Academic literature on the topic 'Prakrit language'

This paper studies the connections between Prakrit and early Maṇipravāḷam literature from premodern Kerala. Maṇipravāḷam (literally, ‘gems and corals’) is the emic term for a dominant part of Kerala’s premodern vernacular literature, binding together Kerala’s local language and Sanskrit. As a highly Sanskritised register of a Dravidian language, Maṇipravāḷam has generally been viewed as having been inspired and influenced by either Sanskrit or Tamil literature, grammar, and poetics. This paper, however, highlights a rarely discussed aspect: the role of Prakrit in shaping both Maṇipravāḷam literature and theory. I discuss the relation between Prakrit and Maṇipravāḷam in two connected ways: first, by considering the similarities between the practices themselves, especially in terms of their themes and aesthetics; and second, by examining the implicit ways in which Maṇipravāḷam theory, as it is presented in the Līlātilakam, Kerala’s first grammar and work on poetics, is structured on Prakrit materials or on Sanskrit materials dealing with Prakrit.

Sound, signs or signals, gestures, urge of transferring higher levels of thinking and feelings and also exchange of ideas were the beginning of the formulation of languages despite the controversies in the origin of languages through the Speculative Theory, Signaling Theory, Mother tongue Hypothesis and so on. Civilization and progress have paved the origin of languages for communication and vice versa. Whatever been the reason and whenever been the time of development of language in this subcontinent or in the Earth, India always possesses a rich linguistic heritage. The Proto-Indo-Aryan language is the prime language of India followed by Old Indo-Aryan covering Vedic-Sanskrit, Classical-Sanskrit; Middle Indo-Aryans of Prakrit, Pali and Modern Indo-Aryan language. This analysis is an attempt to point out the origin of Vedic, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali and Dravidian languages and also these roles in the formulation of other languages and enrichment of in this subcontinent.

Abstract This article continues the discussion on the nature of the early language of Buddhism and the language that the Buddha spoke, arguing that the received Pāli transmission evolved out of an earlier Middle Indic idiom, which is identified as a koine. Evidence for this koine can be found by examining correspondence sets within Pāli and its various varieties and by examining parallel, cognate correspondence sets between Pāli and other Prakrits which have survived. This article compares 30 correspondence sets transmitted in the Dhammapada recensions: the Gāndhārī Prakrit verses, the partially Sanskritized Pāli and Patna Dhammapada Prakrit verses, and the fully Sanskritized verses of the Udānavarga. By comparing cognate words, it demonstrates the existence of an underlying inter-language which in many cases can be shown to be the source of the phonological differences in the transmission. The paper includes a discussion on the two major factors of dialect change, evolution with variation over time, and the diffusionary, synchronic influence of dialect variation; it concludes that both are important, with dialect variation – and the phonological constraints of indigenous speakers who adopted MI as a second language – providing the pathways on which the natural evolutionary process was channeled.

Telugu (tel) belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by 7.19% of the population of India (Census of India 2001b). At different stages of its development over centuries, the vocabulary of Telugu has been considerably influenced by various languages, such as Sanskrit, Prakrit,2 Perso-Arabic and English. A major consequence of this influence is that the phonemic system of Telugu has been extended by additional sets of sounds. Thus, the aspirates /pʰ bʱ tʰ dʱ ʈʰ ɖʱ ʧʰ ʤʱ kʰ ɡʱ/ and fricatives /ʃ ʂ h/, absent in the native phonemic system, entered the language through Sanskrit borrowings. Similarly, /f/ entered the language through Perso-Arabic and English borrowings. Some of the sounds from Perso-Arabic and English sources were nativized, for example, Perso-Arabic and English phoneme /ʃ/ was rendered as /ʂ/, which had already entered the language through borrowings from Sanskrit/Prakrit; Perso-Arabic phonemes /qx ɣ z/ were rendered as /kkʰ ɡ ʤ/ respectively; and the English phoneme /θ/ was rendered as /tʰ/. English borrowings also resulted in re-phonemicization. In native Telugu vocabulary, [ɛ] and [ӕː] are allophones of /e/ and /eː/ respectively, but they acquire phonemic status when words borrowed from English are included in the total vocabulary of the language.

Abstract The Praśnottararatnamālikā is a small tract containing 62 questions, paired with their answers. It is extraordinary that this text has been transmitted within Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist traditions, in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Tibetan, variously attributed to different authors. The present study examines what is known of the text, which from early on drew the attention of modern scholars, and presents editions of its Sanskrit and Tibetan versions, along with a translation and annotations.

Arbetet behandlar kärnämnet svenska som andraspråk, dess styrdokument och tilldelade resurser vilka styr lärarnas möjligheter att bedriva adekvat undervisning. Genom litteraturstudier och en empirisk studie bland lärare i ämnet ges en bredare insyn i ämnet svenska som andraspråk, hur det fungerar i teorin och hur väl teori överenskommer med den praktiska verkligheten.

