Academic literature on the topic 'Pragmatic language development'

Unlike other areas of second language study, which are primarily concerned with acquisitional patterns of interlanguage knowledge over time, most studies in inter-language pragmatics have focused on second language use rather than second language learning. The aim of this talk is to profile interlanguage pragmatics as an area of inquiry in second language acquisition research, by reviewing existing studies with a focus on learning, examining research findings in interlanguage pragmatics that shed light on some basic questions in SLA, exploring cognitive and social-psychological theories that might offer explanations of different aspeas of pragmatic development, and proposing a research agenda for the study of interlanguage pragmatics with a developmental perspective that will tie it more closely to other areas of SLA.

Pragmatics is considered to be an important aspect of language instruction. Today, scholars in language instruction recognize that learners must develop linguistic as well as pragmatic competence. Pragmatic competence helps learners understand, employ, and interpret language in context. However, pragmatics is regarded as one of the most strenuous aspects of language teaching and learning. Studies in pragmatics still seek to respond to the question about the teachability of targeted pragmatic features, which opens the question about whether pragmatics can be taught effectively. Can pragmatics be fully taught or must educators focus on key features of pragmatics such as speech acts, which is perhaps currently the most important established part of the subject? Certainly pragmatics and language teaching should accompany each other. However, in order to assist and assess learners in the appropriate use of language in context, language teachers today must receive some explicit instruction about pragmatics themselves. They need to be acquainted with the resources available to teach pragmatic norms. Speech acts, as part of pragmatics, can help teachers orient their instruction on developing a general awareness of how language forms are used in context. Speech acts provide a framework on which teachers can build learning opportunities for L2 pragmatic development. Speech acts can greatly support students´ development of pragmatic competence. Focusing on speech acts to teach pragmatics seems to be the answer today in language instruction; at least until new classroom research arise to help teachers find resources and materials of pragmatic features and norms.

ABSTRACTThis study examines pragmatic differentiation in early trilingual development through a longitudinal analysis of language choice in a developing Tagalog–Spanish–English trilingual child. The child's patterns of language choice with different language users are analyzed at age 1 ; 10 and 2 ; 4 to examine: (1) whether evidence for pragmatic differentiation can be found even before age two and in simultaneous interactions with distinct language users; (2) whether lexical gaps determine the child's choice of one language over another; and (3) whether her patterns of language choice are affected by the interlocutors language use and their responses to mixing. The results indicate that the child was capable of selecting the appropriate language according to the interlocutors' language from the earliest sessions. However, switches to inappropriate languages were common due to vocabulary gaps, the interlocutors' acceptance of mixing and the possibilities determined by the existence of multiple lexical resources and multiple language users.

Abstract In the past, research in interlanguage pragmatics has primarily explained the differences between native speakers’ (NS) and non-native speakers’ (NNS) pragmatic performance based on cross-cultural and linguistic differences. Very few researchers have considered learners’ pragmatic performance based on second language comprehension. In this study, we will examine learners’ pragmatic performance using request strategies. The results of this study reveal that there is a proficiency effect for interpreting request speech acts at different levels of directness. We propose that learners’ processing strategies and capacities are important factors to consider when examining learners’ pragmatic performance.

The aims of this paper are to review research literature on the role that the second language (L2) and foreign language (FL) environments actually play in the development of learners’ target language (TL) pragmatic ability, and also to speculate as to the extent to which individual factors can offset the advantages that learners may have by being in the L2 context while they are learning. The paper starts by defining pragmatics and by problematizing this definition. Then, attention is given to research literature dealing with the learning of pragmatics in an L2 context compared to an FL context. Next, studies on the role of pragmatic transfer are considered, with subsequent attention given to the literature on the incidence of pragmatic transfer in FL as opposed to L2 contexts. Finally, selected studies on the role of motivation in the development of pragmatic ability are examined. In the discussion section, a number of pedagogical suggestions are offered: the inclusion of pragmatics in teacher development, the use of authentic pragmatics materials, motivating learners to be more savvy about pragmatics, and supporting learners in accepting or challenging native-speaker norms. Suggestions as to further research in the field are also offered.

