Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Prawn culture'

This thesis is concerned with social and economic aspects of freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) culture development in converted paddy field gher systems in SW Bangladesh, based on economic features of prawn production and social impacts within and around prawn farming communities. Based on a sample of 400 farmers from the four different zones in Bagerhat district in SW Bangladesh, 345 (86.25%) cultured prawn with fish and rice in their gher. The culture period is typically nine months, wild fry are stocked when available in May-June and harvested from November to January. A variety of feeds are used but the preferred material is the freshwater snail, Pila globosa. Productivity is variable, averaging 432 kg ha-!. The freshwater prawn is a highly valued product for international markets and is therefore almost all exported. All farmers in all zones and different gher size categories made a profit, with seed and feed dominating variable costs. Considerable variation in production costs and profitability was observed. The culture of prawn in gher systems is technically possible in a variety of conditions though expanding small scale of farming mainly depends on reducing production costs. Future targets could be to integrate with other agricultural activities especially dike cropping and rice production in the monsoon. The livelihoods of a large number of people are associated with prawn farming. Four different fry, snail and prawn markets were surveyed, including a sample of 60 fry catchers, 40 fry traders, 75 snail collectors, 40 snail traders and 40 prawn traders. A sample of 200 women, associated with gher farms was also surveyed. In spite of socio-economic constraints, most of the households of farmers (81 %) have improved their status through prawn farming where prawn have brought out clearly positive changes of economic activities and generated new employment. All appeared to have gained from their activities, women have enhanced their position in families and societies. However, concerns arise about the long-term sustainability of prawn farming due to high production costs, low supply of wild fry and snail meat, poor natural resources, poor institutional support and inadequate extension services, all of which have affected sustainable livelihoods of farmers and associated groups. It may necessary to establish local ingredients feed industries, prawn hatcheries and to provide low-interest credit with institutional and policy support for sustainable gher farming.

In recent decades, a rapid increase in fish production from the aquaculture sector has led to degradation of the environment due to indiscriminate use of chemical additives and veterinary medicines. Consequently, antimicrobial resistance among pathogenic bacteria has increased and environmental problems associated with these chemicals and antibiotics have become a burden for sustainable aquaculture development. Therefore, there is a need to alter the indiscriminate use of chemicals and antibiotics for the use in aquaculture by replacing these with prebiotics or other harmless substitutes. Different probiotics can confer huge functions and benefits to various hosts through the improvement in survival rates and enhancement of health. However, there is a need for special species-specific prebiotics in a particular culture environment.Customising the species-specific probiotics for prawn culture was performed via several experiments. After the specific prebiotics, Pseudomonas synxantha and P. aeruginosa were isolated and tested from a commercial product, the emphasis was on determining the effectiveness of them on the cultivation of the juveniles’ western king prawns, Penaeus latisulcatus. The customisation process began with trialling five inhibition test methods to determine the most effective detection method for the potential probiotic bacteria. P. synxantha and P. aeruginosa showed the highest inhibition against Vibrio spp. isolated from P. latisulcatus and pathogenic Vibrio isolated from other aquatic animals.A series of experiments were conducted under laboratory conditions to investigate the physiological and immune responses of the juvenile P. latisulcatus exposed to the customised probiotics. The research results proved the suitability of these probiotics for the cultivation of P. latisulcatus as they conclusively met all the essential requirements for the appropriate probiotics. The application of these customised probiotics at 10[superscript]5 CFU/mL as “water additives” or “feed supplements” improved the specific growth rate, survival and the health of juvenile P. latisulcatus. These customised probiotics showed similar beneficial effects as observed with other commercial prebiotics, Bio-Mos[superscript]® and ß-1,3-D-glucan. The supplementation of these probiotics with the formulated feed was more efficacious and more practical than direct application into the rearing media. The prawns exposed to the combined probiotics were healthier than those exposed to the individual probiotics. In addition, P. aeruginosa was more effective than P. synxantha for improving prawn health.P. latisulcatus were not adversely affected by the customised probiotics, as P. latisulcatus grew well in the presence of a high probiotic density of 10[superscript]7 CFU/mL. The application of the probiotics however, reduced the negative effects of the pathogen V. harveyi as the probiotic-fed prawns survived 100% when they were exposed to V. harveyi at 10[superscript]5, 10[superscript]7 and 10[superscript]3 CFU/mL for 24, 24 and 36 h, respectively. Hence customised probiotics are suggested as an alternative to antibiotic for disease control in prawn aquaculture. The prawn survival was also influenced by the concentrations of the pathogen and duration of the challenge. At a challengeconcentration of 10[superscript]3 CFU/mL of V. harveyi, the 100% survival-hours were shorter (12 h) in the control group (prawns not fed with probiotics) than in the probiotic-fed prawns (36 h). Further, prawns not fed with probiotics died at a faster rate (96 h) than the probiotic-fed prawns (156 h). The prawns died when the exposure to V. harveyi (even at 10[superscript]3 CFU/mL) was longer than 36 h. The probiotic-fed prawns could not completely resist the pathogenic effects of the V. harveyi despite the detection of the probiotics in the intestine of the prawns earlier than detection of V. harveyi. It is recommended that these customised probiotics can be used as a substitute to antibiotics in the cultivation of western king prawns.

Rapid global expansion of the aquaculture industry has prompted the need for development of techniques for effective environmental management. In intensive aquaculture, effluents have resulted in environmental degradation of surrounding ecosystems. As a result, wastewater treatment techniques using biological means is growing worldwide. The present research was conducted to investigate the nutrient flows in a system where seaweed Sargassum sp. was integrated into western king prawn (Penaeus latisulcatus) culture.Three laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the nutrient load discharged from western king prawn culture and, the capacity of Sargassum sp. to reduce nutrient loads in the integrated culture system. The effects of changes in stocking biomass of prawns and seaweed on the growth rates of both species and nutrient flows in an integrated culture system were also investigated. Prawn and seaweed growth, prawn survival, water quality parameters, nitrogen and phosphorus contents in tissue of prawns, seaweed and feed were analysed.These experiments demonstrated that by integrating seaweed into prawn culture, the concentrations of total ammonium nitrogen (TAN), nitrite-nitrogen (NO[subscript]2[superscript]-) and nitrate-nitrogen (NO[subscript]3[superscript]-), dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), total nitrogen (TN), phosphate (PO[subscript]4[superscript]3[superscript]-) and total phosphorus (TP) were significantly reduced (p ≤ 0.05) than in the prawn monoculture and remained within non-toxic limits for the duration of the experiment. Overall, Sargassum sp. removed a greater percentage of DIN (35.8-52.6%) and phosphate (5.62-65.9%) than other nutrient forms.The mean nutrient uptake rates of Sargassum sp. were 0.33-0.69 mg g[superscript]-[superscript]1 dry wt day[superscript]-[superscript]1 for nitrogen and 0.13-0.25 mg g[superscript]-[superscript]1 dry wt day[superscript]-[superscript]1 for phosphorus. The integrated culture systems effectively retained nutrients into harvested products in comparison to monoculture system. The rates of nutrient conversion into waste were significantly lower in the integrated culture systems (52.46-70.05% for nitrogen and 49.09-69.41% for phosphorus) than in prawn monoculture (82.31% for nitrogen and 85.53% for phosphorus).Integrating Sargassum sp. with prawn culture did not alter the specific growth rate (SGR) and survival rate of the prawns. The SGR of Sargassum sp. in integrated culture increased at the rate of 3.16 ± 0.74% day[superscript]-[superscript]1, while was 5.70 ± 0.82 % day[superscript]-[superscript]1 in seaweed monoculture. Decreasing the stocking biomass of Sargassum sp. negatively affected its growth rate and capacity in uptaking the nutrients.The results of this study suggest that integrating Sargassum sp. into prawn culture can benefit prawn farming by assisting in the maintenance of optimum water quality and thereby, reduce environmental impacts on surrounding ecosystems. However, the lower growth rate of seaweed cultured with prawns than those cultured in isolation suggests the presence of several limiting factors for the growth of the seaweed in integrated seaweed and prawn culture.