Predmet ovog istraživanja je sociološka analiza delanja, diskursa, ideologije i
društvenih praksi. U radu polazimo od shvatanja da se diskurs manifestuje kao empirijski prepoznatljiv sadržaj iskaza u društvenim praksama. Delanje je određeno kao oblik diskurzivne društvene prakse i kao medijum artikulacije diskursa i ideologije. Pojam koji smo u radu koristili da bismo ukazali na domete sociološko-diskurzivne analize
ideologije, ali i da bismo povezali klasični sociološki koncept društvenog delanja sa
problemima diskursa i ideologije je pojam diskurzivnih društvenih praksi. Zahvaljujući tom pojmu, ideološke diskurse smo analizirali na dva nivoa: metodološkom – istražujući elemente delanja i diskurzivnih praksi; teorijskom – razrađujući tipologiju društvenih procesa i praksi koje su ključne za razumevanje ideologije. Društvene prakse predstavljaju medijume povezivanja individualnih i kolektivnih akcija sa materijalnim i strukturalnim društvenim uslovima.
Istraživanje je teorijskog karaktera, sa pokušajem sinteze. Za potrebe ovog
istraživanja konsultovana je izvorna i sekundarna literatura najviše iz sociologije i
filozofije, odnosno iz različitih disciplina koje se bave analizom diskursa. Naučni
doprinos ovog istraživanja posebno je istaknut u delu koji se odnosi na analizu
sociologike ideoloških diskursa i kroz analizu diskurzivnih praksi ili strategija ideologije.
S obzirom na hipoteze koje su postavljene, rad predstavlja pokušaj sinteze klasičnih i
savremenih teorijskih pristupa, odnosno pokušaj razvoja interdisciplinarnog pristupa koji je označen kao sociološko-diskurzivna analiza i predstavlja teorijsko-metodološki okvir istraživanja.
U istraživanju smo pošli od pretpostavke da ideologije daju smisao društvenim
praksama i delanju i da ih uređuju. Ideologija predstavlja formu racionalnog diskursa o društvenoj stvarnosti i manifestuje se u diskurzivnim društvenim praksama. Cilj
istraživanja je bio da se identifikuju i objasne sociološki elementi tih praksi. U pitanju je istraživanje sociologike ideoloških diskursa koja je u radu objašnjena kroz sledeće
društvene procese: racionalizaciju, (de)legitimizaciju, mobilizaciju, integraciju i
(de)ritualizaciju. Na osnovama analize navedenih procesa, u radu se istražuju diskurzivne strategije ideologije, koje su definisane kao faze funkcionalnog konstituisanja ideoloških diskursa. U pitanju su diskurzivne strategije dekontekstualizacije, regionalizacije i autonomizacije. Ideologija dekontekstualizuje diskurse, odnosno određuje poželjne i
prihvatljive vrednosti, povezujući ih sa društvenim praksama putem diskursa. To da
ideologije dekontekstualizuju diskurse znači da doprinose njihovom odvajanju od jezika i komunikacije u kojima su iskazani sa jedne strane i uspostavljanju diskursa kao naizgled nezavisnih od društveno-istorijskih i kulturnih uslova u kojima nastaju. U vezi sa ovom strategijom je i regionalizacija diskursa, koja se odnosi na činjenicu da diskursi ne postoje iznad ili izvan društvenih praksi. Regionalizacija je izrazito društveni čin dijakrize koji uvodi arbitrarne diskontinuitete u kontinuitet društvenog života. Iz ideoloških strategija dekontekstualizacije i regionalizacije proizlazi strategija autonomizacije, koja znači da dekontekstualizovani i regionalizovani ideološki diskursi dobijaju određenu prepoznatljivost u odnosu na mnoštvo drugih diskursa. Ideološki diskursi su autonomni utoliko što omogućuju uspostavljanje pravilnosti i razlika u okviru nekog diskurzivnog polja i čine „normativnu gramatiku“ povezivanja ideja, vrednosti, diskursa i praksi. U radu je takođe istaknut značaj fragmentacije ideologije i pojave mnoštva ideoloških diskurzivnih praksi koje u savremenim društvima prožimaju grupnu dinamiku i društvene procese organizacije (režima) delanja na područjima ekonomije, politike i kulture, odnosno u sferama potrošnje, zabave, elektronske komunikacije, itd. Iz tog razloga ideologiju nismo odredili kao tip društvenih praksi koje su karakteristične za određenu sferu društvenog delanja, već kao prakse koje se manifestuju u različitim sferama društvenih odnosa. Ideološki diskursi predstavljaju važne medijume uspostavljanja i održanja društvenih granica.
U zaključku rada su istaknuta obeležja sociološko-diskurzivne analize koja, za
razliku od klasičnih socioloških pristupa, u istraživanju diskursa i ideologije ne polazi od društvenih aktera već od diskurzivnih društvenih praksi. Konačno, ideološki diskursi su u ovom radu istraženi kao elementi društvenih praksi iza kojih ne treba tražiti nove smislove, drugačiju stvarnost, posebne oblike svesti ili načine na koje se društvene kategorije „utiskuju“ u umove pojedinaca. Sociološko-diskurzivna analiza ne daje odgovore na pitanja o tome šta ljudi misle kada nešto kažu ili kada nešto rade, već pokušava da da odgovore na pitanja o tome šta, zašto i kada ljudi govore o onome što rade.

