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Journal articles on the topic 'Post-genocide Rwanda'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Zorbas, Eugenia. "Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda." African Journal of Legal Studies 1, no. 1 (2004): 29–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/221097312x13397499735904.

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AbstractNational reconciliation is a vague and 'messy' process. In post-genocide Rwanda, it presents special difficulties that stem from the particular nature of the Rwandan crisis and the popular participation that characterized the Rwandan atrocities. This article outlines the main approaches being used in Rwanda to achieve reconciliation, highlighting some of the major obstacles faced by these institutions. It then goes on to argue that certain 'Silences' are being imposed on the reconciliation process, including the failure to prosecute alleged RPA crimes, the lack of debate on, and the in

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2

De Donno, Martina. "Post Genocide Rwanda." Politikon: The IAPSS Journal of Political Science 18 (November 1, 2012): 80–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.22151/politikon.18.7.

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M. D. Toft has argued that rebel military victories, that put an end to civil war, results in a higher likelihood of enduring peace and democratization. This research paper explains that, prima facie, this assumption could be the most desired outcome in order to stop violence, but in the long-term it is unlikely to be effective, specially in Rwanda. The 'Rwandan path to democracy', and the umpteenth construction of the identities in this country indeed could be the cause of possible future violence, and not the solution to it. A full respect of the logic of power-sharing and a genuine understa

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3

Jessee, Erin, and Sarah E. Watkins. "Good Kings, Bloody Tyrants, and Everything In Between: Representations of the Monarchy in Post-Genocide Rwanda." History in Africa 41 (April 23, 2014): 35–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/hia.2014.7.

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AbstractSince assuming power after the 1994 genocide, President Paul Kagame and his political party, the Rwandan Patriotic Front, have struggled to unite Rwanda’s citizens using, among other initiatives, a simplified version of Rwandan history to diminish the ethnic tensions that made the 1994 genocide possible. As a result, Rwanda’s history has become highly politicized, with vastly divergent versions of the nation’s past narrated in private settings, where it is more politically appropriate for Rwandans to share their experiences. This paper focuses on divergent representations of Rwandan mo

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Kubai, Anne. "Post-Genocide Rwanda: The Changing Religious Landscape." Exchange 36, no. 2 (2007): 198–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157254307x176606.

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AbstractThis paper seeks to examine the proliferation of Pentecostal churches and the changing religious landscape of Rwanda. The horrific genocide of 1994, left the country's traditional mainline churches bloodied and the Christian faith seriously challenged. Unlike elsewhere in Africa, prior to the genocide, Pentecostal churches had not got a foot-hold in Rwanda, then referred to as the most Catholic country in Africa. In the aftermath, Rwanda has experienced a spontaneous growth of new churches imported by returnees from far and wide. Though the Catholic Church still retains its dominant po

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5

Drumbl, M. A. "Post-Genocide Justice in Rwanda." Journal of International Peacekeeping 22, no. 1-4 (2020): 247–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18754112-0220104016.

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The Rwandan genocide triggered a vast number of criminal and quasi-criminal prosecutions. Rwanda therefore constitutes an example of a robust and rapid implementation of criminal accountability for atrocity. Rwanda, moreover, departed from other countries – such as South Africa – by eschewing a truth and reconciliation process as part of a transitional justice process. This chapter unpacks three levels of judicialization that promoted criminal responsibility for atrocity in Rwanda: the ICTR, specialized chambers of national courts, and gacaca proceedings. The ICTR indicted roughly 90 individua

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6

Jones, Adam. "Gendering Rwanda Genocide and Post-Genocide." Journal of International Peacekeeping 22, no. 1-4 (2020): 215–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18754112-0220104014.