This is the first study to investigate the nutritional requirements of the penaeid prawn protozoeal phase (the first feeding stage of the prawn life cycle) using micro algae to provide different nutritional conditions. The work was a simultaneous examination of the biochemical composition of the larvae and their microalgal diets. In addition, the influence of naupliar composition on later larval stages was studied. The biochemical parameters measured were total protein, lipid and carbohydrate (i.e. gross biochemical composition) and total lipid was further resolved into individual fatty acids. The nutritional requirements of penaeid prawn larvae were assessed by measuring the survival, development (metamorphosis) and growth (in terms of dry weight) of larvae in response to various algal diets. In this way differences in survival, development and growth could be related to biochemical differences in the algal diets and associated larval body composition. The changes in biochemical composition of *Penaeus japonicus* and *P. monodon* larvae during metamorphosis from nauplii to protozoea 1 (PZl) and the time course of these changes during starvation and feeding for the ~42 h period that the PZl stage lasts, were examined. The larvae utilised lipid as a major energy source during metamorphosis. The fatty acid fraction of the lipid in nauplii was high (60 to 80%) compared with protozoeae (30 to 60%) and provided a large proportion of the energy required for metamorphosis. Of the total fatty acids, the monounsaturated (MUFAs) and saturated fatty acids contributed most of this energy. During starvation the MUFAs and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUPAs) were metabolised while the highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) were conserved, presumably because of their role as structural components in cell membranes. The PUFA linoleic acid (18:2n-6) appeared to have a role as a component of cell membranes when in short supply, but it accumulated as an energy reserve when in excess in the diet. Linolenic acid (18:3n-3) was actively metabolised to other membrane fatty acids or used for energy. The effect of altering the biochemical composition of the microalga *Tetraselmis suecica* on *P. semisulcatus* larvae was studied by reducing the nitrate concentration from -1760 μ*M* to 176 μ*M* in the culture media. Carbohydrate increased three fold in the low nitrate algae, and protein and lipid were reduced slightly compared to the control. The low protein:energy ratio (0.1 to 0.2) of the low nitrate diets resulted in a delay in the development of the larvae compared to that of the animals fed the control diet (ratio 0.3 to 0.4). Survival was not affected by the algal diets. Four species of algae (*Tetraselmis suecica*, *Chaetoceros muelleri*, Tahitian *Isochrysis* sp. (T-iso) and *Dunaliella tertiolecta*) differing predominantly in their fatty acid composition were fed to *P. japonicas* larvae as single species diets. The two best diets (in terms of growth and survival of the prawn larvae) were subsequently fed in combination to *P. semisulcatus* and *P. monodon* larvae to assess their nutritional value as part of a mixed diet. The survival and development to mysis 1 (M1), i.e. performance, of the larvae was affected by the algal diets such that the diets could be ranked: *C. muelleri* > *T. suecica* > *Isochrysis* sp. (T-iso) > *D. tertiolecta*. The fatty acid profiles of the algae, particularly those of arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-6), were related to those of the larvae and their performance. The presence of both of these fatty acids in the algal diet was necessary to produce high performance whereas docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) was not. The low requirements for the PUPAs 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 were modulated by the presence of HUFAs such as 20:4n-6, 20:5n-6 and 22:6n-3. Therefore when these HUFAs were present in the diet, less 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 were required. However high proportions of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 alone, did not replace the requirements for 20:4n-6, 20:5n-6 and 22:6n-3. Understanding the nutritional requirements of penaeid prawn larvae will lead to the production of a cost effective and optimum diet for use in hatcheries. In addition, this research will contribute to the production of a purified artificial diet for penaeid prawn larvae which can be used to examine the requirements for other nutrients.

Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) is an emerging bacterial infection in shrimp that has been widespread across the major world shrimp producing countries since 2009. AHPND epizootics have resulted in a huge loss of global shrimp production, similar to that caused by white spot disease in the 1990’s. The epizootiological understanding of the spread of AHPND is still in its early stages, however, and most of the currently published research findings are based on experimental studies that may struggle to capture the potential for disease transmission at the country scale. The main aim of this research, therefore, is to develop epizootiological tools to study AHPND transmission between shrimp farming sites. Some tools used in this research have already been applied to shrimp epizoology, but others are used here for the first time to evaluate the spread of shrimp diseases. According to an epizootiological survey of AHPND in Thailand (Chapter 3), the first case of AHPND in the country was in eastern shrimp farms in January 2012. The disease was then transmitted to the south in December 2012. The results obtained from interviews, undertaken with 143 sample farms were stratified by three farm-scales (large, medium and small) and two locations (east and south). Both the southern location and large-scale farming were associated with a delay in AHPND onset compared with the eastern location and small- and medium-scale farming. The 24 risk factors (mostly related to farming management practices) for AHPND were investigated in a cross-sectional study (Chapter 3). This allowed the development of an AHPND decision tree for defining cases (diseased farms) and controls (non-diseased farms) because at the time of the study AHPND was a disease of unknown etiology. Results of univariate and unconditional logistic regression models indicated that two farming management practices related to the onset of AHPND. First, the absence of pond harrowing before shrimp stocking increased the risk of AHPND occurrence with an odds ratio () of 3.9 (95 % CI 1.3–12.6; P‑value = 0.01), whereas earthen ponds decreased the risk of AHPND with an of 0.25 (95 % CI 0.06–0.8; P‑value = 0.02). These findings imply that good farming management practices, such as pond-bottom harrowing, which are a common practice of shrimp farming in earthen ponds, may contribute to overcoming AHPND infection at farm level. For the purposes of disease surveillance and control, the structure of the live shrimp movement network within Thailand (LSMN) was modelled, which demonstrated the high potential for site-to-site disease spread (Chapter 4). Real network data was recorded over a 13-month period from March 2013 to March 2014 by the Thailand Department of Fisheries. After data validation, c. 74 400 repeated connections between 13 801 shrimp farming sites were retained. 