Academic literature on the topic 'Power tariffs'

Power and energy tariffs and their pricing are a vital component which form the main source of income for all actors in the energy industry. Different methods of how to price the energy have been proposed and implemented through the past century, each with its respective advantages and disadvantages. However, in the recent decades, interest has turned towards having power-based tariffs, since it’s the power dimensioning that counts for the majority of the costs. Sala-Heby Energi Elnät AB is local, publicly-owned Swedish distribution system operator which has been using a power-based tariff system for the last 15 years. That being said, the company has an upper limit for their net income which should not be overpassed. With the ongoing energy transition, where the number of electric vehicles in circulation is going up, and more customers turning towards residential micro-production, such a tariff might require modifications. In addition, a look on how the demand will evolve will be needed to see if the grid could handle such a transition. In this paper, a thorough study is conducted on how the energy transition would look like in Sala, Sweden, and what Sala-Heby Energi Elnät AB would expect. A simulation of the total residential load curve of the city is developed and ran via MATLAB and consumption data offered by Sala-Heby Energi Elnät AB. It involved generating an average residence based on the fuse size, which would yield the annual consumption profile to be used. The simulations were also done for several scenarios of different electric vehicle charging routines. They also take into account several residential PV systems coverages in the said city. Depending on which scenario, a rise or a drop in the net income is recorded. Modifications to the power tariff are explored based on that would help counter the fluctuations in the income, and simulated to track their effect. Another aspect that is studied is the subscription capacity to the grid by the operator to the respective power generation. Depending also on the scenario, various excessive consumptions peaks are recorded, which could pave the way to more difficulty in handling the grid.

Sustainability and environmental concerns are critical issues in energy sector. Limited availability of fossil resources, environmental pollution caused by the greenhouse gases emitted as a result of fossil fuel usage and safety issues of nuclear power plants cause the seek of new resources in energy industry. Renewable energy sources emerge as the alternative energy resources for the industry. The unlimited availability of most of the renewable resources meets the sustainability needs in the energy sector. Energy generation from renewable resources causes low greenhouse gas emissions, which eliminates the environmental concerns. Moreover, use of renewable resources does not involve risks like radioactive emissions. Despite all these factors, renewable energy resources are not competitive yet. The cost of energy generation from renewable resources is high compared to the cost of using conventional resources like coal for energy generation. This situation acts as a barrier for the development of renewable energy technologies and cost reduction. In order to bring renewable energy to a competitive level in the energy market, some supportive mechanisms have been developed and implemented in various countries. This thesis work examines the mechanisms in the EU, the USA and Turkey. An examination has been performed on the current laws and policies effective on renewable energy sector in Turkey. As a result of the examinations, recommendations have been made to improve the legislative framework for the promotion of renewable energy in Turkey.

Orientadores: Sergio Valdir Bajay, Gilberto De Martino Jannuzzi<br>Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica<br>Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-19T02:38:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Paccola_JoseAngelo_M.pdf: 1894026 bytes, checksum: 35049932286f9b2cae4ab204843bfb40 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007<br>Resumo: Durante as últimas décadas, têm-se introduzido poucas modificações no setor elétrico brasileiro no que se refere às novas modalidades de tarifas para os consumidores finais. As mudanças mais radicais foram implantadas no início da década de oitenta com a introdução das tarifas horosazonais verde e azul. O objetivo desta dissertação é testar as possibilidades de se formular novas tarifas horosazonais no País, através de uma análise crítica da aplicação destas no Brasil e no mundo, e a realização de um estudo de caso envolvendo pesquisas de campo, entrevistas e medições em consumidores industriais atendidos na categoria tarifária A4. A análise da experiência nacional aborda a implantação e o desenvolvimento das tarifas horosazonais - verde, azul e amarela - e tarifas de fornecimento interruptível no País por meio de um histórico completo dos fatos mais importantes, ocorridos desde 1957 até 2006, e de uma avaliação dos resultados a que se chegou com a implantação destas tarifas. Na análise da experiência internacional, examinaram-se os casos de França, Canadá, Estados Unidos e Portugal. O estudo de caso envolveu três pesquisas de campo. A primeira delas teve como objetivo escolher os segmentos industriais com maior potencial para a modulação de carga. Com a segunda pesquisa, conseguiu-se conhecer melhor os consumidores dos segmentos de calçados e de móveis, em termos de perfil de demanda e de detalhes de seus processos produtivos, visando estabelecer, com mais segurança, suas possibilidades de modulação de carga. A terceira pesquisa de campo permitiu o levantamento dos dados técnicos e econômicos, necessários para se fazer simulações e uma avaliação quantitativa dos impactos econômicos decorrentes de um terceiro posto tarifário para estes consumidores, na madrugada. As análises custo/benefício, realizadas no estudo de caso, levaram em conta tanto a ótica do consumidor como a da concessionária. Os resultados das simulações realizadas mostraram que os custos com mão-de-obra chegam a ser 35 vezes maiores do que aqueles com a fatura de eletricidade nestes segmentos industriais. Isto desestimula um possível deslocamento de parte da produção para o período noturno, por conta do adicional noturno no custo da mão-de-obra, mesmo com tarifas de energia elétrica muito baixas neste período<br>Abstract: During the last decades, the Brazilian electric sector has introduced little changes in tariffs for end-use consumers. The most radical changes were implanted at the beginning of the eighties, with the introduction of a seasonal tariff structure called green and blue. The objective of this work is to test some possibilities to formulate a new seasonal tariff in Brazil, through a critical analysis of these tariffs in Brazil and in other countries. This was made through field researches, interviews and the measuring of some industrial consumers. The national experience analysis includes the implementation and development of the seasonal tariffs - green, blue and yellow -, the supply curtailable rate and a complete historical of the more important facts occurred since 1957 up to 2006, together with an evaluation of the impacts in the implementation of these tariffs. In the analysis of the international experience, it was examined tariffs in France, Canada, United States and Portugal. The case study involved three researches on the field. The first one was to choose the industrial segments with larger potential for load modulation. The second research explored both footwear and furniture industries in terms of theirs demand profile and productive processes, with the objective of establishing their load modulation change possibilities more accurately. The third field research obtained the necessary technical and economical data, to work with simulations in a quantitative analysis of the economic impacts of a third tariff position during night time. The cost-benefit analysis considered both consumers and Utility's point of views. The results of the simulations has shown that the cost of labor is sometimes 35 times higher than electricity bills in the footwear and furniture industries, rendering useless a possible load modulation change during the night. Furthermore, during night time the cost of labor increases<br>Mestrado<br>Planejamento de Sistemas Energeticos<br>Mestre em Planejamento de Sistemas Energéticos

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.<br>The recent transformation in the Ugandan energy sector has led to a significant surge in private electricity generation companies in the country. These companies have a heterogeneous capital structure and they tend to charge different tariff rates for the electricity generated. While the capital structure might have an important role to play in differential tariff setting, it is not clear to what extent it influences the tariff structure of electricity generation projects. Thus, the objective of this study was to examine the effect of capital structure on the tariff of electricity generation projects in Uganda after controlling for other factors such as operation and maintenance costs, technology used for generation, project development costs, and installed capacity of generation plants on the generation tariffs. Using cross-sectional data from 29 companies as at September 2014, a bootstrap linear regression analysis was used for estimation. The results of the study indicated that the higher the debt portion in the capital structure, the lower the generation tariff. However, the impact of debt in the capital structure was not statistically significant. What stood out is that renewable technologies have a much lower generating tariff than non-renewable technologies.