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In his chapter, Adam Jones addresses genocide as multi-dimensional crime. He describes two broad typologies of genocide – ‘gendercide’, and ‘root and branch genocide’, which are ‘distinguished by the different operations of the gender variable in each’. As Jones outlines, the Rwanda genocide evidenced broad range of gendered aspects – from leveraging ethnicized gender tropes, through the sometime employment of gender-based genocidal approaches (execution, rape), to the economic and social consequences (planned or not) that are the legacy of gendered genocide. ‘The “gendering” of a given genoci

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7

Tembo, Nick Mdika. "Writing ‘Parrhesia’, Narrating ‘the Other Rwandan Genocide’." Matatu 48, no. 2 (2016): 418–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18757421-04802011.

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At the end of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, close to a million Tutsis and moderate Hutus had been murdered, and over 1.5 million people were either internally displaced or had fled over the borders into neighbouring countries and beyond for fear of reprisals from the advancing Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). This article places Marie Béatrice Umutesi’s Surviving the Slaughter (2004) and Pierre-Claver Ndacyayisenga’s Dying to Live (2012) within the context of post-1994 Rwandan testimonial literature that writes what is feared to be “the other Rwandan genocide,” particularly against those who fled t

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8

Breed, Ananda. "Performing the Nation: Theatre in Post-Genocide Rwanda." TDR/The Drama Review 52, no. 1 (2008): 32–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/dram.2008.52.1.32.

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While grassroots theatre brings together perpetrators and survivors of the Rwandan genocide, government-driven campaigns can manipulate theatre for reconciliation to serve its own nationalist agenda. The Mutabaruka company use their performances in Burundi to resurrect/construct the identity of a precolonial Rwanda; the Mashirika theatre focus on reconciling the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.

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9

Palmer, Ian, and Nsanzumuhire Firmin. "Mental health in post-genocide Rwanda." International Psychiatry 8, no. 4 (2011): 86–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/s1749367600002733.

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The children who experienced the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda are now in their mid to late 20s. It is almost impossible to comprehend the scale of the terror and destruction of Rwanda's societal infrastructure between 6 April and 16 July 1994. While the world remained inactive, Rwanda, a small impoverished central African state, experienced the murder of about 1 million of its citizens; it also saw the terrorising, humiliation and rape of countless thousands. Although women and children were directly targeted, some actively engaged in atrocities. About 300000 children were murdered, a

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10

Muhammad, Ali, and Amalia Nurul Hutami. "Why did Rwanda join British Commonwealth?" Nation State: Journal of International Studies 4, no. 1 (2021): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.24076/nsjis.v4i1.454.

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This article aims to examine Rwanda's foreign policy decision to join the British Commonwealth. Rwanda was former French colony and has historic association with Francophone countries. But the country decided to join the British Commonwealth in 2009. Using theory of foreign policy decision making, it argues that the shift of Rwanda’s foreign policy was caused by the political transition in Rwanda’s domestic politics, its economy condition in the post-genocide epoch as well as the international context which included Rwanda’s geographic position and the role of the United Kingdom in aiding Rwan

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11

Cantrell, Phillip A. "“We Were a Chosen People”: The East African Revival and Its Return To Post-Genocide Rwanda." Church History 83, no. 2 (2014): 422–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009640714000080.

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This article, drawing upon primary field research, analyzes the origins and history of the East African Revival of the 1930s and its ongoing relevance and role in post-genocide Rwanda. Starting as a Holiness-inspired, Anglican movement, the Revival persisted among the Tutsi Diaspora during their exile to refugee camps in Uganda following the 1959 Hutu-led Revolution and has returned with them following the coming to power of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994. The Revival, as it presently experiences a reawakening in the post-genocide church, provides the Tutsi returnees with a spiritual mech

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12

Schliesser, Christine. "Whose Justice? Which Democracy? Justice, Reconciliation and Democracy in Post-Genocide Rwanda—Challenges to Public Theology." International Journal of Public Theology 12, no. 1 (2018): 24–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15697320-12341521.

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Abstract How can a public theology advance the task of democracy in order to bring forth justice for all? This article focuses on post-genocide Rwanda as a current example of a country’s quest for justice, reconciliation and democratization after severe violent conflict. The first part traces the historical background of the Rwandan genocide with specific attention on the lack of just and democratic structures in pre-genocide Rwanda and the roles of the Christian churches therein. The second part explores the Christian churches’ involvement in the country’s current reconciliation process. Here

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13

Wilson, Tamfuh Y. N. "Procedural Developments at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)." Law & Practice of International Courts and Tribunals 10, no. 2 (2011): 351–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180311x582161.