The question of “how second languages are learned” (Gass & Selinker 1994:1) is central to second language acquisition (SLA) research; however, although a number of longitudinal studies have been carried out examining second language (L2) grammatical development, very little attention has been devoted to L2 learners' development of pragmatic competence over time. As Achiba points out, the majority of previous studies on L2 (or interlanguage) pragmatics have observed the single-moment pragmatic realization of a group of L2 learners with similar proficiency levels and compared it with that of native speakers or L2 learners with different proficiency levels or first language (L1) backgrounds. The current paucity of knowledge regarding the developmental aspect of L2 pragmatic competence has led to calls for detailed longitudinal interlanguage pragmatic studies (cf. Kasper & Schmidt 1996, Kasper & Rose 1999). Achiba's study, which carefully observes the pragmatic development in English requestive realization of a seven-year-old Japanese girl over a period of 17 months, certainly meets these essential needs.

Since pragmatic competence and grammatical competence are two distinct aspects of communicative competence (Bachman, 1990), a high level of grammatical competence may not lead to a high level of pragmatic competence, rather it can be best developed through immersion in the target language. In this respect, this paper addresses three research questions within the context of an immersive language program in an EFL setting: 1) Does instruction in an immersive language program have a significant effect on language learners’ general language proficiency? 2) Is there any significant relationship between language learners’ general language proficiency and their pragmatic competence? 3) Is there any significant relationship between language learners’ level of language contact and their pragmatic competence?In the experiment, Japanese first-year college students (n=18) were assessed through TOEFL PBT at the start of a one-year language immersion program. The subjects thereupon participated in an intensive language program. At the end of the academic year, all subjects took another TOEFL PBT along with a pragmatic competence test (Bardovi-Harlig, 2009) and a language contact survey. The statistical findings of this study demonstrated a significant positive effect for immersive language program on general language proficiency. However, the findings found no significant association between general language proficiency and pragmatic competence and only a weak correlation between language contact and pragmatic competency. This suggests that developing general linguistic proficiency and immersive language contact with a target language do not automatically ensure the acquisition of pragmatic competence.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2002.<br>Includes bibliographical references (p. 111-116).<br>by Paulina Varchavskaia.<br>S.M.

<p> This study examines proposals made during planning talk&mdash;a speech act that has received little attention in previous literature&mdash;to determine the applicability of the stages of second language (L2) pragmatic development posited by Kasper and Rose (2002). Although Kasper and Rose suggest that formulas play a prominent role in L2 pragmatic development, few studies have considered the applicability of their stages to a non-formulaic speech act. The current study investigated proposal production in the planning talk of 69 participants: 46 learners of Spanish enrolled at five levels of instruction in a seven-week Spanish immersion program, 12 native Spanish speaking instructors in the same program, and 11 native English speaking undergraduate students at the same institution enrolled during the academic year. The L2 learners worked in groups of two or three as they planned three different role-plays during the seventh week of instruction. The native speakers met with the researcher in groups of two or three to complete the same role-plays in their first language (L1). A total of 1809 proposals and 351 supporting moves were produced in approximately four hours of planning talk. Analysis of transcriptions focused on the realization of the head-act strategies, deictic centering, internal and external modification, and the influence of the conversational context on the production of proposals. Results of this cross-sectional analysis suggest that learners do not pass through a formulaic stage when producing proposals in planning talk. The results also suggest that the learners' production of proposals exhibits a u-shaped curve as they adhere to L1 English norms at intermediate levels of proficiency before reflecting L1 Spanish norms at more advanced levels of instruction. L1 English influence was observed in the level of directness of the head-act strategies, the use of deictic centering, internal and external modification, and the influence of the conversational context. Results point to a new framework involving three universal stages of L2 pragmatic development in which L1 influence and pragmatic expansion are more salient. </p>