77 % of the total connections were inter-province movements; the remaining connections were intra-province movements (23 %). The results demonstrated that the LSMN had properties that both aided and hindered disease spread (Chapter 4). For hindering transmission, the correlation between and degrees was weakly positive, i.e. it suggests that sites with a high risk of catching disease posed a low risk for transmitting the disease (assuming solely network spread), and the LSMN showed disassortative mixing, i.e. a low preference for connections joining sites with high degree linked to connections with high degree. However, there were low values for mean shortest path length and clustering. The latter characteristics tend to be associated with the potential for disease epidemics. Moreover, the LSMN displayed the power-law in both and degree distributions with the exponents 2.87 and 2.17, respectively. The presence of power-law distributions indicates that most sites in the LSMN have a small number of connections, while a few sites have large numbers of connections. These findings not only contribute to a better understanding of disease spread between sites, therefore, but also reveal the importance of targeted disease surveillance and control, due to the detection of scale-free properties in the LSMN. Chapter 5, therefore, examined the effectiveness of targeted disease surveillance and control in respect to reducing the potential size of epizootics in the LSMN. The study untilised network approaches to identify high-risk connections, whose removal from the network could reduce epizootics. Five disease-control algorithms were developed for the comparison: four of these algorithms were based on centrality measures to represent targeted approaches, with a non-targeted approach as a control. With the targeted approaches, technically admissible centrality measures were considered: the betweenness (the number of shortest paths that go through connections in a network), connection weight (the frequency of repeated connections between a site pair), eigenvector (considering the degree centralities of all neighbouring sites connected to a specified site), and subnet-crossing (prioritising connections that links two different subnetworks). The results showed that the estimated epizootic sizes were smaller when an optimal targeted approach was applied, compared with the random targeting of high-risk connections. This optimal targeted approach can be used to prioritise targets in the context of establishing disease surveillance and control programmes. With complex modes of disease transmission (i.e. long-distance transmission like via live shrimp movement, and local transmission), an compartmental, individual-based epizootic model was constructed for AHPND (Chapter 6). The modelling uncovered the seasonality of AHPND epizootics in Thailand, which were found likely to occur between April and August (during the hot and rainy seasons of Thailand). Based on two movement types, intra-province movements were a small proportion of connections, and they alone could cause a small AHPND epizootic. The main pathway for AHPND spread is therefore long-distance transmission and regulators need to increase the efficacy of testing for diseases in farmed shrimp before movements and improve the conduct of routine monitoring for diseases. The implementation of these biosecurity practices was modelled by changing the values of the long-distance transmission rate. The model demonstrated that high levels of biosecurity on live shrimp movements (1) led to a decrease in the potential size of epizootics in Thai shrimp farming. Moreover, the potential size of epizootics was also decreased when AHPND spread was modelled with a decreased value for the local transmission rate. Hence, not only did the model predict AHPND epizootic dynamics stochastically, but it also assessed biosecurity enhancement, allowing the design of effective prevention programmes. In brief, this thesis develops tools for the systematic epizootiological study of AHPND transmission in Thai shrimp farming and demonstrates that: (1) at farm level, current Thai shrimp farming should enhance biosecurity systems even in larger businesses, (2) at country level, targeted disease control strategies are required to establish disease surveillance and control measures. Although the epizootiological tools used here mainly evaluate the spread of AHPND in shrimp farming sites, they could be adapted to other infectious diseases or other farming sectors, such as the current spread of tilapia lake virus in Nile tilapia farms.

Intensive marine aquaculture may cause negative impacts on the aquatic environment by causing water pollution, algae bloom and reduction in biodiversity of the surrounding aquatic environment. The nutrient-rich effluents from aquaculture activities contain nitrogen and phosphate which serve as a nutrient source for bivalve, algae and invertebrates. Seaweed and mussels have been integrated with marine species in culture systems to remove the waste from aquaculture farms. The research has explored the nutrient uptake capacities of green seaweed (Ulva lactuca) and blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) integrated with western king prawn (Penaeus latisulcatus) in the integrated closed recirculating aquaculture systems (IRAS) and has evaluated the nutrient retention of seaweed and animals in the system.One experimental unit of an IRAS consisted of three tanks: a mussel tank, a prawn tank and a waste-collection tank. The mussel tank and the prawn tank were set on the top and lower tiers of a metal frame; the waste-collection tank was on the floor. Water was pumped from the waste-collection tank to the reservoir tank by a submersible pump, circulated to the prawn tank and then returned to the waste collection tank through gravity.A series of experiments were conducted under laboratory conditions to investigate the water quality; survival, growth of western king prawn and nutrient budget in the IRAS. The research results proved that the recirculating culture system could maintain acceptable water quality for western king prawn at stocking densities till 16 prawn m-2 and at feeding rate of 3.0% of wet weight biomass. Increasing the stocking densities results in decreasing the water quality in the culture media, the growth and survival of western king prawn reared in the recirculating aquaculture system. In contrast, increasing feeding rate did not improved growth and survival rate of western king prawn but feed utilization efficiency decreased significantly with increasing the feeding rates. Total phosphorus (TP) and orthophosphate (PO43-) concentrations increased linearly with increasing the feeding rates of western king prawn. High percentage of nutrient inputs accumulated into tank bottom at higher stocking densities whereas over 50% of nutrient inputs were in discharged water at harvest in lower stocking densities.Inclusion green seaweed into western king prawn culture system improved the water quality in the IRAS. Concentrations of total ammonia nitrogen (TAN), nitrate (NO3-) and PO43- in the integrated culture system were lower than those in the monoculture system. Green seaweed effectively removed 24.02-99.05% TAN and 13.80-96.40% PO43- in the culture media. Feed utilization efficiency in integrated culture was significantly enhanced by 24.90 % nitrogen (N) and 19.41% phosphorus (P). Nutrient budget revealed that western king prawn and green seaweed retained 28.00-31.90% and 6.53-29.71% N of total nitrogen (TN) inputs at harvest, respectively while P retention was 13.46-14.63% and 1.62-13.50% of TP inputs, respectively. The rest of total nutrient input was in discharged water and tank sediments.Integrated culture of blue mussel and western king prawn could improve the water quality in the IRAS though effectively removing of the total bacteria (TB), total suspended solids (TSS) and total nitrogen (TN) in the cultured media. However, concentrations of NO2-, NO3- and PO43- were increased due to the mussel excretion. Growth and survival of western king prawn were not affected by adding blue mussels into western king prawn culture in IRAS at stocking rate of 250 mussel m-2 and 16.07 prawn m-2. When stocking rates exceed density of 312.5 mussel m-2 and =21.36 prawn m-2, growth and survival of both western king prawn and blue mussel in the IRAS were declined significantly due to the low water quality and crowded effects in the culture media. Inclusion of blue mussels into western king prawn culture was enhanced the feed utilization efficiency further up to 10.63 % N and 4.89 % P and reduced the nutrient discharged through draining at harvest. N and P contents accumulated in mussel tanks increased linearly with the increasing mussel stocking densities in the IRAS. The results indicate that the use of integrated aquaculture system is a step forward to achieve sustainability in aquaculture.

