Academic literature on the topic 'Prescriptive grammar'

Health information technology is being increasingly introduced into the healthcare environment with its benefits of providing safer and more effective practices. However, the new solutions are brought in issues of implementing them with existing clinical workflows and presents a variety of solutions that do not work well together. For healthcare professionals that want total control over their work, existing solutions can appear rigid and inflexible for their needs. Other solutions can also appear cumbersome as they take user experience for granted with their focus on ease of access. This research presents a prescriptive grammar for prescribing of medications which address the problems of fractured clinical workflow and rigid design of current prescribing tools. The author's solution uses a fully validated Parser Combinator Grammar with an Integrated Development Environment for the construction of prescriptions that once completed, are entered into an electronic health record using the HL7 standard.

Summary This paper focuses on Dutch grammar-writing in the 18th century so as to put the linguistic works of Robert Lowth (1710–1787) in an international, comparative perspective. It demonstrates that certain characteristics of the “Lowthian” approach to grammar and of 18th-century English linguistics in general are parallelled by similar developments in the history of Dutch linguistics. The transition from normative grammar to prescriptive grammar which characterises the English late 18th century has a counterpart in the Dutch development from ‘civil’ to national grammar. Lowth’s recognition of different stylistic levels with corresponding levels of grammatical acceptability has a Dutch counterpart as well. The transition towards prescriptivism and the relevance of different stylistic levels are closely connected, which is exemplified by a case study on the treatment of adnominal inflection in 18th-century grammars of Dutch.

AbstractPrescriptive grammar rules are taught in education, generally to ban the use of certain frequently encountered constructions in everyday language. This may lead to hypercorrection, meaning that the prescribed form in one construction is extended to another one in which it is in fact prohibited by prescriptive grammar. We discuss two such cases in Dutch: the hypercorrect use of the comparative particle dan ‘than’ in equative constructions, and the hypercorrect use of the accusative pronoun hen ‘them’ for a dative object. In two experiments, high school students of three educational levels were tested on their use of these hypercorrect forms (nexp1 = 162, nexp2 = 159). Our results indicate an overall large amount of hypercorrection across all levels of education, including pre-university level students who otherwise perform better in constructions targeted by prescriptive grammar rules. We conclude that while teaching prescriptive grammar rules to high school students seems to increase their use of correct forms in certain constructions, this comes at a cost of hypercorrection in others.

This paper investigates five morphological Americanisms in their diachronic development since 1810 on the basis of data from the Corpus of Historical American English, namely the past tense forms of THRIVE, DIVE, PLEAD, DRAG, and SNEAK. THRIVE is a clear case of an irregular verb becoming regular; in the other four lexemes (DIVE, PLEAD, DRAG and SNEAK), the irregular forms are actually a new development, as the corpus analysis can show. Present-day Americanisms can thus be the result of different historical processes that diverge from British English: differential speed in the same process, or change in a different direction. In both cases of change, it is a valid question to ask whether they might have been the result of prescriptive pressure. In order to investigate the question in how far prescriptive grammars may have influenced this trend towards more regular or towards newly irregular forms, my corpus-linguistic data is correlated with changing recommendations in historical grammar books of English, based on a quantitative investigation of my collection of 258 grammars. I propose that prescriptive influence both on the regularization of THRIVE and on the process of ‘irregularization’ of DIVE, PLEAD, DRAG and SNEAK is minimal, and that we are most likely dealing with genuine changes from below. These changes are then, with some time lag, reflected in the (not so) prescriptive grammars of the time.

Didactic grammar as a source of learningand inspirationThe term “grammar” may be vague; therefore we now speak of various sorts of grammar — depending on which language element it is focused on. We distinguish for example synchronous and diachronous grammar, semasiological and onomasiological, descriptive and prescriptive, etc. For­eign language learning does also have its special characteristics and so we have didactic grammar which focuses on a language from a perspective of a non-native speaker. Didactic grammar does not only adopt the findings of the above mentioned grammars but thanks to its special focus brings its own findings about the grammar functions of the foreign language.Дидактическая грамматика как источник знания и вдохновенияВ связи с неопределенностью и размытостью понятия «грамматика» в настоящее время принято говорить об отдельных видах грамматики, выделяемых на основании их ориентации на определенный аспект грамматической системы языка. Различают, например, грамматику син­хронную и историческую, семасиологическую и ономасиологическую, дескриптивную и пре-скриптивную и др. Своей спецификой в преподавании иностранного языка обладает и грамматика, рассматривающая язык с точки зрения иноязычного пользователя. Дидактическая не только использует результаты вышеперечисленных грамматик, но и сама, благодаря своему особому подходу, приносит новые знания о функционировании грамматической системы.