Metapragmatic awareness (MPA) is the ability to explicitly reflect upon the pragmatic rules that govern conversation. There is a paucity of research on how MPA develops in childhood and whether it is impaired in children with pragmatic impairments. Despite this, MPA is often cited as an intervention tool for children with pragmatic language impairments (cwPLI) and children with specific language impairments (cwSLI). There are currently no published assessments of MPA ability and practice would benefit from application of a formalised assessment methodology. This thesis reports the phases of development of a novel clinical assessment of MPA for school-aged children called the Assessment of Metapragmatics (AMP). The AMP task is a set of 13 Video Items each depicting a conversation between pairs of school-aged children. Each Video Item portrays a different pragmatic rule violation. After viewing each AMP Video Item the participants were asked a set of Assessor Questions designed to measure MPA. The AMP Video Items were shown to 40 children with typical language development (cwTLD), 34 cwPLI and 14 cwSLI. Preliminary analyses revealed the AMP to be sensitive to age-related changes in MPA and to demonstrate good internal reliability. For the cwTLD there was a distinct developmental shift in MPA ability around seven years of age. At this age there was an increase in the child’s ability to use explicit metapragmatic vocabulary to describe a pragmatic rule violation. CwTLD demonstrated superior MPA ability in comparison to the cwPLI and the cwSLI. No differential impairment in MPA abilities was present between the cwPLI and cwSLI. Considerable variability in MPA abilities occurred for both the cwPLI and cwSLI and this was associated with language ability. This suggests that where MPA is found to be impaired, the child’s language ability should be taken into account and that language ability should be remediated before MPA is targeted in intervention. Where MPA is impaired, raising awareness of pragmatic rule may be the first step for intervention. Where MPA is age-appropriate, the child’s ability to monitor their use of the pragmatic rule, or their motivation to use the pragmatic rule, may be a more effective target of intervention in order to change behaviour. The relationship between MPA and social understanding for the pragmatic rule violation is also discussed and further studies of MPA are considered.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--City University of Hong Kong, 2009.<br>"Submitted to Department of English in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 235-245)

In everyday interactions, speakers integrate gestures and speech sounds at a temporal level. One of the linguistic functions of temporally synchronous gesture-speech combinations is to provide prominence to specific parts of a discourse. While a bulk of evidence has explored the gesture-speech co-expressiveness at a semantic level, little is known about the children’s ability to use synchronized gestural and prosodic prominences in the benefit of language. This PhD thesis investigates gesture-speech temporal integration abilities in development and its beneficial impact for children’s language. The dissertation includes three independent studies at different time points in development, each one described in one chapter. The first two studies aim at investigating the role of perceiving gesture-speech temporal synchronizations functioning as markers of prominence, and its linkage to language abilities. First, a study investigated whether three- to- five- year- old children responded better to a word recall task when the word was presented with a contrast of prominence expressed with a synchronous beat gesture (i.e., a hand gesture synchronized with prominence in speech). The results indicated a beneficial local effect of the beat gesture on the recall of the temporally synchronous word. Second, a study examined whether six- to- eight- year-old children processed pragmatic inferences online more rapidly when the relevant information was presented together with a beat gesture. Additionally, this study investigated whether these potential benefits were due to the prominence expressed in the gesture or to its concomitant prosodic prominence. Results showed that children’s processing of a pragmatic inference was improved by both prosodic and beat gesture prominence contributions to the discourse. The last study focused on the predictive role of the first infant’s uses of temporally synchronous gesture-speech combinations on later language development. To do so, a longitudinal study correlated the infants’ production of synchronous pointing gesture-speech combinations during controlled socio-communicative interactions at 12 months with linguistic measures at 18 months. Results demonstrated that synchronous productions positively correlated with lexical and grammatical development at 18 months of age. Overall, the three studies show evidence that infant's synchronous gesture-speech abilities (a) function as multimodal markers of prominence; (b) when perceived in a discourse context synchronies have positive impact on children’s word recall (Study 1) and pragmatic inference resolution (Study 2); and (c) infants’ first productions of synchronous gesture-speech combinations serve a communicative strategy which is correlated to later language abilities (Study 3). The findings of the studies presented in this thesis point out the importance of synchronous gesture-speech combinations in highlighting information, as well as their beneficial effects in language acquisition.