I detta arbete försöker jag belysa om pedagoger använder sig av forskares resultat då de planerar sitt arbete med barns språkutveckling. Jag synar ett samverkansområde och en skolas språkutvecklingsprojekt. Jag kommer fram till att pedagoger har en stor teorikunskap men att deras egna erfarenheter är mer betydelsefulla. Om forskare och praktiker kan mötas i ömsesidig respekt för varandras kunskap och båda parter är delaktiga i forskningsprocessen, nås den bästa utvecklingen.

This work is about the expanded conception of text and takes off in the use of this expression in the high school curriculum. The work begins with a theory chapter, where a few different definitions of text are the basis for reasoning about factors which can have contributed to an expansion of the conception. Hereby other important expressions, related to the expanded conception of text, as hypertext, multimedia and intermediality, are brought up. Further, is examined empirically how the expanded conception of text is interpreted, rhetorically and practically, by a few teachers in the High School. Finally, covered scientist’s theories are discussed and compared with the concluded empiric data.

The study shows however, that the expanded conception of text in the curriculum has not become a conception for the teachers who were interviewed. Only one of the included teachers has developed a conscious philosophy about texts and let her interpretation of text liberate itself from the paper format. A conclusion is that if teachers to a greater extent understood and worked with an expanded conception of text in mind, people would better handle the text flow they meet in the society in the future.

Detta arbete handlar om det vidgade textbegreppet och tar sitt avstamp i detta uttrycks användning i läroplanen. Arbetet inleds med en teoridel där några olika definitioner av text ligger till grund för resonemang om vilka faktorer som kan ha medverkat till en vidgning av begreppet. Härvid tas även andra viktiga uttryck som har en relation till det vidgade textbegreppet, såsom hypertext, multimedia och intermedialitet, upp. Vidare undersöks empiriskt hur begreppet tolkas, retoriskt och praktiskt, av några lärare i gymnasieskolan. Slutligen diskuteras och jämförs de refererade forskarnas teorier med de empiriska data som framkommit.

Studien visar dock att det vidgade textbegreppet inte har blivit ett begrepp för de lärare som ingår i undersökningen. Endast en av lärarna har skapat sig en medveten filosofi kring texter och låtit sin texttolkning frigöra sig från pappersformatet. En konklusion är att om lärare i större utsträckning förstod och arbetade utifrån ett vidgat textbegrepp skulle människor bättre kunna handskas med det textflöde de möter i samhället.

Vi lever i ett mångkulturellt samhälle och i många av Sveriges skolor utgör barn med invandrarbakgrund en stor del av elevantalet. Syftet med mitt arbete är att skaffa mig kunskap om vad tvåspråkighet är för något och hur man kan arbeta språkutvecklande med invandrarbarn i år 1-3. Arbetet består av en litteraturstudie och ett fältarbete. Målet med litteraturstudien är att ge läsaren bakgrundskunskap till begreppet tvåspråkighet. Litteraturstudienberör bland annat definitioner, modersmålets roll för andraspråksutvecklingen, språkutveckling i allmänhet, olika typer av tvåspråkighet, språkfenomen, påverkansfaktorer, effekter, samt tvåspråkighet i skolan. Fältarbetet är förlagt till tre skolor, med syfte att under en dag/skola studera det språkutvecklande arbetet. Tyngdpunkten ligger på djupintervjuer med klasslärare och svenska som andraspråkslärare. Jag har även samtalat med ett antal tvåspråkiga barn för att få en uppfattning om vad de har för tankar kring sin egen tvåspråkighet.

Resultatet visar att samtliga skolor i min studie har en arbetsplan gällande undervisning i svenska som andraspråk och de intervjuade lärarna arbetar på ett medvetet sätt med de tvåspråkiga elevernas språkutveckling. Min förhoppning är att lärarnas samlade tankar, tillsammans med litteraturstudien ska fungera som en idébank och inspirationskälla för lärare och blivande lärare som är intresserade av att fördjupa sina kunskaper inom ämnet tvåspråkighet.