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AbstractThe author seeks to expose the fact that the Rwandan genocide and its aftermath has many lessons for African leaders, especially that modern international criminal law is committed to punishing perpetrators of heinous crimes. The procedural processes at the Arusha International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda have also operated a successful jurisprudence that has immensely contributed to the development of modern international law. This article looks at the historical context of the genocide, the jurisprudence and case law of the ICTR, the novel concepts that have contributed to the growt

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Mwambari, David. "Music and the politics of the past: Kizito Mihigo and music in the commemoration of the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda." Memory Studies 13, no. 6 (2019): 1321–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1750698018823233.

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After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, the post-genocide government spearheaded the creation of genocide commemorations. Over the past two decades, political elites and survivors’ organizations have gone to great lengths to institutionalize the memorialization, including creating laws to protect the memory of the genocide from denialism. Ordinary Rwandans have responded to the annual commemorations using creative means of support for and disagreement with the government’s interpretation of their shared violent past. Music has been used as citizen-driven tool to both spread and cr

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15

Kayigema, Jacques Lwaboshi, and Davie E. Mutasa. "THE DYNAMISM OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE IN POST-GENOCIDE RWANDA." Indonesian EFL Journal 3, no. 1 (2017): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.25134/ieflj.v3i1.659.

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English, as global language, has had great influence over most languages of the world for nearly two centuries now. The expansion of English is no exception in Rwanda, though. For the last two decades, the importance of English has been felt in the day to day activities of Rwanda. English became a third official language in Rwanda just after the 1994 genocide and a compulsory language of instruction since January 2009. This paper discusses the use of English in post-genocide Rwanda and its impact on French, over a borrowing one, Kinyarwanda and French. English has risen sharply for the last tw

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16

Day, Christopher. "Political governance in post-genocide Rwanda." African Affairs 116, no. 465 (2017): 723–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adx035.

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17

Hron, Madelaine. "Icyirezein Rwanda Fifteen Years Post‐Genocide." Peace Review 21, no. 3 (2009): 275–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10402650903099328.

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18

Hintjens, Helen. "Post-genocide identity politics in Rwanda." Ethnicities 8, no. 1 (2008): 5–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468796807087017.

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19

Breed, Amanda. "Resistant Acts in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Kritika Kultura, no. 21/22 (August 14, 2013): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.13185/kk2013.02110.

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20

Robson, Julia, James Bao, Alissa Wang, et al. "Making sense of Rwanda’s remarkable vaccine coverage success." International Journal of Healthcare 6, no. 1 (2020): 56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/ijh.v6n1p56.

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After the Rwandan genocide in 1994, vaccine coverage was close to zero. Several factors, including extreme poverty, rural populations and mountainous geography affect Rwandans’ access to immunizations. Post-conflict, various other factors were identified, including the lack of immunization program infrastructure, and lack of population-level knowledge and demand. In recent years, Rwanda is one of few countries that has demonstrated a sustained increase to near universal vaccination coverage, with a current rate of 98%. Our aim was to ask why and how Rwanda achieved this success so that it coul

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21

SULLO, PIETRO. "Lois Mémorielles in Post-Genocide Societies: The Rwandan Law on Genocide Ideology under International Human Rights Law Scrutiny." Leiden Journal of International Law 27, no. 2 (2014): 419–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156514000089.

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AbstractThis article discusses the Rwandan Law 18/2008 on genocide ideology in the light of international human rights standards. In order to put the genocide ideology law into context, it sketches a brief overview of the post-genocide scenario. Because of the influence that provisions restricting freedom of expression aimed at fighting negationism might exert on testimonies during genocide trials, it pays particular attention to the transitional justice strategies adopted in Rwanda. Finally, it assesses the law on the genocide ideology against the background provided by the measures implement

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22

Blackie, Laura, and Nicki Hitchcott. "‘I am Rwandan’: Unity and Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Genocide Studies and Prevention 12, no. 1 (2018): 24–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1911-9933.12.1.1480.