Prescriptive analyses of English grammar no doubt post-date the introduction of the printing press to England in 1476, but not by much. As soon as the dissemination of standards for written English became practicable, self-appointed experts working in every area from religion (Bishop Robert Lowth, for example) to science (including Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen) published their personal recommendations for improving the English language, and the tradition has flourished ever since, even after the advent of linguistics and descriptivism. Best sellers like TV newsman Edwin Newman's Strictly Speaking (1974) and A Civil Tongue (1975), along with film and Broadway critic John Simon's Paradigms Lost (1980), have been followed by an array of more recent prescriptive mass-market guides for the grammatically unwashed, perhaps most entertaining among them, Lynne Truss's popular Eats, Shoots & Leaves (2003), but also Dennis Baron's Guide to Home Language Repair (1994), Patricia O'Conner's Woe Is I (2003), Bill Walsh's Lapsing into a Comma (2000) and The Elephants of Style (2004), and June Casagrande's Grammar Snobs Are Great Big Meanies (2006) and its encore Mortal Syntax (2008).

In this article I discuss the persistence of non-standard past tense forms in traditional and modern dialect data in the face of strong prescriptive norms against such non-standard forms. Past tense forms like she drunk or they sung are still encountered frequently, although prescriptive grammars have militated against such usage for over a century, as a detailed investigation of nineteenth-century grammar books can show. I will argue that an increasing insistence especially by British nineteenth-century grammarians on distinct paradigm forms like drink – drank – drunk is based on a (mistaken) Latin ideal and that it has not carried much weight with the ‘average’ speaker for functional reasons: non-standard forms in <u> can be functionally motivated and are more ‘natural’ past tense forms in the sense of Wurzel (1984).

Irrespective of spatiotemporal limitations of the world's intellectual history, discussions on the language have attracted considerable attention of philosophers, linguists, and even the public. The topics of such discussions have also included the meaning, nature or function/s, and necessity of grammar while diverse arguments have been raised both in support and against even its ontic presence. Among the philosophers from all ages who attempted to analyze the foundation of those arguments, i.e. the common notion that grammar is prescriptive and fruit of pedagogical instructions, Bhartṛhari(c. 450 - 510 C.E.) stands significant because of the richness and legitimacy of his arguments at such an early age of history. More than a millennium later, Ludwig Wittgenstein as a highly influential philosopher from the last century shows some relationship with Bhartrhari in (re)confirming that our common construal of grammar cannot be valid because of its non-prescriptive nature. While attempting to examine the ways in which Bhartṛhari and Wittgenstein have interpreted grammar, this paper succinctly investigates each philosopher approaches towards the language in use.

The language system allows us to express perceived events in different ways using different linguistic resources. Ability to perform this task goes beyond the notion of prescriptive grammar, which makes no connection between language and the cognitive mind. Cognitive grammar focuses on the way we construct our ideas. Meaning is equated with conceptualization. Semantic structures are characterized Based on the ideas and theses posited by Langacker with regards to Cognitive Grammar, we seek to illustrate how our cognitive minds help us manipulate the use of language, especially the grammatical items.