This study explores the hypothesis that there are particular difficulties for secondary school students with specific developmental language disorder (SDLD) in understanding contextual, pragmatic meaning in relation to non pragmatic (semantic) meaning. It compares sixty-four SDLD students, aged between twelve and fourteen years, with chronolgical-age-matched and language-age-matched non-language impaired students. Language age is measured by a test of non-pragmatic meaning comprehension. Incorporating the development of new procedures, the study examines the students' comprehension of two types of ambiguity where the context determines the speaker's intention: inconsistent messages of emotion and multiple meanings in context. These types of ambiguity are evident in a range of communicative intent, for example, to express sarcasm, idiomatic expression, deceipt and humour. Preliminary study into adolescent language suggests that, at this age, there is a particular expectation for students to be able to understand these kinds of communication, both in the classroom and socially. The study provides much evidence to support its central hypothesis: SDLD students made significantly fewer pragmatic responses than both comparison groups. The way students responded suggested two types of pragmatic analysis, one concerning plausibility judgment and a second concerning awareness of multiple reference and detection of miscomprehension. Nonlanguage- impaired children were significantly more able to use these types of analysis, for example, to rule out literal interpretations when they did not know the contextually implied meaning. Some evidence is provided to suggest that these analyses are underpinned by skills in both the metacommunicative and linguistic domains. The study's findings have several implcations for research and practice. The are serious implications, for example, for diagnostic assessment, in the light of the literature survey revealing that those currently available do not assess pragmatic meaning comprehension. The findings further provide a basis to challenge a view that disorders in the semantic and pragmatic domains necessarily co-occur, as reflected in the diagnostic category semanti-pragmatic disorder.

ABSTRACT THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE: A STUDY ON REQUESTS Elif, Yumun M.A., Department of English Language Education Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Deniz Zeyrek September 2008, 224 pages The purpose of the study was to investigate the pragmatic competence of Turkish learners of English in requests at two levels of English proficiency. Another aspect of the study was to identify the overall and situational proficiency of the learners in performing the speech act of requests and to figure out development and transfer factors. Additionally, the extent to which the changing social variables of power and distance in each of the situations and through the situations affect the learners&rsquo<br>request behaviour and the development regarding this issue was also pursued. For these purposes, the data were collected from four different subject groups. The learner groups include 19 beginner level and 19 upper intermediate level subjects. The control groups comprised of 21 Turkish native speakers and 15 American native speakers. The data were collected from the subject groups using interactive role plays. Each subject was provided with five request situations differing in terms of power and distance variables. The performances were videotaped and interactions were transcribed according to the CHAT manual (Mac Whinney 2000). Following the data collection process, the performances of the subjects in five situations were examined in terms of the directness levels, internal and external modification. For the statistical calculations in the study, one way ANOVA and t-test were employed. The results of the study showed that mostly there is development in the learner groups in accordance with the proficiency level. The upper intermediate group did better than the beginner group most of the time. However, there are also many instances in which even the upper intermediate group failed.

Children's learning of language-universal and language-specific principles of argument representation was the topic under investigation in the three studies comprising this thesis. Another objective was to investigate whether a discourse-pragmatic approach could be employed to explain children's patterns of argument omission and production, developmentally and crosslinguistically. To answer these questions, referential choice in the spontaneous language of monolingual English-speaking and monolingual Japanese-speaking children and their mothers was developmentally investigated whereby a sentence argument's morphological form (null, pronominal, lexical), referential status (given, new), and syntactic location (transitive subject, transitive object, intransitive subject) were systematically analysed. The first and second studies revealed that neither the English-speaking nor the Japanese-speaking children showed sensitivity to the referential distinction between given and new information early on in development (at 21 months of age). The English-speaking children mastered English-specific referential conventions between MLU 2.00 and 3.99 (between 24 and 32 months) and employed non-linguistic pragmatic correlates to supplement unconventional argument use from as early as MLU 1.00 (between 21 and 23 months). By contrast, the Japanese-speaking children showed unconventional referential choices as late as MLU 4.00 (between 33 and 36 months), as well as inconsistent use of non-linguistic pragmatic correlates. The third study revealed that, although language-specific differences were observed, neither group of children violated any of the four Preferred Argument Structure (PAS) constraints: The children avoided using more than one new or lexical argument per transitive clause and avoided casting new or lexical arguments as transitive subjects. However, evidence of sensitivity to PAS strategies from early on in development was inconclusive because the children omitted most sentence arguments at the beginning of speech production. Finally, all three studies revealed that children's referential choices that were inconsistent with expected discourse-pragmatic principles reflected similar patterns observed in parental input. Altogether, this set of studies led to the following general conclusions regarding the learning of argument representation and distribution in syntax: (1) a discourse-pragmatic approach can explain language-universal features of argument omission and production in child language and (2) language-specific strategies are learned via parental input.