Rad istražuje alternativne kulturne prakse arhitekture iurbanizma u Jugoslaviji, nastale u periodu 1945. i 1980.Teorijske, edukativne, kustoske, umjetničke i profesionalnearhitektonske prakse su sagledane u kontekstu socijalističkesvakodnevice i modernizma. Objašnjene su osnovnekarakteristike fenomena alternativnih kulturnih praksi,prostora i autora, njihova reprezentativna moć kao sastavnidio reprezentacije moći države, njihova posebnost kaoprostorno-kulturnog fenomena i trajne posljedice nezavisnood izmjenjenih uslova i okolnosti u kojima danas postoje.
The paper explores alternative cultural practices of architectureand urban planning in Yugoslavia, from the period 1945 and1980. Theoretical, educational, curatorial, artistic andprofessional architectural practices have been viewed in thecontext of everyday life and socialist modernism. Explains thebasic characteristics of the phenomenon of alternative culturalpractices, space and authors, their representative power as anintegral part of the team and not the state, their uniqueness asspatially-cultural phenomenon and lasting effectsindependently of the changed conditions and circumstancesexist today.

Ova istraživanja posvećena načinima učenja harmonike svoju opravdanost nalaze u naučnoj sferi, praktičnoj potrebi i ličnom interesovanju istraživača. Naučna opravdanost proističe ne samo iz činjenice da harmonika nije bila dovoljno zastupljena u etnomuzikološkim i pedagoškim istraživanjima, nego je u ovom slučaju bitan aspekt posmatranja harmonike kao fenomena i načina učenja sviranja ovog instrumenta.Cilj ovog istraživanja je utvrditi pedagoško-muzičke karakteristike dva osnovna najčešće zastuplja modela praktično primenjivih u učenju sviranja harmonike: slobodni-neinstitucionalni, ili izvanškolski model i institucionalni, ili školski. Opšta hipoteza: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički bitnih razlika u organizacionim, metodičkim i drugim aspektima učenja sviranja harmonike između vanškolskog i školskog modela učenja. U skladu sa opštom, formirane su posebne hipoteze: h1: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu osnovnog cilja podučavanja između vanškolskog i školskog učenja sviranja harmonike.h2: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu vremenskog trajanja časa i socijalnog oblika nastave u školskom i vanškolskom učenju sviranja harmonike.h3: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu odabira vrste učenja (iz nota, na sluh) u vanškolskom i školskom učenju sviranja harmonike.h4: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu primene pojedinih nastavnih, tehničkih i drugih sredstava, koja se koriste u podučavanju u vanškolskom i školskom učenju sviranja harmonike.h5: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu faktora koji utiču na organizaciju časa u vanškolskom i školskom učenju sviranja harmonike.h6: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu primene pojedinih postupaka motivacije učenika na času u vanškolskom i školskom učenju harmonike.h7: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u postignućima, u pogledu odabira vrste instrumenta i vrste muzike na početku učenja sviranja u vanškolskim i školskim uslovima.h8: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu značaja pojedinih faktora koji utiču na uspeh ili postignuće učenika u sviranju harmonike u vanškolskom i školskom učenju.h9: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u pogledu prednosti i nedostataka učenja harmonike u vanškolskim i školskim uslovima.h10: Pretpostavlja se da nema statistički značajnih razlika u vrednovanju statusa instrumenta, društvenog položaja izvođača i učitelja u vanškolskom i školskom učenju sviranja harmonike.U gradskim i seoskim sredinama na području Srbije sprovedena su terenska istraživanja u periodu od 2014-2016. godine. Tehnikom intervjua, specijalno pripremljenog za potrebe ovih istraživanja, dobijeni su podaci o međusobnom odnosu učitelja harmonike, učenika i roditelja, o časovima harmonike, načinu rada i efektima učenja sviranja harmonike. Uzorak je činilo 30 ispitanika, od kojih se jedan deo ispitanika bavi podučavanjem učenika u sferi narodne muzike neinstitucionalno (privatno) i izvođaštvom, a drugi deo ispitanika čine nastavnici i profesori harmonike koji se podučavanjem bave institucionalno, na različitim nivoima muzičkog školovanja.Za potrebe prikupljanja podataka upotrebljena je i tehnika skaliranja i njoj pripadajući instrument skala procene. Uzorak je takođe mali, činilo ga je 30 ispitanika, od kojih se jedan deo bavi podučavanjem sviranja harmonike u školi, a drugi deo ispitanika se bavi podučavanjem van škole. Ispitanici su birani na osnovu sledećih kriterijuma: da su muzičko školovanje ili radno iskustvo kao nastavnici i profesori harmonike stekli u Muzičkoj školi „Isidor Bajić― u Novom Sadu, odnosno da kao učitelji / nastavnici harmonike žive i deluju u Novom Sadu.U vanškolskom i školskom učenju sviranja harmonike cilj podučavanja je isti. U pogledu pojedinih socijalnih oblika rada primećuje se da su rad u grupi učenika i kombinovanje više oblika rada zastupljeni u školskom okruženju. Ispitanici koji podučavaju u školskom okruženju smatraju da je bitnije da se učenici tokom učenja oslanjanju na note, nego da uče po sluhu. Učenju po sluhu veću prednost daju ispitanici koji podučavaju van škole. Svi spitanici procenjuju da isti faktori imaju podjednak uticaj na organizaciju časa u vanškolskom i školskom učenu sviranja harmonike. Sredstva motivacije učenika, kao što su korektno ocenjivanje postignuća učenika, javni nastupi učenika i primereno korišćenje kazne zastupljenija su u školskom tipu učenja. Svi ispitanici su se složili u mišljenju da je za učenika prednost paralelno učenje narodne i klasične muzike, da je za učenika najbolje da prva znanja dobije u školi. U vanškolskom okruženju se kao prednosti ističu učenje vrste muzike po želji i odabir učitelja koji će podučavati, a u školskom učenju se kao prednosti izdvajaju kompetencija nastavnika, obaveza vođenja dnevnika rada, sticanje svedočanstva o pohađanju škole, dostupnost štampanih muzikalija / udžbenika, učenje predmeta (muzička teorija, solfeđo) / disciplina, koje pomažu ukupni muzički razvoj pojedinca, nadzor podučavanja od strane stručnih organa, nabavka harmonike sa bariton sistemom, kao i prisutnost udžbenika za metodiku nastave harmonike. Ispitanici koji podučavaju van škole procenjuju da instrument harmonika zauzima viši status u društvu, a time i finansiranje izvođačke delatnosti i medijska promocija izvođača, za razliku od mišljenja koje zastupaju ispitanici koji podučavaju u školi.Za ovu doktorsku disertaciju je značajno to što se na interdisciplinaran način, sa aspekta etnomuzikologije i muzičke pedagogije, objedinjuje problematika učenja sviranja harmonike. Rezultati i podaci dobijeni ovim istraživanjem, između ostalog, donose nova saznanja u oblasti metodike nastave harmonike. Oni mogu biti značajan dokument u strategiji dinamičnijeg i, na teritoriji Srbije, ravnomernog uvođenja harmonike na sve nivoe školovanja, imajući pritom u vidu zastupljenost ovog instrumenta u više muzičkih žanrova.