Thesis: S.M. in Technology and Policy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Engineering Systems Division, Technology and Policy Program, 2015.<br>Title as it appears in MIT Commencement Exercises program, June 5, 2015: How electricity impacts the attractiveness of gas fired distributed cogeneration technologies. Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.<br>Includes bibliographical references.<br>In order to achieve a more sustainable energy system, regulators and the industry are trying to balance among many challenging issues such as environmental concerns, economic efficiency and security of supply. In Europe, the environmental concerns are getting a higher weight in current discussions. While it is important to continue exploring the potential of renewables as well as other clean energy sources, finding a more effective way to utilize existing resources is also a viable solution. Combined heat and Power (CHP), also known as cogeneration, denotes a group of technologies that generate electricity and useful heat concurrently. Benefits of distributed CHP technologies arise from their direct connection to distribution and customer facilities, which can potentially alleviate transmission and distribution network constraints, lower network energy losses, improve system reliability, and result in CO2 emissions reductions and overall capital cost. This thesis focuses on understanding the technological, social and economic attractiveness of CHP technologies under different tariff designs, market conditions and incentives. It not only looks at the optimum economic value of CHP to individual customers, but also impacts on the system peak load and the environment. For that purpose, the thesis develops a methodology that focuses on analyzing customers' reactions to various exogenous parameters by looking at their CHP installation and operation decisions. Moreover, it adopts an overarching framework that integrates and streamlines the processes from simulation of customers' energy loads, representation of regulatory and market conditions, to the generation and interpretation of the installation and operations decisions. Results suggest that many distributed CHP technologies could bring positive economic value to the customers even without considering incentives. In the meanwhile, metrics like CO2 emissions, overall efficiency and system peak reduction all improved with the introduction of NGDCHPs. These observations confirm that NGDCHP systems have the potential to reduce costs at both the individual customers' level and at the system level. Moreover, we find that customers' decisions are noticeably influenced by the tariffication and incentive methods. Volumetric-only tariffs suffer from potential cross-subsidization and insufficient remuneration for network companies, but encourage higher utilization rate and installations because of the higher variable electricity price. In comparison, breaking down the electricity prices based on different cost drivers could send the correct economic signals to the customers while still meeting the sustainability principle for tariff designs. Additionally, we find that changing market conditions can have significant effects on the economic value of CHP systems installed on-site, and the annual savings are most sensitive to electricity purchase prices. In conclusion, the goal of this research is to explore the value of gas fired distributed CHP systems under different settings. It informs the private sector as well as the policymakers by how to realize the potential benefits of distributed CHP systems. In the future, the methodology and framework developed in this thesis could be further applied to analyze scenarios where distributed CHP penetration is high and is coupled with other distributed energy resources.<br>by Yichen Du.<br>S.M. in Technology and Policy

The batterystoragewillplayanimportantroleinfuturesmartdistributiongrids.Atthesame time,thereshouldbeavailabilityofvaryingtariffstructures,fromwhichcustomerscan chooseaccordingtotheirrequirement.Thisresearchthesisfocusesonthestudyofimpact ofbatterystorageinthedistributiongridandhowpowertariffscanhelpincreasethebattery storage’spenetrationpercentage.The researchisdonetoassesstheimpactofbothhomebatteriesandEVsonthedistributiongrid, andhowmuchcantheyincreaseordecreasethedemandintheregion.Alsoapartofthesis isdedicatedtocreatenewpowertariffstructuresforStockholmregionofEllevio,andthenelectricity billsoftheconsumersarecomparedwithexistingtariffsandnewsuggestedtariffs.ForthethesisaresidentialareaofStockholmRoyalSeaport/NorraDjurgårdenstadenischosen.Ellevio iselectricitydistributionresponsibleforthearea.HomebatteriesofPowervaultU.KandTeslaPowerwall2arechosenandforEV,TeslaModelSwith60KWhbatterysizeisselected.One ofthemostinterestingfindingsisthatagroupof480customerswithhomebatterycanbring thepowerdemandduringpeakhoursdownbyupto11%,butontheotherhanda50%penetration ofEVintheareacanincreasedemandatcertainhoursbymorethan250%.Oneofother findingwasthatifcustomersshifttheirchargingpatternofEVbycoupleofhourstheycan increasethedemandinthegrid,emphasizingontheroleofcustomersinfuturedistributionsystems.SuggestedPowertariffsshowanincreaseinmonetaryamountsavedbycustomerifthey optforhomebatteries.Themostamountsavedbythecustomerisincaseofthestrictestpower tariffsuggested,i.e.Powertariffwithcriticaltimecomponentandtimeofusecomponent.This thesiswillbecomeafoundationforfuturestudyofimpactofbatteriesonalargerregionand impactofbatteriesownedbyDSOinthegrid.Italsoopensnewpathwaystostudyvaryingretail contractsforthecustomersandhowcombinationofvaryingretailcontractandpowertariffs canresultinbetterdemandflexibility.