碩士
國立屏東科技大學
水產養殖系
91
To investigate the current aspects of freshwater giant prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, cultured in Taiwan, a three-experiment monoculture system was carried out and all items of cultural parameters were also collected. Three trials with an area of 1) 0.7 ha area with one 0.1 ha pond plus two 0.3 ha ponds, 2) 0.7 ha area with one 0.3 ha pond and one 0.4 ha pond, and 3) 1.0 ha area with one 0.4 ha pond and two 0.3 ha ponds. The raising periods were 357, 224 and 388 days, and the stocking densities were 42.85 prawns/m2, 28.57 prawns/m2 and 50.00 prawns/m2, for each trial respectively. During the raising periods, parameters, including temperature, feeds, water exchange and water quality were measured daying. Prawn growth rates were also estimated by random sampling every two weeks. The results indicated nursing ponds the survival rates were 39.2%, 36.9% and 24.6%, the total survival rates were 13.5%, 15.7% and 13.2%, the production harvested were 1.115 mt/ha, 1.042 mt/ha and 1.817 mt/ha, the feed conversion rates (FCR) were 6.13:1, 3.07:1 and 2.86:1, and the total water exchange were 11,356.85 mt/ha, 11,443.85 mt/ha and 11,474.00 mt/ha for the three experiments, respectively. The highest survival rate among the nursing ponds was observed in the first experiment with postlarvae purchasing from local hatchery farms. The total survival rate was highest in the second experiment due to its lower stocking density and the fungal yeast infection in the first experiment. The per hectare production of the three experiments were far below the intensive culture system standard (2-5tons/hectare). The possible reasons of the lower production were ascribed to several problems, poor post- larvae quality, size-dependent market demand, prolonged culture periods resulting in defferent prawns population structure.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
漁業科學研究所
86
Filamentous phase of Helminthocladia australis stable on PU( polyurethane) sponge to form algae bed. Determine different form both of algae bed have different concentration nitrate-N and ammonium-N of absorbed efficiency in water. Breeding water of Grass Prawn Penaeus monodon larvae use algae bed to purify water on the site simulate experiment, to proceed culture reality of coordination experiment, estimate algae bed applied aquaculture effluent purify treatment is feasible。 Filamentous phase stable on PU sponge in addition culture to form algae bed. Deal with nitrogen-starved pass though seven days to proceed nitrate-N and ammonium-N of absorbed preposition experiment。Result show, algae bed absorbed nitrate- N with different primary concentration, after seven days total absorbed amount is no obvious difference, first day absorbed amount is 50% above during experiment. But first hour of first day with higher nitrate concentration produced higher absorbed rate, and then post pon to settle down。Algae bed absorbed ammonium-N with different primary concentration, first day in higher concentration have more higher absorance. Algae bed to ammonium-N absorbed rate is high, and then post pone decrease。During seven days of experiment, different ammonium-N primary concentration obvioused different total absorbed amount。10 mg/l NH4+-N treatment display the highest total absorbed amount, and increase concentration, then absorbed amount is decrease。 Filamentous phase of algae piped into sponge to formed algae bed, total absorbed amount of nitrate-N with different primary concentration produced different total absorbed amount。Every treatment of first day absorbed amount is 70% above of total absorbed amount; different ammonium-N primary concentration produced different total absorbed amount, and total absorbed amount with time is positive relation and nonlinear。 On purify test of larvae breeding water quality , test level is ammonium-N 1.72 mg-N/l, nitrite-N 195.7 g-N/l, nitrate-N 1.008 mg-N/l and phosphate-P 244.9 g-P/l。treatment larvae survive rate of test end is 92.91%(treatment)、87.34%(change water) and 84.86%(control)。 On the site simulate experiment algae bed efficiency is low be cause of water temperature difference is high and suspension adhere effect is highly algae body absorbed effect and microbiological effect rate is higher algae body absorbed r

Modern aquaculture of freshwater prawns began in 1960's after the life cycle of Macrobrachium rosenbergii was first closed. The industry has since expanded rapidly with global annual production reaching 443,959 tonnes in 2009. The Australian native freshwater prawn species formerly known as M. rosenbergii was recently renamed as Macrobrachium spinipes. The past attempts to commercially culture the native Australian freshwater prawn has never taken off citing various problems. In view that new molecular evidence showed native Australian freshwater prawn encompasses four lineages, this study investigated broodstock management, larval and nursery culture techniques for the lineage II M. spinipes sourced from tropical north Queensland. Spawn induction of M. spinipes outside its natural breeding season (November to March) was investigated by temperature and photoperiod manipulation. Mature females (15) were kept individually under controlled water temperatures of 24, 27 and 30 °C with photoperiod adjusted to 14.5 h light: 9.5 h dark while the control was under ambient conditions. The experiment ran from May to August for 84 days and throughout the experimental duration, no spawning was recorded in any treatments. Despite ambient temperature dropping to as low as 12 °C for the control, no mortality was recorded in all treatments except a single death found for 30 °C treatment and common moults occurred in all treatments even during the coldest period in the control. Hence M. spinipes showed high tolerance to low water temperature and potential for grow-out culture under cooler climates. The effects of microalgae Nannochloropsis sp. addition and concentration ('green water') on larval survival, development and growth of newly hatched larvae of M. spinipes were investigated under the condition of no algae addition ('clear water') and four Nannochloropsis concentrations of 2.5, 6.25, 12.5 and 25 x 10⁵ cells ml⁻¹. Survival to PL at the two higher algae concentrations of 12.5 and 25 x 10⁵ cells ml⁻¹ (70.8 % and 63.3 %, respectively) were significantly higher (P<0.05) than the two lower concentrations and the 'clear water' treatments (26.7 %, 35.0 % and 30.0 %), respectively. Meanwhile, the fastest mean development to PL (30.6 days) was obtained at the highest algal density, which was 14 days shorter than that of the 'clear water' treatment (44.3 days). Mean dry weights of newly settled PL's in the two high algal density treatments were also significantly heavier (P<0.05) than in the lowest algal density and the 'clear water' treatments. The results clearly showed that in comparison with the 'clear water' method, 'green water' culture by adding Nannochloropsis sp. potentially could substantially improve larval performance of M. spinipes, however such beneficial effects only became significant when the concentration of algae added reached a threshold level. A further experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of addition of higher microalgae concentrations as compared to Artemia enrichment on larval growth, survival and fatty acid composition of M. spinipes larvae and their interactions. The newly hatched larvae were cultured with no addition of algae ('clear water') and Nannochloropsis sp. added ('green water') at two concentrations of 2.5 (low) and 10 x 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹ (high) and fed with either enriched or non-enriched Artemia: i.e.1) 'clearwater' + enriched Artemia; 2) 'clearwater' + non-enriched Artemia; 3) 2.5 x 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹ + enriched Artemia; 4) 2.5 x 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹ + non-enriched Artemia; 5) 10 x10⁶ cells ml⁻¹ + enriched Artemia and 6) 10 x10⁶ cells ml⁻¹ + non-enriched Artemia. The results showed that under 'clear water' culture, larvae fed nonenriched Artemia resulted in total mortality while Artemia enrichment improved survival to 18 %; at the low algal density (2.5x10⁶ cells ml⁻¹), larval survival also improved with Artemia enrichment (55.8 vs. 80 %). However, survival was very similar with and without Artemia enrichment at high algal density of 10x10⁶ cells ml⁻¹. 'Clear water' culture resulted in poorer larval survival, while on the other hand it showed that Artemia enrichment improved survival mainly under 'clear water' or low algal density condition. Meanwhile, increased algal density and Artemia enrichment were shown to significantly improve larval development and growth, respectively. The shortest mean development times to PL (20.5 and 21.5 days) were from both 10 x10⁶ cells ml⁻¹ treatments with enriched treatment having the shortest 20.5 days while non-enriched treatment at slightly longer 21.5 days. Meanwhile, all 'greenwater' treatments showed advanced 'Larval Stage Index' (LSI) compared with the 'clear water' treatments. In contrast, dry weights and total lengths of PL from enrichment treatments were heavier or larger. It is concluded that Artemia enrichment was most beneficial for larval culture when 'clearwater' method was used or microalgae was added at low concentrations in 'green water' culture. Newly settled postlarvae (PL) of M. spinipes were stocked under three densities of 500 (low), 1000 (intermediate), 2000 PL m⁻³ (high) and with or without shelter, respectively to investigate the effects of stocking density and shelter as well as their potential interactions on the nursery culture of M. spinipes. Statistical analysis detected no significant interaction (P>0.05) between the two factors of stocking density and shelter within the range tested, the main effects were therefore analysed separately. With the survival results of the two treatments under a same density (i.e. with and without shelter) pooled, it showed that the low density (500 PL m⁻³) produced significantly higher mean survival (84.8 %) than the high density treatment (2000 PLm⁻³) (57.4 %) (P<0.05). The intermediate density (1000 PLm⁻³) generated an intermediate result (74.4 %), which was significantly different (P<0.05) from both the high and low density treatments. At the end of culture, the high stocking density also produced significantly heavier juveniles (wet weight: 144.24 ± 0.01 mg ind⁻¹), significantly higher final biomass (13.45 ± 1.39 g) and increase in biomass (8.87 ± 1.28 g) than that of the low density treatment (wet weight: 117.99 ± 0.003 mg ind⁻¹; final biomass: 4.69 ± 0.16 g and increase in biomass: 2.95 ± 0.15 g). Meanwhile, the addition of shelter produced significantly heavier juvenile wet weight (134.3 ± 0.01 vs. 123.61 ± 0.003 mg ind⁻¹) and higher final biomass (11.76 ± 1.84 vs. 8.79 ± 1.12 g). The results suggest that stocking density of 2000 PL m⁻³ improved final production while 500 PL m⁻³ improved survival. On the other hand, under the same stocking densities, shelter addition enhanced juvenile wet weight and final biomass. In summary, the results of the present study suggest that the Australian native M. spinipes is a freshwater Macrobrachium species that shares many biological and aquaculture similarities with M. rosenbergii but also has some major differences. As it is native to Australia, M. spinipes has high potential for aquaculture in the country, therefore should be investigated further for its potential commercial farming in Australia and also possibly overseas.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 2003.