The present study, which is focusing on the ways accordion is learned, is justified by its scientific contribution, practical need and the personal interest of the researcher. The scientific justification stems not only from the fact that there is an insufficient body of research on the accordion in the field of ethnomusicology, but, more importantly, this study focuses on the aspect of the accordion as a phenomenon and the way the playing on this instrument is learned. The present study is aimed at determining pedagogical-musical features of the two predominant models that are practiced in learning the accordion playing: free- non-institutional or outside-of-school model and institutional or school model. The general hypothesis: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in organisational, methodological and other aspects of learning the accordion playing between the outside-of-school and school models of learning. Stemming from the general hypothesis, the following specific hypothesis have been formulated:h1: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the primary teaching objectives between the outside-of-school and the school learning of the accordion playing.h2: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the lesson duration and the social form of teaching between the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h3: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of choice of learning types (from musical scores, by ear) between the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h4: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of educational, technical and other resources used in teaching in the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h5: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of the factors that affect the organisation of lesson in the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h6: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of the use of student motivation procedures between the out-of-school and school learning the accordion.h7: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the achievements, as well as the selection of the instrument and music types at the beginning of learning in the outside-of-school and school conditions.h8: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the importance of certain factors that affect the student success and/or achievement in playing the accordion in the outside-of-school and school learning.h9: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of the advantages and disadvantages of the accordion learning in the outside-of-school and school conditions.h10: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the evaluation of the status of the instrument, social status of artists and teachers in the out-of-school and learning of the accordion playing.A field research was carried out in urban and rural communities in the territory of Serbia in the period 2014 – 2016. A technique of interview, which was designed for the needs of the present study, was used to obtain the data on the interpersonal relationship of the accordion teachers, students and their parents, on accordion lessons, method of work and learning of the accordion playing outcomes. The sample comprised 30 interviewees. One segment of the sample consisted of musicians who are engaged in teaching traditional music to students outside of school (private tutors) and performing music, while the other group consisted of accordion teachers and professors engaged in institutional teaching on different levels of music education.For the purposes of data collection, the technique of scaling with an appropriate evaluation scale was used. The sample was small, consisting of 30 respondents, some of whom teach the accordion at school while others teach it outside of school. The respondents were selected on the basis of the following criteria: that they have received their music education or gained their work experience as accordion teachers and professors at Music School „Isidor Bajic‖ in Novi Sad, and/or that as the accordion teachers/professors they live and work in Novi Sad.The teaching aims in the out-of-school and school accordion playing are the same. In regard to certain social forms of work it is noticeable that group work and combination of several forms of work are present in the school environment. The respondents who teach at school put emphasis on the importance of students‘ relying on musical scores in comparison to playing by ear during the learning process. Learning to play by ear is given preference by the respondents who teach outside of school. The methods of motivating students, such as fair evaluation of their achievement, students‘ public performances and an appropriate use of punishment, are preferred in the school type of teaching. All the respondents agree that it is beneficial for students to learn traditional and classical music in parallel have an advantage.What is emphasised as an advantage of the out-of-school environment is learning the desired music with a chosen teacher, while in the school learning among the identified advantages are teachers‘ competences, the mandatory records of lessons, obtaining a certificate of school attendance, availability of printed musical scores/textbooks, learning different subjects (music theory, solfeggio) /disciplines which facilitate the overall music development of students, supervision of teaching by professional bodies, obtaining an accordion with a baritone system, as well as the existence of textbooks for the accordion teaching methodology. The respondents who teach outside of school consider that the accordion as an instrument has a higher social status, thus contributing to the financing of performances and media promotion of performers, on the contrary to the predominant opinion of the respondents who teach at school.The significance of this doctoral thesis lies in the fact that the learning of the accordion playing is observed from the point of view of ethnomusicology and music pedagogy in an interdisciplinary way providing a complete overview of the subject. The results and data obtained from this research, among other things, bring new insights into the accordion teaching methodology. These insights can serve as a significant document in the strategy of a more dynamic and, in the territory of Serbia, more even introduction of the accordion on all educational levels, bearing in mind the fact that this instrument is present in several music genres. 
