from both any compounds present in the sample as well as from the sample matrix itself. Thus, powerful software tools are needed to explore such data to identify the unexpected compound. Water samples were collected both upstream and downstream of two WWTPs (Seymour and Fort Beaufort) and were directly injected on the AB SCIEX TripleTOF™5600 LC/MS/MS after being filtered. 15 sample points along the Kat River, ranging from a point as close to the source as possible to a point just before it joins the Great Fish River were used. The samples collected from the source were used as the control in each of the experiments, the assumption being the closer you get to the source, the less contaminated the water would be for the analysis of pesticides. Points were selected where the Kat River crosses the R67 or on farms where the river was accessible using farm roads. Samples were collected from October 2013 to November 2014.The Peak view software and Analyst software were used in the analysis of PPCPs. The XIC Manager allows you to manage large lists of compounds and perform automatic extracted ion chromatogram (XIC) calculations and review results operations. The results were displayed in the chromatogram pane and the XIC table (see results). The results reported here in this thesis indicate that there is contamination in the Kat River water due to both pesticides and PPCPs. The results also indicate that the food products are also contaminated and hence both the Kat River agricultural produce and its water need to be closely monitored for both pesticide and PPCPs contaminants. Further studies to investigate the quantitative levels of pesticides and PPCPs in the Kat river water to determine if the concentration levels of the detected pesticides are below the reported Maximum Residues Limits will be explored in the future.

Thesis (MTech (Environmental Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2010
Freshwater scarcity and river pollution has become a serious challenge for governments and scientists. Worldwide, governments have a responsibility to provide their populations with enough clean water for their domestic needs. Scientists will have an enormous task to find a way to purify polluted water, because of its vital role in human lives and an increasing demand for water consumption due to population growth. Although the water from the Bottelary River is used on a daily basis for farming activities, its pollution level as well as spatial distribution of effluents in the catchment is unknown. In the present study, I took monthly water samples from six sampling points for laboratory analysis. The laboratory determined concentration levels of phosphorous, chloride, nitrate, and nitrate nitrogen (N03N), as well as the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and suspended solids from the samples. On the same occasion's pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity and temperature were measured in-situ using a multi-parameter reader. The results were then compared with the South African Water Quality Guidelines for Aquatic Ecosystems and for irrigation (DWAF, 1996a, 1996c). The non-point pollution source (NPS) model was used to generate predictions of the pollution level from the land-uses and use the data obtained from the field to validate the model predictions. Finally, I performed a two-factorial A One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) without replication to assess the spatial and temporal variation of the measured variables along the river. The findings of the study have shown that the concentration levels of some compounds are below the Target Water Quality Range (TWQR) set by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c) while, the concentrations of chloride, total nitrogen and water quality variables such as electrical conductivity, suspended solids, are higher than the TWQR (DWAF, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c). Based on the above findings water of the Bottelary River can have negative effects on the environment and human lives because of the concentration level of these compounds. It was therefore recommended that, environmentally friendly measures and practices must be undertaken in order to decrease the pollution and avoid further pollution of the river.

Thesis (MTech (Horticulture))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012.
The Diep River is approximately 80 km in length and runs through agricultural land and urban parts of greater Cape Town, South Africa before entering the Atlantic Ocean, via an estuary. Generally, metal pollution in South African rivers is not well documented and using plants to monitor metal bioaccumulation is even less documented. The aim of this study was to investigate aluminium, iron, copper and zinc metal pollution in the Diep River and bioaccumulation of these metals in the leaves and stems of the submerged macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum L. Furthermore, the effects of bioaccumulated metals on membrane integrity and chlorophyll content of these plants were investigated. Site 1 was situated in the upper reaches of the river adjacent to agricultural land, while site 2 was in an urban area, where industrial activities predominate. C. demersum (from an uncontaminated source) were introduced into the river at the two sites and compared with one another on a fortnightly basis over a 12 week period. Plants at site 2 were also compared to existing plants that were naturally growing at the site. Comparisons were also made between leaves and stems of the plants, to establish the organ of preference regarding metal accumulation and storage. Samples were digested with nitric acid and an ICP-MS was used to analyse metal concentrations in the water, sediment and plants. Chlorophyll extraction was done using dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) and the absorbance values determined using a spectrophotometer. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll contents were recorded and compared. Cell membrane integrity was determined by leaving plants for 24 hours in deionised water and measuring electrical conductivity and solutes (sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesium) before and after placement of the plants.