Title from title page screen (viewed Mar. 22, 2004). Thesis advisor: J. Larry Wilson. Document formatted into pages (viii, 54 p. : col. ill.). Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 50-53).

Rozprawa została poświęcona analizie obecnego w twórczości Juliusza Słowackiego dyskursu prawnego. Równorzędnymi celami stało się w niej odtworzenie historycznych inspiracji poety oraz wskazanie środków poetyckich, gatunków literackich czy typów stylizacji, za pomocą których wprowadzał do swoich utworów motywy, tematy, zjawiska i postaci związane z poszczególnymi tradycjami prawnymi. Wykorzystane w tym celu pojęcie kultury prawnej umożliwiło rozszerzenie obszaru badań poza prawo rozumiane wąsko – jako tekst ustawy. Zgodnie definicjami obecnymi w badaniach Russockiego czy Borkowskiej-Bagieńskiej kultura prawna została potraktowana jako zespół wyobrażeń, zwyczajów, postaw i ocen dotyczących zarówno historycznego jak i przyszłego, projektowanego prawa. Ponadto w rozprawie zostały wykorzystane ustalenia tzw. nurtu „law and literature” (m. in. Posnera i Balla). Dzięki nim możliwie stało się zwrócenie szczególnej uwagi na rolę związanych z prawem przestrzeni w utworach Słowackiego oraz podobieństwa łączące rozprawę sądową i przedstawienie teatralne. Wykorzystywanie wyników tych badań łączyło się jednak z dużą ostrożnością ze względu na odmienność polskiej kultury prawnej należącej do kontynentalnego systemu prawa od stojącego w centrum zainteresowania „law and literature” anglosaskiego systemu common law. W twórczości Słowackiego można odnaleźć dowody na znajomość lektur i teorii prawniczych (Warnköniga, Czackiego, Rousseau, Beccarii, Filanghieriego i innych) a także nawiązania do historycznych aktów prawnych oraz wystąpień politycznych i propozycji legislacyjnych. Podstawy swojej wiedzy na temat prawa zdobył w czasie trzyletnich studiów na Wydziale Nauk Politycznych i Prawnych w Wilnie (1825-1828). Uniwersytet w Wilnie był w tym czasie dotknięty represjami związanymi z procesami członków tajnych towarzystw studenckich. Z tego powodu Słowacki uczęszczał na wykłady profesorów takich jak Alojzy Cappelli czy Aleksander Korowicki, którzy sprzyjali tendencjom prorosyjskim, niewątpliwie jednak przekazywali studentom informacje dotyczące nowoczesnych zdobyczy prawoznawstwa. Kontynuacją drogi kształcenia zainicjowanej w Wilnie było dla Słowackiego 2 podjęcie pracy w Komisji Rządowej Przychodów i Skarbu w Warszawie. Zachowane rękopisy dotyczące powierzanych mu spraw merytorycznych poświadczają szeroki zakres zagadnień, którymi najprawdopodobniej się zajmował. Wymagały one orientacji w nowoczesnym, biurokratycznym systemie administracyjnym ukształtowanym na wzór francuski. Najważniejszą inspiracją w zakresie przepisów oraz zwyczajów prawnych okazało się dla Słowackiego dziedzictwo historyczne pierwszej Rzeczpospolitej. Jego priorytetowa rola wynikała z popularnej w epoce romantyzmu fascynacji sarmatyzmem. W utworach poety zagadnienia prawne nieodmiennie łączyły się z podkreślaniem wewnętrznego zróżnicowania stanu szlacheckiego (wszechwładza magnaterii; typ osobowy szlacheckiego zawadiaki). W jego dziełach pojawia się również wiele instytucji wywodzących się prawa cywilnego: małżeńskiego i spadkowego oraz prawa własności ziemi. Sposób przedstawiania części z nich należy postrzegać jako kontynuację oświeceniowej tradycji literackiej, inne zostały przekształcone zgodnie ze stylistycznymi dominantami estetyki romantycznej. Dobitnym przykładem tej drugiej tendencji były testamenty, w których przekazywane były raczej wskazówki o charakterze moralnym lub symboliczne wartości niż przedmioty czy pieniądze (Testament mój, Kordian). Poetę zainteresowały też tematy zaczerpnięte z prawa kryminalnego. Przywoływał wiele typów przestępstw, przede wszystkim skierowanych przeciwko czci i życiu (m.in. morderstwo, naruszenie nietykalności ciała, zgwałcenie, uwiedzenie, rapt) oraz sposobów ukarania winnych (np. egzekucja przez rozstrzelanie, powieszenie czy ścięcie, kary okaleczające, uwięzienie, banicję czy proskrypcję). Dodatkowo wprowadzał do swoich utworów liczne postaci prawników: woźnych, kanclerzy, sędziów, pisarzy czy inkwizytorów. Pozwalało to na intertekstualną dyskusję z negatywnym stereotypem przekupnego i nieuczciwego palestranta oraz uwypuklenie dylematów moralnych wiążących się z wydawaniem wyroków i literalnym przestrzeganiem prawa. Prawnicy wielokrotnie byli też utożsamiani z mocami piekielnymi. Szczególną rolę Słowacki przypisywał lucyferycznej figurze adwokata, który w dramacie Samuel Zborowski zajął pozycję obrońcy całej ludzkości, wstawiającego się za nią przed Bogiem. Żywe zainteresowanie poety budziły również zagadnienia organizacji państwa. W ramach prowadzonej od połowy lat czterdziestych działalności politycznej przedstawiał ideologiczną propozycję powrotu do instytucji charakterystycznych dla Polski szlacheckiej. Liberum veto oraz konfederacja czyli występowanie przeciwko władzy zostały przez niego przeniesione na płaszczyznę metafizyczną i w jej ramach przedstawione jako niezbywalne przymioty narodowe. 