The present study, which is focusing on the ways accordion is learned, is justified by its scientific contribution, practical need and the personal interest of the researcher. The scientific justification stems not only from the fact that there is an insufficient body of research on the accordion in the field of ethnomusicology, but, more importantly, this study focuses on the aspect of the accordion as a phenomenon and the way the playing on this instrument is learned. The present study is aimed at determining pedagogical-musical features of the two predominant models that are practiced in learning the accordion playing: free- non-institutional or outside-of-school model and institutional or school model. The general hypothesis: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in organisational, methodological and other aspects of learning the accordion playing between the outside-of-school and school models of learning. Stemming from the general hypothesis, the following specific hypothesis have been formulated:h1: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the primary teaching objectives between the outside-of-school and the school learning of the accordion playing.h2: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the lesson duration and the social form of teaching between the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h3: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of choice of learning types (from musical scores, by ear) between the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h4: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of educational, technical and other resources used in teaching in the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h5: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of the factors that affect the organisation of lesson in the outside-of-school and school learning of the accordion playing.h6: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of the use of student motivation procedures between the out-of-school and school learning the accordion.h7: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the achievements, as well as the selection of the instrument and music types at the beginning of learning in the outside-of-school and school conditions.h8: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the importance of certain factors that affect the student success and/or achievement in playing the accordion in the outside-of-school and school learning.h9: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in terms of the advantages and disadvantages of the accordion learning in the outside-of-school and school conditions.h10: It is assumed that there are no statistically significant differences in the evaluation of the status of the instrument, social status of artists and teachers in the out-of-school and learning of the accordion playing.A field research was carried out in urban and rural communities in the territory of Serbia in the period 2014 – 2016. A technique of interview, which was designed for the needs of the present study, was used to obtain the data on the interpersonal relationship of the accordion teachers, students and their parents, on accordion lessons, method of work and learning of the accordion playing outcomes. The sample comprised 30 interviewees. One segment of the sample consisted of musicians who are engaged in teaching traditional music to students outside of school (private tutors) and performing music, while the other group consisted of accordion teachers and professors engaged in institutional teaching on different levels of music education.For the purposes of data collection, the technique of scaling with an appropriate evaluation scale was used. The sample was small, consisting of 30 respondents, some of whom teach the accordion at school while others teach it outside of school. The respondents were selected on the basis of the following criteria: that they have received their music education or gained their work experience as accordion teachers and professors at Music School „Isidor Bajic‖ in Novi Sad, and/or that as the accordion teachers/professors they live and work in Novi Sad.The teaching aims in the out-of-school and school accordion playing are the same. In regard to certain social forms of work it is noticeable that group work and combination of several forms of work are present in the school environment. The respondents who teach at school put emphasis on the importance of students‘ relying on musical scores in comparison to playing by ear during the learning process. Learning to play by ear is given preference by the respondents who teach outside of school. The methods of motivating students, such as fair evaluation of their achievement, students‘ public performances and an appropriate use of punishment, are preferred in the school type of teaching. All the respondents agree that it is beneficial for students to learn traditional and classical music in parallel have an advantage.What is emphasised as an advantage of the out-of-school environment is learning the desired music with a chosen teacher, while in the school learning among the identified advantages are teachers‘ competences, the mandatory records of lessons, obtaining a certificate of school attendance, availability of printed musical scores/textbooks, learning different subjects (music theory, solfeggio) /disciplines which facilitate the overall music development of students, supervision of teaching by professional bodies, obtaining an accordion with a baritone system, as well as the existence of textbooks for the accordion teaching methodology. The respondents who teach outside of school consider that the accordion as an instrument has a higher social status, thus contributing to the financing of performances and media promotion of performers, on the contrary to the predominant opinion of the respondents who teach at school.The significance of this doctoral thesis lies in the fact that the learning of the accordion playing is observed from the point of view of ethnomusicology and music pedagogy in an interdisciplinary way providing a complete overview of the subject. The results and data obtained from this research, among other things, bring new insights into the accordion teaching methodology. These insights can serve as a significant document in the strategy of a more dynamic and, in the territory of Serbia, more even introduction of the accordion on all educational levels, bearing in mind the fact that this instrument is present in several music genres.