Master of Arts<br>Modern Languages<br>Earl K. Brown<br>Considerable research exists on subjunctive versus indicative mood patterns of use by both native and L2 speakers of Spanish. Though intermediate level textbooks expose L2 learners to the various tenses of the subjunctive mood, literature has shown that students still struggle with its implementation in their discourse, and various reasons are offered. Little has been done to analyze the prescribed uses that textbooks offer to students regarding mood selection and how these prescribed uses may differ from what Spanish speakers do in real life. The paper first offers a brief explanation of L2 learners’ mood selection in Spanish, followed by a description of Spanish moods and the realis/irrealis dichotomy that is often placed at the center of Spanish mood selection in the literature. Following this, the study offers an analysis of six intermediate level Spanish textbooks’ prescribed uses of two past subjunctive tenses (present perfect and imperfect), as prior research has shown an overlap in the functions of their indicative counterparts. The textbook analysis is then compared to a corpus composed of messages sent on the social media platform Twitter, containing one of six emotive phrases as main clauses, with three in present, three in preterit. The results show that Spanish-speaking users of Twitter employ the prescribed subjunctive mood more often when the verb in the main clause is expressed in the preterit instead of the present, though no such tendency is discussed in the textbooks. The results also reveal an overlap in the functions of the past tense subjunctive moods. The present perfect subjunctive (i.e. haya trabajado ‘has worked’) is used in the subordinate clause nearly 40% of the time with emotive verbal main clauses expressed in the preterit, where the imperfect subjunctive would normally be expected according to prescriptive norms. This pattern of use is not discussed in any of the analyzed textbooks. A discussion of the limitations of the study, implications for textbook writers and further research then follow.