<br>Batterilager kommerattspelaenviktigrolliframtidasmartaeldistributionsnät.Sam-tidigt bördetfinnasmöjlighettillvarierandeeltariffstrukturerförelkonsumenter.Dettaexamensarbete fokuserarpåstudieraveffektenavbatterilagringieldistributionsnätetochhureltarifferkanbidratillattökagenomslagetavbatterilager.Studierharävengjortsföratt bedömaeffektenpåeldistributionsnätetavhembatterierochelfordonmedstudieravhurefterfrågan påelinverkas.Specifiktföreslåsnyaeltarifferförettområdedärelräkningarförelkunder jämförsmedexisterandeochföreslagnanyaeltariffer.Arbetet harutförtsisamarbetemellanEllevio,denlokalaeldistributöreniStockholm,ochKTH. FallstudierharutförtsförbostadsområdetNorraDjurgårdsstaden.Vidarehartvåolikatyper avhembatteriervaltsförstudienvilkaärPowervaultrespektiveTeslaPowerwall2.Förstudie avelfordonharTeslaModelSvaltsmed60kWhbatteristorlek.Resultat frånfallstudiernavisarattengruppom480hushållskundermedhembatteri,kanminska totalaefterfråganpåelvidtopplastmedupptill11%.Resultatenvisarattom50%avpersonbilsparkenisammaområdevarelfordonskulleefterfråganavelvidtopplastökamed merän250%.Studiernavisarhurolikaladdningsmönsterförelbilarinverkarpåtotalabelastningen ielnätet.Därmedgesexempelpådencentralarollenelkonsumentenfåridetframtida eldistributionsnätet.Föreslagnaenergitarrifferförelvisarpåmöjlighetentillekonomiskvinst förelkonsumentervilkaanvänderhembatterier.Arbetet liggertillgrundförframtidastudieravinverkanavbatterieristörreområdenochbatteriersomägsaveldistributören.Ettannatområdeförframtidastudierärhurelkon-sumenternas efterfrågeflexibilitetkanökaserhållasgenomvarierandelösningarförelavtalochenergitariffer.

Concerns over climate change impacts, goals to increase environmental sustainability, and questions about the reliability of fuel supply have led several countries to pursue the goal of increasing the share of renewable energy sources in their electricity grid. Portugal is one of the leading countries for wind electricity generation. Wind diffusion in Portugal started in the early 2000’s and in 2013 wind electricity generation accounted for more than 24% (REN 2013b). The large share of wind in Portuguese electricity production is a consequence of European Union (E.U.) mandates and national policies, mainly feed-in tariffs. Discussions on the appropriate policy design and level of incentive to promote renewable energy adoption and meet further renewable capacity goals are ongoing in Portugal, namely in what concerns the level and duration of feed-in tariffs that should be provided to independent power producers. This, in turn, raises the question of whether the past feed-in tariff levels were well designed to achieve the goals of a larger penetration of renewables in the Portuguese grid. The policies to induce wind adoption have led to a growth in wind installed capacity and share of electricity generated by wind in Portugal from less than 1% in 2000 to approximately 24% in 2013, but questions arise on their cost-effectiveness and whether alternative policy designs would have led to the same goal. vi The Portuguese wind feed-in tariffs are a guaranteed incentive which has varied between $85- $180/MWh over the last 20 years (ERSE 2011), and remained approximately constant since 2001 at $101/MWh. They are currently guaranteed for 20 years of production or 44GWh of electricity generation per MW installed (Diário da República 2013) - the longest period among countries with high wind electricity share. They do not incorporate any digression rate besides inflation, and are guaranteed for every unit of electricity fed to the grid. There are no power plants that have already been decommissioned despite being in operation for more than 20 years, favoring from new, detailed and hard-to-follow agreements in the legislation. All wind parks that are currently in operation have received feed-in tariffs since they connected to the grid, and are expected to keep receiving them at least until December 2019, and up to December 2036 - depending on year of connection and agreement under the most recent legislation (Diário da República 2013). The 2020 renewable energy goals in Portugal include having 6.8 GW of installed wind capacity, which implies the connection of 2 GW in the next years. If no further grid investments are made and wind capacity increases up to 100 MW to the connection point that we analyze, total annual electricity spill is likely to range the 20% to 40%. If the connection grid policy is designed to allow for wind spill, already ‘occupied’ connection points will be available to new entrants, lowering the total investment costs for new wind parks and increasing their profitability. This thesis is divided in three main parts: a first introductory section, a retrospective study of wind power in Portugal and a prospective analysis of the Portuguese wind power sector. The introductory section is a brief overview of the global renewable status, described in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 compile a retrospective study of wind power and the policies that have incentivized wind diffusion. We include in the discussion