3 Choć Słowacki był bacznym obserwatorem modelu ustrojowego Francji, jego stosunek do monarchii konstytucyjnej z epoki rządów Ludwika Filipa pozostawał niejednoznaczny. Przypisywał jej starożytne korzenie, których dopatrywał się w utworach Homera i Hezjoda. Przeprowadzał paralelę między gabinetem Thiersa i rządami bogów na Olimpie. Choć uznawał monarchię konstytucyjną za najdoskonalszy z dotychczas stworzonych ustrojów nie był on dla niego ani ostateczny, ani też możliwy do zaimplementowania w odrodzonej Polsce. Wynikało to ze szczególnej roli dziejowej, którą Słowacki przypisywał Rzeczpospolitej. Miała ona doprowadzić do ukształtowania się idealnego, uniwersalnego modelu ustrojowego, opartego na reliktach prawa szlacheckiego. W pismach poety można odnaleźć wypowiedzi dotyczące trzech obcych tradycji prawnych: brytyjskiej, rosyjskiej i spartańskiej. Uwagi na temat prawa angielskiego i szkockiego pojawiały się najczęściej w twórczości młodzieńczej, dotyczyły sfery ustrojowej oraz wydarzeń historycznych takich jak rewolucja Cromwella czy rządy Stewartów. Z kolei prawo rosyjskie było przez niego postrzegane przede wszystkim z perspektywy represjonowanych Polaków żyjących pod władzą obcego monarchy. Absolutny władca Rosji był w jego tekstach zastępowany przez wyrazy swojej woli – ukazy, reskrypty lub dekrety. Wreszcie w okresie genezyjskim w centrum zainteresowania poety stanęły prawa Likurga i reformy ekonomiczne Agisa związane z historią starożytnej Sparty, potraktowanej jako antycypacja Rzeczpospolitej. Jednym z najważniejszych motywów zaczerpniętych ze świata kultury prawnej był dla Słowackiego proces sądowy. Jako schemat fabularny pozwalał on na bezpośrednią konfrontację bohaterów. Rozgrywał się najczęściej w ostatnim akcie utworów dramatycznych, stanowił więc kulminację i rozstrzygnięcie ich fabuł. Charakterystyczne okazało się wykorzystanie w scenach procesu elementów grozy, frenezji a nawet groteski. Bohaterowie jego utworów często stykali się ze sobą przed sądem, moc wydawanych wyroków oraz autorytet sądu były jednak przez poetę wielokrotnie podważane. Spotkanie spiskowców w podziemiach katedry św. Jana w Kordianie (z formalnego punktu widzenia hybryda sejmu i sądu) został zerwany przez liberum veto Kordiana. W Beatryks Cenci pozornie adekwatna kara śmierci za zamordowanie ojca, okazała się niesłuszna, gdyż skazywała na egzekucję bohaterkę ucieleśniającą sprawiedliwość. Z kolei w Śnie srebrnym Salomei magnacki przywilej sprawowania sądów okazał się być fasadą, pozbawioną metafizycznego znaczenia. Wreszcie w Samuelu Zborowskim poeta przeniósł najwyższy sąd szlachecki – trybunał – w rzeczywistość pozaziemską. Postawił przed nim jednego z najsłynniejszych szlacheckich banitów i przeprowadził jego rehabilitację zgodnie 4 z genezyjską koncepcją rozwoju świata. Jedynie w Balladynie scena sądowa posłużyła ukazaniu rzeczywistej moralnej przemiany tytułowej bohaterki, która doprowadziła ją do wydania sprawiedliwego wyroku śmierci na sama siebie. Zainteresowanie Słowackiego tematyką kultury prawnej można także rozpatrywać w perspektywie filozoficznej. W utworach, pismach politycznych i zapiskach dziennikowych z lat 1843-1849 silnie zaznaczyło się napięcie między rozmaitymi sposobami rozumienia prawa. Łączyło się ono ze specyfiką pojmowania przez poetę rzeczywistości i wiarą w duchowy, metafizyczny sens świata. Obecne w twórczości genezyjskiej aluzje i wprowadzane motywy świadczą o orientacji poety zarówno w przedoświeceniowej jak i oświeceniowej koncepcji prawa natury, wobec których przedstawiał on własną propozycję prawa genezyjskiego – z jednej strony uniwersalnego i nieprzekraczalnego, z drugiej silnie uwarunkowanego przez tendencje narodowe. Tematyka prawa i kultury prawnej nie wzbudziła do tej pory szerszego zainteresowania wśród polskich badaczy literatury pierwszej połowy dziewiętnastego wieku, co może wynikać z faktu, iż była postrzegana jako niespójna z ideowymi wyznacznikami epoki romantyzmu, zwłaszcza emocjonalnością czy irracjonalnością. Tymczasem w przypadku Słowackiego upodobanie do przedstawiania zagadnień prawnych nie tylko wzbogacało świat przedstawiony utworów, ale także zaważyło na konstrukcji jego dramatów oraz okazało się jednym z istotnych komponentów zaproponowanej przez niego w ostatnich latach życia koncepcji historiozoficznej. Sięganie do tej tematyki należy w związku z tym uznać za istotną cechę jego spuścizny literackiej.