Esta tese de doutorado parte da perspectiva inicial de que a gramaticalização se restringe a tratado sobre itens lexicais ou discursivos que se tornam itens gramaticais (o que a enquadraria dentro da Teoria da Variação, inserta esta dentro da Pesquisa Sociolinguística), mas segue em direção a um salto epistemológico que remodele aquela perspectiva, ampliando-a a patamar do qual ela pode ser observada como teoria autônoma, investigativa de fenômenos limítrofes e nem sempre discretos entre linguagem e língua, discurso e texto, descrição e prescrição, oralidade e escrita, léxico e gramática. Desse modo, propugna-se pela visão epistemológica do tema, conduzido, até aqui, de modo puramente ontológico, circunscrito a um (e apenas um) dos muitos espectros que se podem alcançar com a aludida ampliação àquele que vem sendo perquirido como tratado, porém que, segundo se pretende demonstrar, pode e deve ser expandido à malha de uma teoria geral, qual seja a Teoria Geral da Gramaticalização: trata-se, aqui, de seu objetivo geral. Para esse propósito, vale-se a tese de filósofos da linguagem que atuaram sobre essa faculdade ou capacidade humana de forma direta ou indireta desde os seus primórdios ocidentais (como Sócrates, Platão e Aristóteles), passando pelos pensadores mais incisivamente preocupados com os aspectos cognitivos e interativos da linguagem e da língua (como Hegel, Husserl, Saussure, Sapir, Bloomfield, Wittgenstein, Derrida, Chomsky, Labov, Charaudeau, Maingueneau, Ducrot, Coseriu), além de ser necessária a incursão à Gramaticografia mais estrita (como a empreendida por Dionísio da Trácia, Varrão, Arnault e Lancelot, Nebrija, Jerônimo Soares Barbosa, Eduardo Carlos Pereira, Said Ali, Bechara), e, naturalmente, a contribuição filosófica dos pesquisadores sobre a gramaticalização (como Meillet, Vendryès, Bréal, Kurilowicz, Traugott, Heine, Hopper, Lehmann). Uma vez que se tenha mostrado ser verossímil aceitar-se a gramaticalização como teoria autônoma, esta tese pretende legar-lhe o papel instrumental de metodologia auxiliar a muitas entre as que ora se empreendem quando se trata de pesquisas em campos cuja ocupação é a linguagem e a língua: trata-se, aqui, de seu objetivo específico. Para essa duplicidade de metas ou objetivos, será necessário compreender conceitos, categorias e protótipos oriundos da Filosofia da Ciência (Epistemologia), do contraste entre ciências da linguagem e outros ramos do saber, da imersão em Gramaticologia e Gramaticografia (e, em alguns aspectos, em Gramatização e Gramatologia) referentes à Língua Portuguesa, da defesa, enfim, de que o ensino da Gramática Formal (ou Normativa) do idioma privilegia a acepção reflexiva e ativa (plena) dos usos ou atos a que a linguagem só pode chegar por meio do domínio da língua em toda a sua tessitura epistemológica, que gera comunicação e expressividade, raciocínio e emotividade, indo da concretude do discurso ou da oralidade à abstração da entidade pouco ou nada material, que, por sua vez, é mais nitidamente representada pela escrita, seu estágio por assim dizer de forma ainda mais pura, conquanto não excludente da substancialidade com que dialoga de modo incessante no seu constante e dialético passado-futuro ou diversidade-homogeneidade (tese e antítese) de onde emerge o seu presente ou a sua unidade (síntese)<br>This thesis begins from the initial view that grammaticalization is restricted to tract on lexical or discoursive items that become grammatical items (what would insert it into the Theory of Change, insert into the Sociolinguistics Research), but goes towards an epistemological leap which reshape that perspective, expanding it to the level where it can be seen as an autonomous theory, investigating borderline phenomena between the language and specific languages, speech and text, description and prescription, orality and literacy, vocabulary and grammar. Thus, it intends to show the possibility of the epistemological view of the subject, conducted hitherto purely on an ontological way, restricted to one (and only one) of the many spectra that can be achieved with the expansion alluded, which should be expanded to a general theory, which is the General Theory of Grammaticalization: its overall goal. For this purpose, it is necessary to go to the view of philosophers of language who served on the human faculty or capacity directly or indirectly from its Western origins (such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), through the thinkers most pointedly concerned with the cognitive aspects and interactive language and specific languages (as Hegel, Husserl, Saussure, Sapir, Bloomfiled, Wittgenstein, Derrida, Chomsky, Labov, Charaudeau, Maingueneau, Ducrot, Coseriu). The incursion in the Grammaticography will also be required (as undertaken by Dionysius of Thrace, boar, Arnault and Lancelot, Nebrija, Jerome Soares Barbosa, Carlos Eduardo Pereira, Said Ali, Bechara), as well as the philosophical contribution of the researchers on the grammaticalization (as Meillet, Vendryes, Breal, Kurilowicz, Traugott , Heine, Hopper, Lehmann). Since it has been shown to be believable to accept it as a standalone grammaticalization theory , this thesis intends to bequeath his instrumental role in helping many among which we hereby undertake when it comes to research methodology in fields whose occupation is the language and specific languages: its specific goal . For this duplicity goals or objectives , it is necessary to understand concepts , categories and prototypes derived from the philosophy of science (epistemology), the contrast between the language sciences and other branches of learning, immersion in Grammaticology and Grammaticography (and, in some respects, in grammatization and Grammatology ) for the Portuguese language, defending, finally, that the teaching of formal (or normative ) grammar language favors the reflective and active sense of uses or acts that the specific languages can only achieve when they go to the the field of language in all its epistemological possibilities that generates communication and expressiveness, reasoning and emotion, going from the concreteness of speech or of orality to abstraction, which is represented by writing, that not excludes the substantiality that dialogues with unrelenting in its constant dialectic and past-future or homogeneity-diversity (thesis and antithesis), where is its present or its unity (synthesis)

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:46:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Magali Aparecida Beneton Pieroni.pdf: 386782 bytes, checksum: 0ee8b55a8b424492a24f991d3ae68238 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-03-03<br>The teaching of portuguese language, generally, is related the teaching of prescriptive grammar in schools and high school.But, how the teacher appropriates the linguistic theories, such as analysis of Do these teachers?speech and language textual guide their teaching activities focus on increasing the interactional communication skills of students? These questions guided this case study, carried State School Madureira Paulo and Castro, located in Tietê, state of Sao Paulo, with 11 Portuguese teachers, through a questionnaire. The analysis showed that, in their teaching practice, not had a conception of grammar defined, based, mostly in the metalanguage. The goal, therefore, this work is to contribute to the debate about teaching English in public schools Sao Paulo, pointing to the social, interactional and functional language to be considered in practice teacher.<br>O ensino de língua portuguesa, geralmente, está atrelado ao ensino da gramática normativa nas escolas do ensino fundamental e médio. Mas, de que maneira o professor se apropria das teorias linguísticas, como a análise do discurso e a linguística textual? Será que esses mestres orientam suas atividades pedagógicas, buscando ampliar as competências comunicativas interacionais dos alunos? Essas questões nortearam este estudo de caso, realizado na Escola Estadual Paulo Madureira e Castro, situada no município de Tietê, estado de São Paulo, com 11 professores de português, por meio de questionário. As análises evidenciaram que, em sua prática docente, não havia uma concepção de gramática definida, baseando-se, em sua maioria, na metalinguagem. O objetivo, portanto, deste trabalho, é o de contribuir para a reflexão acerca do ensino de língua portuguesa nas escolas públicas de São Paulo, apontando os aspectos social, interacional e funcional da língua a serem considerados na prática docente.