<p> All children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) present with some form of impairment in social communication. Social cognitive learning theory suggests children&rsquo;s early joint attention skills provide a foundation for future language development. Preliminary research suggests social cognitive behaviors such as joint attention in the context of parent scaffolding may serve as a mechanism for language development in children with ASD. The current study utilized a parent-child free play task to explore the relations among parent and child attention and responsivity and child pragmatic language in 26 children ages 3:1 to 6:11 and their parents. Parent supported joint attention was assessed during a parent child free-play task. Pragmatic language ability was assessed by the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL; Carrow-Woolfolk, 1999). Developmental status significantly predicted child&rsquo;s pragmatic language score while controlling for overall verbal ability, <i>F</i>(2, 23) = 6.37, <i>p</i> = 0.01, &Delta;R₂ = .15. Developmental status was not a significant predictor of parent supported joint attention, <i> F</i>(1, 24) = 1.09, <i>p</i> = 0.31, indicating that regardless of developmental status there was no significant difference in the percentage of time parents and children spent in parent supported joint attention. Children with autism spectrum disorders initiated joint attention with their parents (<i>M</i> = 0.28) about half as much as their typically developing peers (<i>M</i> = 0.55). Post hoc analyses indicated for children with ASD in this current study, initiation of joint attention was significantly correlated to child RJA, <i>r</i> = 0.60, <i>p</i> = 0.04, suggesting that child with ASD who initiate joint attention with their parents also spend a larger amount of time responding to their parent&rsquo;s bids for joint attention. The interaction between developmental status and child RJA was also significant, <i>F</i> = 6.16, <i>p</i> =.02, &Delta;R₂ = .13, indicating that for children with ASD, responsiveness to their parent&rsquo;s bids for joint attention of their parents plays a significant role for their pragmatic language ability in comparison to children with typically development. Collectively, the nature of these findings provides evidence for supporting social cognition in children with autism.</p><p>