some references to the future wind vii power goals, but the results and policy recommendations are directed towards the existing connected wind power capacity. Chapter 2 is a qualitative piece that describes in detail the motivation behind the Portuguese wind power diffusion, the policy changes over the last 20 years and the mechanics of the remuneration mechanism, i.e. the feed-in tariff formula variables and the actors of the wind power sector. We compare the Portuguese feed-in tariff with other European feed-in tariff designs and conclude that the incentive is one of the highest in Europe, contributing to the current Portuguese electricity system deficit of about $2 billion. If feed-in tariffs keep being fixed and do not incorporate any market variation, and renewables are prioritized to meet electricity demand, feed-in tariff net support per unit of electricity might be higher when the wind blows the most because moments with high penetration of renewable power might be correlated with low market prices. We find that wind power penetration is correlated with net exports to Spain. This might result in a net cost to Portugal and a subsidy to Spanish electricity consumers per unit of electricity traded. In total terms, the resulting subsidy is higher when the wind resource is larger as well, as the total amount of electricity that is exported increases. In Chapter 3 we estimate the profits of wind power producers connected in Portugal between 1992 and 2010, and we recommend specific policy reforms that would lower spending in the form of wind feed-in tariffs. In particular, we assess four scenarios to decrease the level and/or period of the tariffs. We find that under the 2005 legislation - in which feed-in tariffs are granted for 15 years, all existing wind parks have positive NPVs varying between $0 and $12/MWh, when considering a 20-year lifetime. In fact, most of existing wind parks can stop receiving the feed-in tariff now (July 2014), and instead participate directly in the Iberian electricity market and still be profitable. Moreover, under the 2013 feed-in tariff reform that aims at decreasing the viii electricity system deficit, total spending will increase and wind parks will have larger profits than under the 2005 legislation. The motivation of keeping a high feed-in tariff comes from the need of liquidity that wind producers can provide immediately to the electricity system, which is required at this moment to comply with the E.U. economic agreements signed during the recession. Nevertheless, the environmental and energy dependency benefits of the Portuguese wind sector could have been achieved with as much as 25% less spending. Later on, we move to analyze future wind power additions. Chapter 4 compiles a prospective analysis of the wind power sector in Portugal. We focus on new wind parks that will connect to critical lines of the distribution grid in two regions of the country, as part of the national 2030 wind power goals. In particular, we assess the implications of a 100% guaranteed availability of grid power capacity. We find that from the investor perspective, it is more profitable to bear some risk of wind power curtailment, because of the avoided costs that would otherwise be incurred to upgrade the grid. We also find that since there is ample room in the distribution lines to connect more wind parks, very few grid upgrades can allow to highly increase the distributed wind capacity with a low risk of wind curtailment. Moreover, even in scenarios with ‘high curtailment’ of 5% to 20%, projects are profitable. Thus, the Portuguese government should consider a policy where the guaranteed feed-in would be removed, and further assess the possibility of limiting profitability of the existing and new wind projects by introducing curtailment. This work compiles two perspectives: first, a temporal perspective, in which past and future assessments of wind power diffusion are described. Second, a perspective on policy characterization, in which we present an assessment of two characteristics in the feed-in tariff design: the level/period of the tariff and the conditionality of prioritizing wind power over fossilix fuel resources with absence of risk of wind power curtailment. The level and period-related policy recommendations are considered for the existing wind parks, and are addressed mainly in Chapter 3. Considerations about grid capacity and introducing a risk of wind power curtailment are considered for subsequent wind power capacity additions, and are mainly considered in Chapter 4. In addition, notice that Chapter 3 focuses on avoiding excessive profitability of wind power parks while in Chapter 4 we analyze wind and grid capacity additions under the perspective of wind investors. Nevertheless, as we also find in Chapter 4 that profits are excessive, we do make recommendations that limit wind investor’s revenue. Portuguese decision maker should give serious consideration to revisions to the Portuguese feed-in tariff policy design. Most of the existing Portuguese wind parks to not need a feed-in tariff to be profitable. A value associated with the risk of wind power curtailment for subsequent additions should be incorporated in future policy design. We expect that this work will contribute to the Portuguese renewable policy in particular in light of Portugal’s 2020 and 2030 wind power goals.