Freshwater resources are increasingly subject to pollution because of escalating human population growth, accompanied by urbanisation, industrialisation, and the increased demand for food. Consequently, freshwater quality, and aquatic ecosystem structure and function have been severely impaired. The Swartkops River, which drains an urbanised and industrialised catchment in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, is no exception. An integrated environmental water quality (EWQ) approach is needed to measure the impacts of deteriorating water quality on its aquatic ecosystem structure and function to sustain these vital ecosystem-attributes. In this study, an integrated EWQ approach, which included i) analysis of water physico-chemical variables; ii) macroinvertebrate-based family-level taxonomic- and traits-based community analysis; iii) Chironomidae species-level taxonomic- and traits-based community analysis; iv) Chironomidae deformity-based sub-lethal analysis; and v) experimental investigation of long-term wastewater effluent effects, using model stream ecosystems, were applied to investigate environmental water quality in the Swartkops River. One upstream reference site and three downstream sites in the Swartkops River were monitored over a period of three years (August 2009 – September 2012). The family-level taxonomic community responses based on the South African Scoring System version 5 (SASS5) and a newly developed Swartkops multimetric index indicated very poor river health conditions for the three downstream sites, compared with the good condition of the upstream site. The Chironomidae species-level responses in the three downstream sites provided evidence of differences in biotic impairments, which were not evident with the family-level taxonomic data at these sites, thus highlighting the importance of species identification in freshwater biomonitoring. The family-level traits-based approach (TBA) showed that macroinvertebrates with gills and lungs were more abundant at the upstream site, decreasing markedly at the downstream sites. The relative abundance of macroinvertebrates relying on aerial and tegument respiration increased at the downstream sites compared with the upstream sites. The results of the family-level TBA highlighted the inextricable link between the traits-based approach (TBA) and taxonomic identification, clearly showing that the TBA is additional to, and not an alternative to, taxonomic recognition because important traits, e.g. reproductive cannot be used at a coarse taxonomic identification. A novel chironomid species traits-based functional strategies approach developed in this study, based on species combining similar sets of traits, proved sensitive in diagnosing the main abiotic water physico-chemical stressors. The functional traits responded predictably to deteriorating water quality and provided an adaptive and mechanistic basis for interpreting chironomid species occurrences at the four sampling sites, providing insight into why certain chironomid species occurred at one site but not at the other. Chironomid deformities provided evidence of sub-lethal in-stream biological response to deteriorating water quality. A newly developed deformity-based extended toxic score index proved sensitive, enabling the discrimination of the sampling sites, indicating that a biomonitoring tool based on sub-lethal effects could be used to assess the effects of deteriorating water quality before it reached lethal levels. Empirical evidence based on the taxonomic, traits and sub-lethal responses suggested that the changes in macroinvertebrate community structure were caused chiefly by the discharge of wastewater effluents into the river. This was supported by the model-stream ecosystem results indicating significant effects of effluents on the macroinvertebrate community structure, similar to the observed in-stream responses. The model stream results indicated that improved physico-chemical effluent quality compliance after 50% effluent dilution did not significantly reduce the effects of the effluent on the macroinvertebrate communities, showing that ecologically-based methods rather than physico-chemical measures alone are necessary to assess effluent quality. Finally, the results of the multi-criteria approach were integrated to propose tools to manage environmental water quality in the Swartkops River, and the benefits of the study were highlighted in the context of biomonitoring in South Africa.