Essän gör anspråk på att separera språk och idén om nationalstaten genom min konstnärliga praktik. Texten öppnar genom att betraktaren/läsaren befinner sig i en hiss på väg till en bostadslägenhet vars brevinkast det står Vad vore språk om det uppstod här? på. Genom text, ljud och rumsliga installationer i lägenheten hamnar betraktaren mitt i frågan och gestaltningen av språk som en specifik erfarenhet. Ett antal nedslag görs för att ringa in den specifika erfarenheten med hänvisningar till modersmålsundervisning, skam för utebliven språkkunskap och kroppsliga erfarenheter av att störa nationalstaters narrativ. Sedan kopplar och begripliggör texten den specifika erfarenheten genom nedslag i strukturella företeelser som har varit med och skapat förutsättningarna för det specifika språket. De är t.ex. hur nationalstater använt sig av arkeologi för att skapa en linjär berättelse som något befästande av en slags sann gemensam nationell historia. En problembild beskrivs där nationalstaten har ägandeskap av språk trotts att språkets uppkomst är mer komplext än så. Problembilden bemöts av andra fält som arbetat på liknande sätt, t.ex. inom språkforskning och pedagogik. Den egna konstnärliga praktiken presenteras därefter som redskap för att fånga komplexiteten i språkets tillblivelse med verktyg som bl.a. poesin, översättning och gemensamt kunskapande. Essän avslutas med följande resonemang: När vi talar om språk som egendom tillhörande en nationalstat försvinner nyanser som lägger sig i tiden och i kroppen. Det här är en diskurs som förs på det konstnärliga fältet, men den kommer ifrån barnet, från kampen om gränser förd av människor som känner gränser våldsamt varje dag. Den kommer ifrån konstaterandet att vi lever i en kolonial samtid, så vad gör vi nu?
The essay intends to describe the separation between language and the idea of ​​the nation state through my artistic practice. The opening of the text situates the viewer/reader in an elevator. They are on their way to a residential apartment. On the letterbox, it reads; what would language be if it arose here? Through text, sound and spatial installations in the apartment, the viewer ends up in the middle of the question and portrayal of language ​​as a specific experience. A number of events are explored to address the specific experiences of language by looking closer to mother tongue education, shame for lacking knowledge in a language and interfering and disturbing the nation state’s narratives through bodily and linguistic attributes.  The text connects and makes the specific experience comprehendible through looking into the impacts to large political initiatives that have contributed to and created the conditions of the specific language. Examples are nation-states usage of archaeology to create a linear narrative to point at origin as affirmation and upholding of a true common national history. The similarities of how this is done to language is explored in the text.  The nation state claims ownership of languages ​​and this is problematised by talking of language origin as something far more complex.  This problem is addressed by other fields as well. The essay mentions some, e.g. linguistics and pedagogy. My own artistic practice is then presented as a way to capture the complexity in the becoming of language by using tools such as poetry, translation and creating ways to practice common knowledge. The essay concludes by reasoning in the following way: When we talk about languages ​​as property belonging to a nation state, nuances that settles in time and body disappear. The discourse and this essay is carried out in the artistic field, but it comes from the child, from the struggle of people who experience borders violently every day. It comes from the ascertainment that the contemporary is colonial, so what do we do?