While previous research on language development has highlighted the facilitating role of gesture (mainly deictic gesture) in children’s early access to meaning, little is known about the possible facilitating role of prosody and also of co-speech gestures in children’s pragmatic development in the preschool years. Previous work on developmental pragmatics has focused on the acquisition of morphosyntactic and lexical forms, and there is a need to adopt a more integrative multimodal perspective. The overarching aim of this thesis is to experimentally investigate, through a set of cross-sectional studies with preschool children (3- to 5-year-olds), whether prosodic and gestural cues serve as pragmatic precursors in the development of two key pragmatic phenomena, namely knowledge state (i.e., commitment to the status of information) and politeness (e.g., broadly speaking, adjusting one’s language). The first study uses a forced-choice paradigm to investigate preschool children’s understanding of another speaker’s knowledge state, presented in audio only, video only and audio-visual formats. Results show that overall children perform significantly better in detecting a speaker’s uncertainty when they have gestural cues present, and, importantly, the younger children were significantly better in detecting a speaker’s uncertainty when listening to a speaker’s intonation contour as compared to uncertainty expressed through a lexical epistemic adverb. The second study analyzes children’s (and adults’) multimodal expression of their knowledge state through an object guessing game by evaluating their production of prosodic, gestural and lexical cues and additionally assessing their self-assessment of their knowledge state. Results show that while preschool children are not yet able to self-report on their knowledge state, in the younger group, children encode their knowledge state through prosodic and gestural means only. And only in the older age group do children start to use a few lexical markers to signal their uncertainty. The third study uses a forced-choice paradigm to assess children’s understanding of a speaker’s politeness presented in audio only, video only and audio-visual formats. Results show that 3-year-old children detect a speaker’s polite stance significantly more through facial cues and intonation, highlighting children’s early ability to extract meaning from intonation when lexical cues are kept the same. Finally, the fourth study explores children’s multimodal production of politeness in semi-spontaneous requests in different sociopragmatic situations. Results show that regardless of the age group, children marked politeness through fine-grained gestural and prosodic means when producing requests to an adult with high social distance as compared to a classmate with low social distance, and this also depends on the cost of the request. Altogether the results of these studies demonstrate that children’s early pragmatic comprehension and expressive abilities rely strongly on prosodic and gestural marking, developing well before children master lexical and morphosyntactic markers. More specifically, the four studies presented in this thesis bring forth evidence that both prosody and co-speech gestures play a precursor role in children’s pragmatic development of knowledge state and politeness. Ultimately, the thesis highlights the importance of approaching the study of children’s pragmatic development from a multimodal perspective.<br>Tot i que les investigacions prèvies sobre el desenvolupament del llenguatge han destacat el paper facilitador del gest (principalment, del gest díctic o d’assenyalament) en l'accés primerenc dels nens al significat del llenguatge, se sap poc sobre els beneficis de la prosòdia i dels gestos de la parla en el desenvolupament pragmàtic dels nens en els anys preescolars. La recerca que s’ha fet sobre el desenvolupament de la pragmàtica s'ha centrat en l'adquisició de formes morfosintàctiques i lèxiques, però és important adoptar una perspectiva multimodal més integradora. L'objectiu general d'aquesta tesi consisteix a investigar experimentalment, a través de quatre estudis transversals amb nens d’edat preescolar (de 3 a 5 anys d'edat), si els senyals prosòdics i gestuals actuen com a precursors pragmàtics en el desenvolupament de dos fenòmens pragmàtics, concretament el posicionament epistèmic (i.e., el grau de certesa del parlant sobre la informació expressada) i la cortesia. El primer estudi utilitza un paradigma d'elecció forçada per investigar la comprensió dels nens en edat preescolar sobre el posicionament epistèmic d'un altre parlant, presentat en tres condicions (només en àudio, només en vídeo i en format audiovisual). Els resultats mostren que els nens detecten millor la incertesa d'un parlant quan estan exposats a indicis gestuals. Crucialment, els nens de tres anys detecten millor la la incertesa d'un parlant quan la incertesa s'expressa a través de la prosòdia que quan s'expressa a través d’adverbis epistèmics. El segon estudi analitza l'expressió multimodal de l’estat epistèmic dels nens (i dels adults) a través d’un joc d’endevinar objectes. L'anàlisi dels senyals prosòdics, gestuals i lèxics mostren que, mentre els nens d’edat preescolar encara no poden valorar el seu posicionament epistèmic en canvi sí que codifiquen el seu grau de certesa a través de senyals prosòdics i gestuals. Només en el grup d'edat més gran els nens comencen a utilitzar alguns marcadors lèxics. El tercer estudi utilitza un paradigma d'elecció forçada