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Technology: Environmental Health in the Faculty of Applied Sciences at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2013
Water is an important daily requirement and in a clean, pure form, it promotes health and well-being. In addition to South Africa being one of the driest countries in the world, water availability is also being compromised by massive pollution of remaining water sources. The Berg- and Plankenburg Rivers are two of the surface water sources in the Western Cape, South Africa, which are highly polluted by sewage, industrial and agricultural run-off. The current investigation was aimed at comparing diagnostic tools, which are employed by municipalities and food industries, and molecular based techniques to routinely monitor water for indicator organisms in time- and cost-effective manner. These rivers were sampled twice a month (July 2010 to January 2011) at the sites closest to the informal settlements of Kayamandi in Stellenbosch (Plankenburg River) and Mbekweni in Paarl (Berg River). The contamination levels of the two river systems were evaluated by the enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliforms using the Colilert 18® system, Membrane Filtration (MF) and Multiple Tube Fermentation (MTF) techniques. The highest faecal coliform count of 9.2 × 106 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained in weeks 21 and 28 from the Plankenburg River system by the MTF technique, while the lowest count of 1.1 × 103 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained in week one for both river systems by the MTF technique. The highest E. coli count of 1.7 × 106 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained from the Berg River system (week 9) using the MTF technique, while the lowest count of 3.6 × 102 microorganisms/100 ml was obtained by the MF technique from the Plankenburg River system. The coliform and E. coli counts obtained by the enumeration techniques thus significantly (p > 0.05) exceeded the guidelines of 2000 microorganisms/100 ml stipulated by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF, 1996) for water used in recreational purposes. Overall the results obtained in this study showed that the water in the Berg- and Plankenburg River systems is highly polluted, especially where these water sources are used for irrigational and recreational purposes. For the coliform and E. coli counts obtained using the three enumeration techniques, it was noted that the MTF technique was more sensitive and obtained higher counts for most of the sampling weeks. However, the media (Membrane lactose glucuronide agar) used in the MF technique also effectively recovered environmentally stressed microbial cells and it was also better for the routine selection and growth of coliforms and E. coli. While E. coli and total coliforms were detected utilising the Colilert 18® system, accurate enumeration values for these two indicator groups was not obtained for the entire sampling period for both river systems. It has previously been shown that dilutions (up to 10-3) of highly polluted waters increase the accuracy of the Colilert 18® system to enumerate colifoms and E. coli in marine waters. As the results obtained utilising the Colilert 18® system were also not comparable to the MF and MTF techniques it is recommended that highly polluted water samples be diluted to increase the accuracy of this system as a routine enumeration technique. Water samples were directly inoculated onto MacConkey, Vile Red Bile (VRB) agar and the Chromocult Coliform agar (CCA) and single colonies were inoculated onto nutrient agar. Chromocult coliform agar proved to be more sensitive than MacConkey and VRB agar for the culturing of E. coli and coliforms. Preliminary identification of these colonies was done using the RapID ONE and API 20 E systems. The most isolated Enterobacteriaceae species by both systems, included Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Escherichia coli and Enterobacter cloacae in both river systems. The API 20 E system was more sensitive in the preliminary identification of the various isolates, as greater species diversity was obtained in comparison to the RapID ONE system. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was firstly optimised using positive Enterobacteriaceae species. The optimised method was then applied to the analysis of river water samples, which were centrifuged to harvest the bacterial cells, with DNA extracted using the boiling method. The extracted DNA was amplified using conventional PCR with the aid of species specific primers. The Enterobacteriaceae species that were detected throughout the study period in both river systems include Serratia marcescens, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Bacillus cereus. Conventional PCR was the most reliable and sensitive technique to detect Enterobacteriaceae to species level in a short period of time when compared to RapID ONE and the API 20 E systems. Multiplex PCR was optimised using the positive pathogenic E. coli strains namely, Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC), Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) and Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC). It was then employed in river water sample analysis and enabled the detection of EAEC, EHEC, and EIEC strains in Berg River system, with only the EAEC detected in the Plankenburg River system. Real-time PCR was used to optimise the multiplex PCR in the amplification of E. coli strains and successfully reduced the time to obtain final results when using control organisms. Real-time PCR was found to be more sensitive and time-effective in the identification of E. coli strains, and also more pronounced DNA bands were observed in real-time PCR products compared to conventional-multiplex PCR amplicons. To sustain the services provided by the Berg- and Plankenburg Rivers in the Western Cape (South Africa), these water sources should frequently be monitored, results assessed and reported according to the practices acknowledged by responsible bodies. It is therefore recommended that the enumeration techniques be used in conjunction with the very sensitive PCR technique for the accurate detection of coliforms and E. coli in river water samples.