Pelo presente trabalho, busca-se analisar as razões pelas quais as crianças das séries iniciais do Ensino Fundamental, apesar de escolarizadas, não alcançam o letramento, termo entendido como competências e habilidades para o uso da linguagem escrita no entorno social. Ao comparar-se o fazer pedagógico de professores e a bibliografia que defende o processo ensino-aprendizagem da língua materna, no contexto social, nota-se uma dicotomia entre prática e teoria. Enquanto esta aponta para um ensino baseado no trinômio uso → reflexão → uso, de modo que a variedade lingüística do aluno seja, não só respeitada, mas tomada como ponto de partida para as reflexões epilingüísticas, rumo à variedade culta, a prática revela um fazer pedagógico que não leva em conta a linguagem do aluno, e que elege, como ponto de partida e de chegada, a gramática normativa, prática que pode estar referendada pela concepção de que é, pela via da mesma, que se aprende língua ou porque os professores aprenderam assim ou, ainda, porque eles não sabem como romper com a prática tradicional. A análise revela uma escola preocupada com a decodificação, na leitura, responsável por entravar a compreensão do texto, já que trabalhado com vistas à leitura oral (como prova de que o aluno sabe ler) ou com vistas a uma pretensa interpretação, através de questões que privilegiam o conteúdo, o explícito ou, ainda, com vistas ao trabalho com questões subjetivas que não conduzem à leitura do implícito. No que diz respeito à escrita, a escola revela preocupar-se com a codificação, entendida como reprodução, de modo que, ao aluno, não resta outra saída que não a de realizar exercícios de língua, pela via da metalinguagem, ou na forma esporádica de redação, sem que se assuma como sujeito de suas idéias, tendo em vista um interlocutor de fato. Portanto, a escola, que deveria ser a instituição social responsável pelo ensino da linguagem escrita, falha nessa responsabilidade, por valorizar a gramaticalização em detrimento do letrar – passaporte para o exercício da cidadania.<br>In this work we intend to analyze the reasons why childen in initial levels of elementary school, despite being regular students, are not able to achieve literacy (which is understood as a set of competences and skills for using writen language in social context). When teaching practices and the bibliography concerning mother language teaching and learning are compared, we perceive a dicotomy between practice and theory: while the last one points to the trinomial use → reflection → use, making the learner's linguistic variety not only respected, but taken as a starting point for epilinguistical reflections towards standard language, practice reveals pedagogical procedures which do not consider learner's language, choosing normative grammar as a start and and end. This occurs due to the conception that this is how one learns language, or this was the way teachers learnt it, or because teachers cannot break with traditional practices. This analysis reveals that schools are concerned with decoding in reading, and this is responsible for restraining text comprehension, as the work with texts usually involves aloud reading (as a proof that students can read), or false text interpretation, which occurs through questions that privilege explicit content, or subjective questions that do not lead to implicit content. Concerning to writing, schools are worried with the encoding - term understood as reproduction. As a result, the learner makes language exercises through metalanguage, or in sporadic essay writing exercises, without considering him/herself as a real subject of his/her ideas, or adressing him/herself to a real interlocutor. Therefore, school, which should be the social institution responsible for teaching writen language, fails in this responsability, because it values grammar rather than literacy - which is a passport for an effective exercise of citizenship. Key-words: literacy;