per avaluar la comprensió dels nens sobre la cortesia d'un parlant, presentada també en tres condicions (només en àudio, només en vídeo i en format audiovisual). Els resultats mostren que els nens de 3 anys poden detectar una actitud educada a través de senyals facials i entonatius quan es mantenen constants les marques lèxiques. Els resultats mostren la capacitat inicial dels nens per extreure el significat de l'entonació, de forma paral·lela al que passa amb la gestualitat. Finalment, el quart estudi explora l'expressió multimodal de la cortesia en peticions emprades en diferents situacions sociopragmàtiques. Els resultats mostren que, independentment del grup d'edat, els nens marquen la cortesia a través de senyals gestuals i prosòdics detallats quan es fan peticions a un adult amb més distància social, en comparació amb un company amb qui presenten una distància social menor. L'ús d'aquestes marques també depèn del cost de la petició. En resum, els resultats dels quatre estudis de la tesi demostren que les habilitats primerenques de comprensió i d’expressió pragmàtica es basen en el marcatge prosòdic i gestual. i que aquestes es desenvolupen molt abans que els nens controlin els marcadors lèxics i morfosintàctics. Així, els quatre estudis presentats en aquesta tesi posen de manifest que tant la prosòdia com els gestos de la parla actuen com a precursors en el desenvolupament pragmàtic dels llenguatge. En definitiva, la tesi posa de relleu la importància d’aproximar-se a l'estudi del desenvolupament pragmàtic infantil des d'una perspectiva multimodal.<br>A pesar de que las investigaciones previas sobre el desarrollo del lenguaje hayan destacado el papel facilitador del gesto (principalmente, del gesto deíctico o de señalamiento) en el acceso temprano de los niños al significado del lenguaje, poco se sabe aún sobre los beneficios de la prosodia y de los gestos del habla en el desarrollo pragmático de los niños en etapa preescolar. Hasta ahora, las investigaciones sobre el desarrollo de la pragmática se han centrado en la adquisición de formas morfosintácticas y léxicas, haciéndose necesario adoptar una perspectiva multimodal más integradora. El objetivo general de esta tesis consiste en investigar experimentalmente —a través de cuatro estudios transversales con niños de edad preescolar (de 3 a 5 años de edad)— si las señales prosódicas y gestuales actúan como precursores en el desarrollo de dos fenómenos pragmáticos, concretamente del posicionamiento epistémico (i.e., del grado de certeza del hablante sobre la información expresada) y de la cortesía. El primer estudio utiliza un paradigma de elección forzada para investigar cómo los niños en edad preescolar comprenden el posicionamiento epistémico de otro hablante, presentado los estímulos en tres condiciones (solo en audio, solo en vídeo y en formato audiovisual). Los resultados muestran que los niños detectan mejor la incertidumbre de un hablante cuando están expuestos a indicios gestuales. Crucialmente, los resultados también muestran que los niños de tres años detectan mejor la incertidumbre de un hablante cuando esta viene expresada a través de la prosodia que cuando lo hace a través de adverbios epistémicos. El segundo estudio analiza la expresión multimodal del estado epistémico de los niños (y de los adultos) a través de un juego de adivinar objetos. El análisis de las señales prosódicas, gestuales y léxicas muestra que, aunque los niños en edad preescolar todavía no pueden valorar su posicionamiento epistémico, los del grupo de menor edad ya son capaces de codificar su grado de certeza a través de señales prosódicas y gestuales, mientras que solo los niños del grupo de mayor edad empiezan a utilizar algunos marcadores léxicos. El tercer estudio utiliza también un paradigma de elección forzada para evaluar la comprensión de los niños sobre la cortesía de un hablante, presentado también los estímulos en tres condiciones (solo en audio, solo en vídeo y en formato audiovisual). Los resultados muestran que los niños de 3 años son capaces de detectar una actitud cortés significativamente mejor a través de señales faciales y entonativas, destacando además la capacidad temprana de los niños para extraer el significado de la entonación cuando las marcas léxicas se mantienen constantes. Finalmente, el cuarto estudio investiga la expresión multimodal de la cortesía en peticiones realizadas en diferentes situaciones socio-pragmáticas. Los resultados muestran, por un lado, que, independientemente del grupo de edad, los niños marcan la cortesía a través de señales gestuales y prosódicas diferenciadas en función de si las peticiones van dirigidas hacia un adulto con el que mantienen una mayor distancia social, o bien hacia un compañero con quien la distancia social es menor. Además, los resultados también muestran que el uso de estas marcas también depende del coste de la petición. En resumen, los resultados de los cuatro estudios de esta tesis demuestran que las habilidades tempranas de la comprensión y expresión de significados pragmáticos se basan en el marcaje prosódico y gestual, y que, además, estas habilidades se desarrollan mucho antes de que los niños dominen los marcadores léxicos y morfosintácticos. De este modo, los cuatro estudios presentados en esta tesis ponen de manifiesto que tanto la prosodia como los gestos del habla actúan como precursores en el desarrollo pragmático del lenguaje, subrayando así la necesidad de aproximarse al estudio del desarrollo pragmático infantil desde una perspectiva multimodal.