Sammanfattning

Syftet med detta arbete har varit att undersöka hur lärare arbetar med tidig läs- och skrivinlärning, hur det praktiska förhåller sig till det teoretiska och slutligen hur deras arbete ställer sig i förhållande till styrdokumenten, det vill säga dagens läroplan.

Detta arbete berör även svenskundervisningens historiska utveckling, kortfattad definition av läsning och skrivning, arbetsmiljö, teorier om inlärning och olika arbetsmetoder.

Intervjuerna som gjordes till detta arbete har skett i form av kvalitativa samtal. De intervjuade pedagogerna arbetar allesammans på lågstadiet.

Resultatet av undersökningen är att lärare inte kan arbeta med läs- och skrivinlärning efter en färdig mall. Lärare måste anpassa sig själc, material och arbetsmetod efter barngruppen och dess individer. Ingen arbetsmetod används uteslutande, utan en lärares uppgift består i att plocka de bästa delarna ur varje metod för att sedan komponera egna arbetssätt som passar såväl lärare som målgrupp. Alla lärare arbetar med samma målstyrning, Lpo 94, men vägarna till målen varierar lika mycket som det finns lärare.

Abstract

The purpose with this document has been to find out how teachers work with the early reading and writing learning, how reality relates to theories and finally how their work relates to the curriculum, this being Lpo 94.

This document also brings up the Swedish language training from a historical point of view, a short definition of reading and writing, work environment, theories of learning and different work methods.

The interviews done for this document have been of the qualitative sort. The teachers interviewed all work in the junior level of school.

The outcome of the researches is that teachers can’t work with the reading and writing learning after a pre-made pattern. The teacher has to adjust him/her self, material and work method after the group of children. No work method is used exclusively, a teachers job is to single out the best pieces of all methods, to later on compose these to there own way of working to suit the teacher as well as the target group. All teachers have to work with the same guidance, Lpo 94, but the ways of reaching the goals are as many as there are teachers.

Tema ovog rada je istraživanje savremenih arhitektonskih praksi formiranih u Novom Sadu u periodu od 1980. do 2010. godine. Na osnovu teorijskog polazišta, proučavanja savremenih međunarodnih kretanja - Venecijanskog bijenala arhitekture kao referentnog događaja, kao i istraživanja lokalnog konteksta – Novog Sada, metodom ankete izvršena je detaljna analiza praksi 145 novosadskih arhitekata. Sintezom dobijenih rezultata sagledan je proces tranformacije osnovnih oblika delovanja, kao i formiranja savremenih arhitektonskih praksi.
The topic of this PhD thesis are contemporary architectural practices, founded inNovi Sad in the period between 1980 and 2010. Based on theoretical stance, thestudy of contemporary international trends- Architecture Biennale in Venice as areference event, and the research of the local context- Novi Sad, by applying surveyas a method, a detailed analysis of practices of 145 architects from Novi Sad hasbeen conducted.Through a synthesis of the results, it was possible to assess thetransformation process of the elementary forms of activities, as well as formation ofcontemporary architectural practices.

A puzzle in the sociolinguistic history of Sanskrit is that texts with authenticated dates first appear in the 2nd century CE, after five centuries of exclusively Prakrit inscriptions. Various hypotheses have tried to account for this fact. Senart (1886) proposed that Sanskrit gained wider currency through Buddhists and Jains. Franke (1902) claimed that Sanskrit died out in India and was artificially reintroduced. Lévi (1902) argued for usurpation of Sanskrit by the Kshatrapas, foreign rulers who employed brahmins in administrative positions. Pisani (1955) instead viewed the “Sanskrit Renaissance” as the brahmins’ attempt to combat these foreign invaders. Ostler (2005) attributed the victory of Sanskrit to its ‘cultivated, self-conscious charm’; his acknowledgment of prior Sanskrit use by brahmins and kshatriyas suggests that he did not consider the victory a sudden event. The hypothesis that the early-CE public appearance of Sanskrit was a sudden event is revived by Pollock (1996, 2006). He argues that Sanskrit was originally confined to ‘sacerdotal’ contexts; that it never was a natural spoken language, as shown by its inability to communicate childhood experiences; and that ‘the epigraphic record (thin though admittedly it is) suggests … that [tribal chiefs] help[ed] create’ a new political civilization, the “Sanskrit Cosmopolis”, ‘by employing Sanskrit in a hitherto unprecedented way’. Crucial in his argument is the claim that kāvya literature was a foundational characteristic of this new civilization and that kāvya has no significant antecedents. I show that Pollock’s arguments are problematic. He ignores evidence for a continuous non-sacerdotal use of Sanskrit, as in the epics and fables. The employment of nursery words like tāta ‘daddy’/tata ‘sonny’ (also used as general terms of endearment), or ambā/ambikā ‘mommy; mother’ attest to Sanskrit’s ability to communicate childhood experiences. Kāvya, the foundation of Pollock’s “Sanskrit Cosmopolis”, has antecedents in earlier Sanskrit (and Pali). Most important, Pollock fails to show how his powerful political-poetic kāvya tradition could have arisen ex nihilo. To produce their poetry, the poets would have had to draw on a living, spoken language with all its different uses, and that language must have been current in a larger linguistic community beyond the poets, whether that community was restricted to brahmins (as commonly assumed) or also included kshatriyas (as suggested by Ostler). I conclude by considering implications for the “Sanskritization” of Southeast Asia and the possible parallel of modern “Indian English” literature.