Orientador: Sergio Valdir Bajay<br>Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica<br>Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T08:30:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sales_JulioCesarFerreira_M.pdf: 3084346 bytes, checksum: b1e7ffdddc91e01a1778fd2c01b950b3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009<br>Resumo: A dissertação tem origem nas avaliações da regulação econômica do setor de energia elétrica no Brasil, a partir do processo de revisão tarifária periódica implementada pela ANEEL que considera a metodologia de "reposicionamento tarifário". Essa metodologia acabou por gerar injustiças tarifárias com a elevação das tarifas dos consumidores das áreas de concessão economicamente menos desenvolvidas e redução das tarifas daquelas mais desenvolvidas. A identificação da condição inicial de equilíbrio econômico-financeiro do contrato de concessão das concessionárias de distribuição de eletricidade, a quantificação desta condição e como ela deve ser preservada ao longo do contrato, por meio das regras de revisão tarifária, é o principal ponto de argumentação apresentado aqui para correção das distorções existentes nas tarifas de energia elétrica após as revisões tarifárias. Essas considerações só são possíveis a partir de uma interpretação jurídica da lei de concessões (Lei 8987/1995) e do contrato de concessão diferente daquela adotada pela ANEEL. Em decorrência da abordagem apresentada são identificadas as condições que devem ser observadas no cálculo do fator "X" no momento da revisão tarifária periódica das concessionárias.<br>Abstract: The thesis originates in the evaluations of the economical regulation of the electric power sector in Brazil, particularly in what concerns the periodic tariff revision process implemented by the ANEEL, through the "tariff repositioning" methodology. This methodology ended up producing tariff injustices, with tariffs increases for the consumers of the economically less developed concession areas and tariff reductions for the consumers of more developed areas. The identification of the initial economic and financial equilibrium condition of the concession contract of the electric power distribution utilities, the quantification of this condition and how it should be preserved along the contract, through the tariff revision rules, are the main points discussed here for the correction of the existing distortions in the tariffs of electric energy, after the tariff revisions. The arguments put forward are based on a legal interpretation of the Concessions Law (Law 8987/1995) and the concession contracts different from that adopted by ANEEL. As a consequence of the approach presented, the conditions that should be observed in the calculation of the "X" factor, during the periodic tariff revisions of the utilities, are identified.<br>Mestrado<br>Mestre em Planejamento de Sistemas Energéticos

Determining which countries are the most financially attractive for businesses to build wind projects is a matter of serious discussion that lacks succinct commentary. To fill this void this paper employs an empirical study of the wind subsidy support systems used by Germany, France, Spain and Sweden. This paper is based on the premise that businesses prefer to build where they can find the highest overall remuneration for their production; recognizing also the need for stability in those payments and businesses’ strong preference for larger early returns on their investments. The paper also analyzes the results and gives recommendations on possible improvements to each country’s system and where businesses should invest.In order to reach their 20-20-20 E.U. goals (European Commission, 2010), countries are encouraging the creation of new green energy projects, and this encouragement is frequently in the form of subsidies. The subsidy types used by the countries reviewed are feed-in tariffs, premiums and a certificate quota system. Each country’s support history is detailed along with the criteria of their respective systems.The countries systems are then compared using actual income and production data for four criteria at three different production levels – 100 percent, 75 percent and 150 percent of actual – and at two different lengths of time, 7 and 20 years. The first criteria of the comparison is total income, the second for variability of payments, the third for timing of payments and the final is the stability of the system itself.The results of this research show that the German and French systems are superior at all levels for their low variability in payment prices and in making larger payments to businesses earlier. They are also generally superior at lower and actual production levels for total income amounts. However, the Spanish options are superior at high levels of production for income and have middling variability levels. The Swedish system generally has the highest levels of variability for the lowest levels of income. Only the Spanish system is considered to be unstable in its political support of subsidies. Based upon the preceding findings are given to each country to improve their relative weaknesses. Also recommendations are given to businesses based upon the quality of the locations wind resources.