Nowadays, teaching languages for specific purposes, in particular in the field of entrepreneurship, has to focus on pragmatic and intercultural aspects in response to a multicultural professional reality that comprises different areas of knowledge. Our study aims at analyzing the speech act of making a request in German and Spanish by Portuguese native speakers, i.e. BA students of Languages and Business Relations at University of Aveiro. For this study, two different types of tests were performed: the Discourse Completion Task (DCT) and the Rating Assessment Test. The data provided by the answers given to these two surveys will help the teacher to understand the pragmatic difficulties students have when making a request in these two foreign languages. The information obtained will help the teacher to focus on aspects that are really problematic from the pragmatic point of view, and at the same time, to find and implement strategies and activities that help students improve their pragmatic awareness and overcome difficulties that may arise in intercultural communication. Hence, the objective is to contribute to an adequate development of the students' pragmatic and intercultural communicative competence.

This article discusses the need for the explicit pragmatic instruction and proposes a pentaphasic model of pragmatic competence development designed for leaners of different language backgrounds and social groups. The model includes five steps of free and guided analysis and production with specific goals and tasks. The aim of the model is to develop a student’s agency as a leaner and to raise their metapragmatic awareness by guided discovery inductive procedures, explicit discussions and self-assessment. It was tested on a group of Italian language learners in order to understand their motivational and cognitive demands when approaching speech act focused instruction. Although they were actively engaged into guided discussions, the learner-centred procedure and raising awareness activities prove to be unfamiliar for learners who are used to more traditional form-focused learning sessions. Despite these difficulties, the model provides a flexible framework that can bridge the gap between research considerations and teaching experiences.

In the design process, the requirements serve as the benchmark for the entire product. Therefore, the quality of requirement statements is essential to the success of a design. Because of their ergonomic-nature, most requirements are written in natural language (NL). However, writing requirements in natural language presents many issues such as ambiguity, specification issues, and incompleteness. Therefore, identifying issues in requirements involves analyzing these NL statements. This paper presents a linguistic approach to requirement analysis, which utilizes grammatical elements of requirements statements to identify requirement statement issues. These issues are organized by the entity—word, sentence, or document—that they affect. The field of natural language processing (NLP) provides a core set of tools that can aid with this linguistic analysis and provide a method to create a requirement analysis support tool. NLP addresses requirements on processing levels: lexical, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic. While processing on the lexical and syntactic level are well-defined, mining semantic and pragmatic data is performed in a number of different methods. This paper provides an overview of these current requirement analysis methods in light of the presented linguistic approach. This overview will be used to identify areas for further research and development. Finally, a prototype requirement analysis support tool will be presented. This tool seeks to demonstrate how the semantic processing level can begin to be addressed in requirement analysis. The tool will analyze a sample set of requirements from a family of military tactical vehicles (FMTV) requirements document. It implements NLP tools to semantically compare requirements statements based upon their grammatical subject.

Foreign language teachers have been forced to position themselves as thoughtful practitioners who are looking for opportunities to combine the principles of methodology and pragmatism in order to most effectively fulfill their mission. It is the efficiency of the foreign languages course that is the main goal today. The purpose of this study is to analyze the didactic principles of teaching foreign languages so that teachers could combine various didactic principles with modern trends in learning

This article offers a structure for studying metaphorical terms in the field of economics, in the context of translation difficulties that underlie their different perception in English and Russian. It is necessary to solve the following tasks in the course of the research: (1) to identify the semantic and pragmatic characteristics of metaphorical economic terms; (2) to determine the types of transformations used in the translation of metaphorical economic terms. Literal translation, modulation, and explicatory translation should be considered as typical ways to translate metaphorical economic terms, as it is shown in our research. And the choice of a particular translation method depends on various intra- and extra-linguistic factors, such as the historical and cultural background, the mental picture of the world presented in the source language.