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23

Desrosiers, Marie-Eve, and Susan Thomson. "Rhetorical legacies of leadership: projections of ‘benevolent leadership’ in pre- and post-genocide Rwanda." Journal of Modern African Studies 49, no. 3 (2011): 429–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x11000279.

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ABSTRACTComparing pre- and post-genocide Rwanda, this article argues that clear continuities exist between the regimes of Juvénal Habyarimana and Paul Kagame. Both have projected a remarkably similar image of ‘benevolent leadership’. Presenting themselves as harbingers of an ‘improved’ or ‘new’ Rwanda, both leaderships have claimed to be best able and willing to guide Rwanda along the right path to peace, security, ethnic unity and development. ‘Benevolent leadership’ in both periods has also served as a tool to try and shape regime relationships with international and domestic audiences. Inte

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24

Desrosiers, Marie-Eve, and Haley J. Swedlund. "Rwanda’s post-genocide foreign aid relations: Revisiting notions of exceptionalism." African Affairs 118, no. 472 (2018): 435–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/ady032.

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Abstract This article studies donor–government relations in Rwanda since the end of the 1994 genocide. The notion that Rwanda enjoyed or enjoys exceptional relations with donors because of guilt regarding their inaction during the genocide is widespread in the literature and in policy circles. To assess this myth, the article first looks at aid trends for Rwanda and comparable countries, and then takes an in-depth look at aid relations with two average-size donors: Canada and the Netherlands. It demonstrates that Rwanda is not as exceptional as claimed, but instead should be considered one amo

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Brown, Sara E. "Reshaping Gender Norms in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Genocide Studies International 10, no. 2 (2016): 230–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/gsi.10.2.06.

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26

Palmer, Nicola. "Re-examining resistance in post-genocide Rwanda." Journal of Eastern African Studies 8, no. 2 (2014): 231–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2014.891716.

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27

Suhrke, Astri. "Memory and justice in post-genocide Rwanda." International Affairs 93, no. 6 (2017): 1498–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix201.

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Dushimirimana, Fabien, Vincent Sezibera, and Carl Auerbach. "Pathways to resilience in post genocide Rwanda." Intervention 12, no. 2 (2014): 219–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/wtf.0000000000000036.

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Thomas, Paul, Kristin Skinstad van der Kooij, and Vonzell Agosto. "The history syllabus in post-genocide Rwanda." Cogent Education 5, no. 1 (2018): 1541495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2018.1541495.

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Khumalo, Njabulo Bruce. "Silenced genocide voices in Zimbabwe’s archives: Drawing lessons from Rwanda’s post-genocide archives and documentation initiatives." Information Development 35, no. 5 (2018): 795–805. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0266666918802443.

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Archives are a very important part of any given community, yet they may be silent on some critical histories. Perpetrators of genocides have usually resorted to denying or even trivialising such atrocities. They go on to silence genocide voices and these silences translate to the absence of records and archives on such topics. Like Rwanda, post-independence Zimbabwe fell victim to a genocide which was executed by the ZANU PF government in Matabeleland and Midlands Provinces. The post-genocide experience has seen the ZANU PF government silencing genocide voices by criminalising or even denying

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Mwambari, David. "Leadership Emergence in Post-Genocide Rwanda: The role of Women in Peacebuilding." Leadership and Developing Societies 2, no. 1 (2018): 88–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.47697/lds.3435004.

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In the last two decades following the 1994 genocide, Rwanda has been praised internationally for its strong leadership and revamped governance structures. This has resulted in rapid economic development, restorative justice, homegrown peacebuilding approaches, the tackling of corruption, and restoring security in a country that some analysts had prematurely depicted a hopeless case in state failure. In particular, promotion of women’s rights has become a cornerstone of the Rwandan success story, but few scholars have examined the women who participated in this process and their positive contri

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Melvern, Linda. "Moral Equivalence." Journal of International Peacekeeping 22, no. 1-4 (2020): 190–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18754112-0220104012.