Reviewing literature on the histories of and the attitude studies about transgender people, the use of ‘they’ as a gender-neutral third-person singular pronoun, prescriptive grammar ideology, and aversive prejudice theory provides insight into how these topics are interrelated and relevant to current issues surrounding nonbinary transgender people. This review inspired my research study. My participants (n = 722) completed an online survey in which they reported demographic variables and answered scales that measured ‘they’ attitudes in generic and queer contexts, attitudes toward trans people, and prescriptive grammar ideology. I found that the majority of participants approved of using the singular ‘they’. Regression analyses revealed that in a queer context, negative attitudes toward 'they' were best predicted by trans prejudice, while in a generic context, both valuing prescriptive grammar and anti-trans prejudice similarly predicted 'they' attitudes. This indicates that negative attitudes toward the singular 'they' are not merely an issue of taking a principled stance against "improper grammar". Additionally, both sexual orientation and gender (trans vs. cisgender) moderate the relationship between prescriptive grammar ideology and 'they' attitudes. Age, sexual orientation, and education level also influenced my pattern of results such that older participants, queer people, and more highly educated individuals were more likely to have positive attitudes toward the singular ‘they’. These findings have implications for LGBTQ+ individuals’ relationships with cisgender and heterosexual people as well as for theories of prejudice, particularly with regard to the increasingly important area of attitudes toward people with diverse gender identities.

Apposition in Malay addresses the lack of a detailed exploration and description of the construction in the language.The book provides a lengthy detail of Malay apposition, by providing, in the first chapter, a case for its necessity.Moving away from the prescriptive tradition, the description is based on constructions derived from three text types: journalistic texts, academic texts and fictional texts.Chosen for their different functions, appeal and communicative potential, the book details the findings based on the analysis of apposition in the 450,000 word corpora used as database.The uses of apposition are accounted for from a varied perspective. The linguistic characteristics of apposition are detailed based on their syntactic, semantic and pragmatic manifestations.These then provided a basis for six conditions that have to be satisfied for a construction to be regarded as apposition in Malay.The conditions also take into consideration borderline cases between appositive constructions and other similar-looking ones, therefore allowing for a distinction to be made between a full apposition and a partial one.The conditions explicitly recognize that apposition is not a clear-cut relation. However, it is this phenomenon that makes apposition unique and therefore, well-deserving of its own place in the description of Malay grammar.

This chapter explains how to read Qushayrī’s Grammar of Hearts through providing a textual analysis of 20 of the 60 sections in the text, including background ideas necessary for understanding this “spiritual grammar.” Qushayrī, like Gerson, takes as his starting point an assumption of his reader’s familiarity with Arabic grammar. As such, he does not dwell on linguistic niceties or details, for they are not his concern. He rather invokes grammatical terms, concepts, and phenomena familiar to his reader in order to proceed to spiritual matters. Like the foundational grammatical text of the Arabic linguistic tradition, Sībawayhi’s famous Kitāb, Qushayrī’s Grammar of Hearts combines prescriptive and descriptive grammar for the purpose of developing Sufi “grammatical competence” among his readers. Ever the shaykh in both the pedagogical and spiritual dimensions, Qushayrī is a “spiritual faṣīḥ” and wants his students to become similarly adept in the grammar of ultimate reality.

Greater attention is paid to oral language by the new prescriptive grammar of Catalan recently issued by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans, and several prescriptive or guiding texts on the same topic published by Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua have put under focus a territorial conflict on language authority and raised questions on the limits between external authority and personal competence in a field (spoken language) especially favorable for the persistence of diversity. This chapter offers a discussion on prescriptivism and standardization in contemporary Catalan, and the conflict experienced on two axes: horizontal or territorial and vertical or bottom-up/top-down options in prescriptivism.

The chapter discusses opinions about grammar as a prescriptive diction in academic writing. It also argues that the problem of personal pronouns can be used to analyze the language used by post-graduate students in low-resource setting and others whether in speech or writing, in non-literally discourse or literature. The chapter analyzes four maxims of good writing: Make your language easy to follow; be clear; be economical; and be effective. To successfully create knowledge, especially at postgraduate level, authors must communicate concisely to present their sense.