The dissertation is dedicated to an analysis of the legislative discourse present in the works of Juliusz Słowacki. Its two main goals are the reconstruction of the poet’s historical sources of inspiration, and listing the poetic devices, literary genres and types of stylization, which he used to introduce motifs, subjects, phenomena and characters related to different legal traditions into his works. Using the term “legal culture” allowed us to expand the area of research beyond law in its strictest sense (defined as simply the text of the law). In accordance with definitions found in the research of Russocki or Borkowska-Bagieńska, we have chosen to treat legal culture as a combination of notions, customs, attitudes and assessments, concerning both historical legal norms and projected, future laws. Furthermore, this thesis utilises the findings of the so-called “law and literature” movement (Posner’s and Ball’s among others). They allowed us to pay particular attention to the important role of law-related spaces in Słowacki’s literary works, as well as the similarities between trials and theatre plays. We have chosen to utilize these findings with a great deal of caution due to how dissimilar the polish legal culture (which is a part of the continental law legal system) is from the Anglo-Saxon common law, which was the centre of attention of the “law and literature” movement. Słowacki’s works contain proof of his knowledge of various legal publications and theories (Warkönig’s, Czacki’s, Rousseau’s, Beccaria’s, Filanghieri’s and others’), as well as references to historical legislative acts, political addresses and legislative proposals. He gained a basic understanding of law during his three-year studies on the Faculty of Law and Political Science in Vilnius (1825-1828). At the time the Vilnius University was facing repressive measures implemented due to the trials of members of secret student societies. Because of this Słowacki attended lectures by professors such as Alojzy Cappelli and Aleksander Korowicki, who favoured pro-Russian tendencies, but nevertheless taught their students about modern developments in jurisprudence. Słowacki continued on the path of legal education, initiated in Vilnius, by taking up work in the Ministry of Revenues and Treasury in Warsaw. Surviving manuscripts regarding the substantive cases he was entrusted with point to a wide range of 2 issues he most likely dealt with. They required an understanding of the modern, bureaucratic administration modelled after the French system. Słowacki’s chief inspiration as far as regulations and legal customs were concerned appeared to be the historical legacy of the Commonwealth of Poland. Its significant role most likely resulted from the Romantic era’s fascination with Sarmatism. In the poet’s works legal issues were invariably tied with underlining the inner diversity of the gentry (supremacy of the magnates; the “swashbuckling nobleman” character type). His works also feature many institutions hailing from civil law: marital law, inheritance law, property law. The portrayal of some of them should be considered a continuation of the Enlightenment’s literary traditions. Others were transformed in accordance with the predominant stylistic features of the Romantic aesthetic. A good example of the latter trend were wills and testaments, which served as a means of conveying guidelines and recommendations regarding morality and symbolic virtues, rather than the redistribution of items and money (Testament mój, Kordian). The poet was also inspired by themes drawn from criminal law. He evoked many types of crime, mostly against dignity and against the person (e.g. murder, battery, rape, seduction, kidnapping), as well as methods of punishing the guilty (e.g. execution by firing squad, hanging, decapitation, mutilation, imprisonment, exile, or proscription). He populated his works with numerous legal practitioners: court ushers, chancellors, judges, clerks, and inquisitors. This allowed for an intertextual polemic with the negative stereotype of a corruptible, dishonest lawyer. It also allowed Słowacki to emphasise the moral dilemmas stemming from passing judgement and following a literal interpretation of the law. Lawyers were also often identified with the forces of hell. The poet attributed a special role to the Luciferic figure of the advocate, who – in the drama Samuel Zborowski – became the defence counsel for all of humanity, interceding for mankind before God. The poet was also vividly interested in issues of national organisation. An important aspect of his political activity of the late 1840s was putting forth an ideological proposition of reinstating distinctive institutions of noble Poland. In his works, liberum veto and establishing a confederacy (i.e. acting against authority) were both treated as metaphysical, inalienable, national features. Although Słowacki was a keen observer of the French political model, his attitude towards constitutional monarchy (as it functioned during the reign of Louis Philippe) remained ambiguous. He stated, that it had its roots in antiquity – as evidenced in the works of Homer and Hesiod. He drew a parallel between Thiers’ government and the gods ruling on Mount Olympus. Although he stated, that constitutional monarchy was the most perfect of all existing 3 systems of government, he did not consider it neither ultimate, nor possible to implement in a reborn Commonwealth. The reason for this was a particular role, which – according to Słowacki – Poland was supposed to play in the history of the world. He believed it was meant to bring about a perfect, universal political system, based on the relics of gentry law. We can find references to three foreign legal traditions (British, Russian, and Spartan) in the poet’s writings. Comments on English and Scottish law appeared most frequently in his youthful works. They concerned political institutions and historical events such as Cromwell’s revolution or the reign of the Stewarts. Meanwhile, Russian law was viewed mostly from the perspective of repressed Poles living under the rule of a foreign monarch. Russia’s absolute ruler was often replaced by expressions of his will – ukases, rescripts, and decrees. Finally, during his genesian period, the poet turned his interest to the laws of Lycurgus and the economic reforms of Agis, tied to the history of ancient Sparta, which was presented as an anticipation of the Commonwealth. Of all the motifs drawn from legal culture, Słowacki considered trial to be one of the most important. Its very structure allowed for a direct confrontation of multiple characters. Trial scenes usually took place in the last acts of dramas, and so became their apogees and moments of plot resolution. These scenes became characterised by the implementation of a sense of dread, frenetic behaviour and grotesque events. Although the heroes of Słowacki’s works frequently faced each other in court, the binding power of issued verdicts, as well as the court’s authority was regularly undermined. The conspirators’ meeting in the vault of St. John’s Cathedral in Kordian (technically speaking a hybrid between a trial and a parliament session) was broken off by Kordian’s liberum veto. In Beatryks Cenci, the seemingly appropriate death penalty for patricide ultimately proved unjust, for it was passed on a heroine embodying justice. In Sen srebrny Salomei, the magnates’ privilege of passing judgement turned out to be a façade, devoid of metaphysical meaning. In Samuel Zborowski the poet transported the highest noble court – the tribunal – into a different, fantastical reality. He placed before it one of the most infamous noble outlaws, and exculpated him in accordance with the genesian theory of world development. Only in Balladyna did the courtroom scene serve to depict an actual shift in the morality of the eponymous character, who – as a result – justly sentenced herself to death. Słowacki’s interest in legal culture can be viewed from a philosophical perspective. His works, political writings and diary entries from 1843 to 1849 express a strong feeling of tension between different ways of understanding law. This tension was tied to the way the poet viewed reality, and his faith in a spiritual, metaphysical meaning of the world. Allusions and motifs 4 present in the works of the genesian period prove that the poet had a deep insight into both Enlightenment and Pre-Enlightenment natural law theories. He challenged them with his own suggested system of genesian law – universal and intransgressible, but at the same time strongly determined by national tendencies. The subject of law and legal culture failed to raise universal interest among polish scholars researching the literature of the first half of the 19th century, which could stem from the fact that it was perceived as inconsistent with the features of Romantic ideology, such as emotionalism and irrationalism. However, in Słowacki’s case, the predilection for incorporating legal issues into his works not only enriched their fictional universes, but also influenced the structure of his dramas and proved to be an important component of his historiosophic conception, put forward in the final years of his life. Referencing this subject matter should therefore be considered an important aspect of his literary legacy.

Przedmiotem niniejszej pracy jest koncepcja prawa człowieka do zdrowia w prawie międzynarodowym. Zaś punktem wyjścia – pytanie o treść i możliwość praktycznego stosowania przepisów dotyczących prawa człowieka do zdrowia na poziomie międzynarodowym. Rozprawa skupia się na trzech umowach międzynarodowych: Międzynarodowym Pakcie Praw Gospodarczych, Społecznych i Kulturalnych, Europejskiej Karcie Społecznej oraz Afrykańskiej Karcie Praw Człowieka i Ludów. Obok przepisów prawnych szczegółowej analizie poddano praktykę ich stosowania przez odpowiednie międzynarodowe organy ochrony praw człowieka.W doktrynie pojawiają się poglądy, jakoby w katalogu praw człowieka trudno było znaleźć prawo bardziej kontrowersyjne i o bardziej mglistym znaczeniu niż prawo do zdrowia. Obecny stan dyskusji naukowej oraz wieloletnia praktyka organów międzynarodowych pozwalają odeprzeć wiele z tych podnoszonych zarzutów. Nie oznacza to jednak, że z prawem do zdrowia nie wiążą się realne trudności. Dotyczą one chociażby jego skomplikowanej struktury, bardzo szerokiego zakresu czy niejasnego przedmiotu podnoszonych na jego podstawie roszczeń. W pracy założono, że prawo człowieka do zdrowia jest prawem generującym szczegółowe i konkretne zobowiązania o różnym charakterze, które na poziomie międzynarodowym mogą być skutecznie monitorowane oraz egzekwowane. Uznano również, że na poziomie międzynarodowym funkcjonuje spójne i uniwersalne rozumienie prawa do zdrowia. Biorąc pod uwagę elementy strukturalne, przyjęto również, że w prawie do zdrowia można zauważyć dwie warstwy – prawa podmiotowego i normy programowej. Trzy systemy ochrony praw człowieka były analizowane biorąc pod uwagę następujące zagadnienia: ogólne zasady realizacji prawa do zdrowia, zakres podmiotowy (po stronie uprawnionych i zobowiązanych), zakres przedmiotowy (opis szczegółowych zobowiązań i obszarów objętych prawem do zdrowia) oraz granice wymagalności (zasady limitacji i derogacji). Wymienione zagadnienia stały się podstawą porównania prawa do zdrowia w trzech systemów. Ramy teoretyczne przeprowadzonego badania zostały ustalone na podstawie prac R. Alexy’ego dotyczących praw podstawowych.