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Since the very beginning of the Rwandan Genocide of the Tutsis in 1994, members of Hutu Power, the Akazu, and other interested allies of the former government of Rwanda have been conducting a campaign of genocide denial, one in which they blame the Tutsi dominated Rwandan Patriotic Army for carrying out murder of civilians during the civil war in 1994. In this article Linda Melvern examines the role that Hutu Power played in creating the myth of a counter-genocide and the unwitting legitimacy that was given to it by several UN agencies and their associated employees and consultants. Melvern no

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Mannergren Selimovic, Johanna. "Gender, narrative and affect: Top-down politics of commemoration in post-genocide Rwanda." Memory Studies 13, no. 2 (2017): 131–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1750698017730869.

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This article takes an interest in gendered memory politics and addresses the dearth of research on gender and commemoration in relation to the genocide in Rwanda. It analyses elite-produced gendered narratives at key sites of commemoration and investigates their affective role in constituting the post-genocide Rwandan state. Through a methodological approach of ‘the situated gaze’, three central observations are made. First, women are mourned as a specific category of rape victims and mothers. Second, women’s experiences of sexual violence are at the same time censored and de-individualized. T

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Davis, Joanne. "Mobilizing transnational gender politics in post-genocide Rwanda." African Affairs 116, no. 465 (2017): 725–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adx034.

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Cassim Cachalia, Raeesah. "Mobilizing Transnational Gender Politics in Post-genocide Rwanda." Politikon 44, no. 1 (2017): 181–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2017.1274061.

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Kohen, Ari, Michael Zanchelli, and Levi Drake. "Personal and Political Reconciliation in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Social Justice Research 24, no. 1 (2011): 85–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-011-0126-7.

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Denov, Myriam, Laura Eramian, and Meaghan Shevell. "“You Feel Like You Belong Nowhere”: Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and Social Identity in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Genocide Studies and Prevention 14, no. 1 (2020): 40–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1663.

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Globally, the systematic use of sexual violence in modern warfare has resulted in the birth of thousands of children. Research has begun to focus on this often invisible group and the obstacles they face, including stigma, discrimination and exclusion based on their birth origins. Although sexual violence during the Rwandan genocide has been documented on a massive scale, little research has focused on the relational dynamics between mothers who experienced genocide rape and the children they bore. This paper explores the post-genocide realities of these two under-explored populations, reveali

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LAME, DANIELLE de. "Accounting for Horror: Post-Genocide Debates in Rwanda:Accounting for Horror: Post-Genocide Debates in Rwanda." American Anthropologist 108, no. 2 (2006): 413–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/aa.2006.108.2.413.

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Duriesmith, David, and Georgina Holmes. "The masculine logic of DDR and SSR in the Rwanda Defence Force." Security Dialogue 50, no. 4 (2019): 361–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0967010619850346.

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Since the 1994 genocide and civil war, the Rwandan government has implemented an externally funded disarmament, demobilization and reintegration/security sector reform (DDR/SSR) programme culminating in the consolidation of armed groups into a new, professionalized Rwanda Defence Force. Feminists argue that DDR/SSR initiatives that exclude combatant women and girls or ignore gendered security needs fail to transform the political conditions that led to conflict. Less attention has been paid to how gendered relations of power play out through gender-sensitive DDR and SSR initiatives that seek t

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Grant, Andrea Mariko. "The making of a ‘superstar’: the politics of playback and live performance in post-genocide Rwanda." Africa 87, no. 1 (2017): 155–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0001972016000747.