Groundwater discharge is associated with salinity and pollution problems. The widespread presence of millions of saline lakes in North America, Africa and Australia, shows that across the geological record, most salinity and desertification problems have been caused by saline groundwater discharge. In recent times, dryland salinity has spread widely in southern Australia, resulting in the loss of more than 50% of the fresh streams in Western Australia and causing major salinity problems in the Murray River in South Australia.

The major challenge with regular water quality monitoring programmes is making sense of the large and complex physico-chemical data-sets that are generated in a comparatively short period of time. Consequentially, this presents difficulties for water management practitioners who are expected to make informed decisions based on information extracted from the large data-sets. In addition, the nonlinear nature of water quality data-sets often makes it difficult to interpret the spatio-temporal variations. These reasons necessitated the need for effective methods of interpreting water quality results and drawing meaningful conclusions. Hence, this study applied multivariate techniques, namely Cluster Analysis and Principal Component Analysis, to interpret eight-year (2005–2012) water quality data that was generated from a monitoring exercise at six stations in uMngeni Basin, South Africa. The principal components extracted with eigenvalues of greater than 1 were interpreted while considering the pollution issues in the basin. These extracted components explain 67–76% of the water quality variation among the stations. The derived significant parameters suggest that uMngeni Basin was mainly affected by the catchment’s geological processes, surface runoff, domestic sewage effluent, seasonal variation and agricultural waste. Cluster Analysis grouped the sampling six stations into two clusters namely heavy (B) or low (A), based on the degree of pollution. Cluster A mainly consists of water sampling stations that were located in the outflow of the dam (NDO, IDO, MDO and NDI) and its water can be described as of fairly good quality due to dam retention and attenuation effects. Cluster B mainly consist of dam inflow water sampling stations (MDI and IDI), which can be described as polluted if compared to cluster A. The poor quality water observed at Cluster B sampling stations could be attributed to natural and anthropogenic activities through point source and runoff. The findings could assist in determining an appropriate set of water quality parameters that would indicate variation of water quality in the basin, with minimum loss of information. It is, therefore, recommended that this approach be used to assist decision-makers regarding strategies for minimising catchment pollution.

One of the main challenges facing the potable water production industry is deterioration of the quality of raw water. Drinking water that does not meet quality standards is unfit for consumption. Yet, this quality is a function of various factors, key among them being quality of the raw water from which it is processed. This is because costs related to potable water treatment are related to the nature of raw water pollutants and the degree of pollution. Additionally, survival of aquatic species depends on self-purification of the water bodies through attenuation of pollutants, therefore, if this process is not efficient it might result in dwindling of the aquatic life. Hence, this chapter presents spatial and temporal water quality trends along uMngeni Basin, a critical raw water source for KwaZulu-Natal Province, in South Africa. As at 2014 the basin served about 3.8 million people with potable water. Results from this study are discussed in relation to uMngeni River’s health status and fitness for production of potable water treatment. Time-series and box plots of 11 water quality variables that were monitored at six stations over a period of eight years (2005 to 2012), were drawn and analysed. The Mann Kendall Trend Test and the Sen’s Slope Estimator were employed to test and quantify the magnitude of the quality trends, respectively. Findings showed that raw water (untreated) along uMngeni River was unfit for drinking purposes mainly because of high levels of Escherichia coli. However, the observed monthly average dissolved oxygen of 7 mg/L, that was observed on all stations, suggests that the raw water still met acceptable guidelines for freshwater ecosystems. It was noted that algae and turbidity levels peaked during the wet season (November to April), and these values directly relate to chlorine and polymer dosages during potable water treatment.