The subject of this dissertation is the concept of the human right to health in international law. Its starting point is the question of the content and the possibility of practical application of the provisions concerning the human right to health at the international level. The dissertation focuses on three international treaties: the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the European Social Charter and the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights. Additionally to legal provision this dissertation analyse also – in detailed – the interpretation of human right to health by international human rights bodies. In the views of many authors it is hard to find more controversial and more vague human right than the right to health. However, the current state of scientific discussion and many years of practice of international bodies allow to rebut many of these arguments. Although, this does not mean that the right to health is not linked to some real difficulties. They concern its complicated structure, wide scope and vague claims raised on the basis of this right.The study assumed that the human right to health is a right that generates detailed and specific obligations of a different nature, which at the international level can be efficiently monitored and enforced. It was also found that at the international level right to health has a consistent and universal understanding. Given the structural elements, it was assumed that the right to health contains two layers - a subjective right and programmatic norm.The right to health in three human rights systems (African, European and Universal) was analysed taking into account the following issues: general principles, subjective scope, material scope (description of specific obligations and covered areas) and the limitation and derogation clauses. These issues formed the basis of comparison of the right to health in the three analysed systems. Theoretical framework of the research was mainly based on the works of R. Alexy on fundamental rights.

碩士
中國醫藥學院
中國藥學研究所
91
The crude drug I-Tiao-Ken一條根（Leguminosae；Flemingia gemes or Glycine gemes）, in Mandarin mean “ a single root ” is a folk medicine commonly used in Taiwan and southern China. For a period of time, I-Tiao-Ken have been popularly used by herbalists and Chinese medicine doctors to treat rheumatism, arthritis, muscular or skeletal pains caused by spur, trauma, sciatica, common cold, postpartum cold. There are many species of I-Tiao-Ken and mainly six species are described：Flemingia lineata, Flemingia macrophylla, Flemingia prostrata, Flemingia strobilifera, Glycine tabacina and Glycine tomentella. Chien-Chin-Pa千斤拔（Flemingia macrophylla）was first recorded in Chu-Wu-Ming-Shih-Tu-Kao of Chin Dynasty. The present study was carried out for understand and establishment of callus cultures and to analyze the callus for isoflavones by HPLC. The results obtained are summarizes as follows： 1. L2 based medium was found to be more efficient than B5&MS medium for the induction of callus from leaf, roots and stem explants of in vitro grown procedure. 2. The roots and stems cultured on L2 medium with 1 ppm BA, 5 ppm 2,4-D, 2g/L CH, 3﹪sucrose had more induction intensity of callus and we determined taking the callus from roots subcultured on L2 medium with 1 ppm BA, 5 ppm 2,4-D, 2g/L CH, 3﹪sucrose to continue this studies. 3. Preliferation of callus was achieved on L2 medium with 1 ppm BA, 5 ppm 2,4-D, 2g/L CH , 0.1% peptone, 3﹪sucrose. 4. Because the highest point of callus growth curve has been reached after 27-30 days during culturing time, the most proper incubation period is 30 days. 5. In this studies of carbon sources, the promoting callus growth intensity：maltose＞lactose＞sucrose＞glucose＞galactose＞fructose＞xylose＞mannose＞rhamnose. The medium with maltose was found to be best for callus growth, however we considered sucrose more proper than maltose economically. 6. A high CH concentrations promoted callus growth, and the Modified L2 medium with 0.2-1﹪CH revealed better for callus culture. 7. Addition of coconut milk in L2 basal medium did not support callus growth. 8. A low peptone（0.1﹪）concentration promoted the callus growth, while callus growth was in lower concentration. 9. Incubation of cultures under dark condition was beneficial for the growth of callus. 10. The callus cultured on L2 medium with 1 ppm BA, 5 ppm 2,4-D, 2g/L CH , 0.1% peptone, 3﹪sucrose subcultured on White, WPM, B-5, MS, L2, N6 mediums with 3﹪sucrose individually in the second culturing period. From the results, White medium was better because of the higher genistin and genistein content from callus. 11. In the second culturing period, the callus cultured on White medium with 5﹪sucrose had higher genistein content 4.8 mg/g d.w.c. about this studies of carbon sources. 12. The callus cultured on White medium with 5﹪sucrose, 1﹪coconut milk had higher genistein content 5.4 mg/g d.w.c.. 13. In the second culturing period, the callus subcultured on White medium with 5﹪sucrose, 1﹪peptone had higher genistein content 5.2 mg/g d.w.c.. 14. The callus cultured on White medium with 5﹪sucrose, 1﹪Difco agar had higher genistein content 5.0 mg/g d.w.c.. 15. In the second culturing period, the callus subcultured on White medium with 5﹪sucrose had higher genistein content under dark condition and 6.4 mg/g d.w.c.. The genistien content was 42 times more than 5 years old wild plant. 16. In the second culturing period, the callus cultured on White medium with 5﹪sucrose, 0.5 ppm cinnamic acid had higher genistin content 6.0 mg/g d.w.c. and genistein content 0.4 mg/g d.w.c.. The genistin content was 600 times higher than 5 years old wild plant.

Praca poświęcona jest analizie porównawczej systemów ochrony praw człowieka. Celami pracy było ustaleniu podobieństw i różnic pomiędzy mechanizmami ochrony praw obywatelskich i politycznych oraz mechanizmami ochrony praw gospodarczych, społecznych i kulturalnych w prawie międzynarodowym na podstawie umów przyjętych na forum ONZ o wymiarze uniwersalnym i w systemie Rady Europy o wymiarze regionalnym oraz sprawdzenie, czy systemy te realizują ideę niepodzielności praw człowieka, zapewniając skuteczną ochronę tym prawom, niezależnie od kategorii, do której zostały one przypisane.
The doctoral thesis is a comparative analysis of the human rights protection systems. The objective of this study was to determine the similarities and differences between the protection mechanisms of civil and political rights and the protection mechanisms of economic, social and cultural rights in international law on the basis of the treaties adopted under the auspices of the United Nations (representing the universal dimension) and the Council of Europe (representing the regional dimension) to ascertain whether those systems implement the concept of indivisibility of human rights and are sufficient to ensure effective protection of those rights, regardless of the category to which they have been assigned. The comparison covers four systems of protection, two of them dedicated to protect civil and political rights: - The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights singed on 16th December 1966; - The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms singed on 4th November 1950; and further two to protect economic, social and cultural rights: - the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights singed on 16th December 1966; - the European Social Charter singed on 18th October 1961 and the Revised European Social Charter signed on 3rd May 1996; The abovementioned treaties were selected as the subject of analysis due to the fact that they represent, respectively, the universal dimension and the regional dimension, which should together create a coherent system in order to guarantee the effective protection of human rights. The doctoral thesis includes chapters on the following issues: the genesis of the protection systems within the UN and the Council of Europe, an analysis of state obligations arising from UN human rights treaties, an analysis of the protection mechanisms established in the system of UN, an analysis of state obligations arising from Council of Europe treaties, an analysis of protection mechanisms set up under the Council of Europe treaties.