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AbstractThis article considers the reconstruction of Rwanda's post-genocide music industry through the national music competition, Primus Guma Guma Super Star. It explores local ideas about ‘playback’ and ‘live’ music, and argues that these two performative categories can be understood as wider metaphors for the relationship between the Rwandan state and its citizens, particularly Rwandan youth. On the one hand, Guma Guma aims to create the ideal post-genocide celebrity subject who will ‘play back’ a unified, de-ethnicized Rwandan identity with body and words. On the other, during the first tw

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King, Elisabeth. "Memory Controversies in Post-Genocide Rwanda: Implications for Peacebuilding." Genocide Studies and Prevention 5, no. 3 (2010): 293–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/gsp.5.3.293.

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Giblin, John. "Decolonial Challenges and Post-Genocide Archaeological Politics in Rwanda." Public Archaeology 11, no. 3 (2012): 123–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1465518713z.00000000012.

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O’Brien, Melanie. "Defining Genocide." Journal of International Peacekeeping 22, no. 1-4 (2020): 149–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18754112-0220104010.

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This article traces the historical development of the term “genocide” and discusses how it evolved from a post-World War II concept into a key component of international criminal law. Dr. O’Brien outlines some of the legal challenges that attend several of the key terms in the generally accepted definition of genocide: ‘destroy’, ‘in part’, ‘groups’, ‘intent’, and so on. She then concludes with an important and politically nuanced point essential to understanding the politics and afterlife of the Rwanda genocide – the weight of the “g” word.

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Cantrell, Phillip A. "The Anglican Church of Rwanda: domestic agendas and international linkages." Journal of Modern African Studies 45, no. 3 (2007): 333–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x07002650.

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ABSTRACTThe article analyses the relationship between the Anglican Church of Rwanda and evangelical Episcopalians in the United States. In 2000, the archbishop of Rwanda, Emmanuel Kolini, in a move that gained great support for Rwanda's post-genocide recovery, ordained several bishops to preside over congregations of orthodox, evangelical Americans who had severed their relationship with the Episcopalian Church of the United States over issues such as the blessing of same-sex marriages and the ordination of openly gay clergy. The result was the creation of the Anglican Mission in the Americas,

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Minami, Masahiro. "Field Feasibility and Acceptability Testing of Action-Based Psychosocial Reconciliation Approach in a Post-Genocide Rural Community in Rwanda." Social Science Protocols 4 (February 14, 2021): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.7565/ssp.v4.5199.

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Background: Interpersonal/psychosocial reconciliation is highly prioritized in post-Genocide Rwanda. Despite the need, empirically sound strategies have been extremely scarce. The proposed study is a segment of a broader services-research effort to develop, evaluate, and implement a novel and empirically supported interpersonal/psychosocial reconciliation approach termed Action-Based Psychosocial Reconciliation Approach (ABPRA), that is authentically founded on Rwandan people’s lived experiences of reconciliation. Methods/Design: The proposed study consists of two major steps. The purpos

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Eramian, Laura. "Neither obedient nor resistant: state history as cultural resource in post-genocide Rwanda." Journal of Modern African Studies 55, no. 4 (2017): 623–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x17000404.

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ABSTRACTFollowing the 1994 genocide, scholars have criticised the Rwandan government's official account of national history and its restrictions on competing historical narratives. But what might Rwandans be doing with that state narrativebesidesconforming to it out of fear of reprisal? I argue that to understand what sustains official narratives we must grasp not only their coercive aspects, but also how social actors put them to work for different reasons. I offer four possible forms of agency in which Rwandans engage when they reproduce official history to show how – while forcibly imposed

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Guglielmo, Federica. "Medicalizing violence: victimhood, trauma and corporeality in post-genocide Rwanda." Critical African Studies 7, no. 2 (2015): 146–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21681392.2015.1039804.

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Samset, Ingrid. "Building a Repressive Peace: The Case of Post-Genocide Rwanda." Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 5, no. 3 (2011): 265–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2011.566485.

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Turner, Simon. "Making Good Citizens from Bad Life in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Development and Change 45, no. 3 (2014): 415–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dech.12093.

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Kubai, Anne. "Walking a Tightrope: Christians and Muslims in Post-Genocide Rwanda." Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 18, no. 2 (2007): 219–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09596410701214076.

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