Academic literature on the topic 'Presse – France – 1960-1990'

-Dennis Walder, Robert D. Hamner, Derek Walcott. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1993. xvi + 199 pp.''Critical perspectives on Derek Walcott. Washington DC: Three continents, 1993. xvii + 482 pp.-Yannick Tarrieu, Lilyan Kesteloot, Black writers in French: A literary history of Negritude. Translated by Ellen Conroy Kennedy. Washington DC: Howard University Press, 1991. xxxiii + 411 pp.-Renée Larrier, Carole Boyce Davies ,Out of the Kumbla: Caribbean women and literature. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, 1990. xxiii + 399 pp., Elaine Savory Fido (eds)-Renée Larrier, Evelyn O'Callaghan, Woman version: Theoretical approaches to West Indian fiction by women. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. viii + 126 pp.-Lisa Douglass, Carolyn Cooper, Noises in the blood: Orality, gender and the 'vulgar' body of Jamaican popular culture. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. ix + 214 pp.-Christine G.T. Ho, Kumar Mahabir, East Indian women of Trinidad & Tobago: An annotated bibliography with photographs and ephemera. San Juan, Trinidad: Chakra, 1992. vii + 346 pp.-Eva Abraham, Richenel Ansano ,Mundu Yama Sinta Mira: Womanhood in Curacao. Eithel Martis (eds.). Curacao: Fundashon Publikashon, 1992. xii + 240 pp., Joceline Clemencia, Jeanette Cook (eds)-Louis Allaire, Corrine L. Hofman, In search of the native population of pre-Colombian Saba (400-1450 A.D.): Pottery styles and their interpretations. Part one. Amsterdam: Natuurwetenschappelijke Studiekring voor het Caraïbisch Gebied, 1993. xiv + 269 pp.-Frank L. Mills, Bonham C. Richardson, The Caribbean in the wider world, 1492-1992: A regional geography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. xvi + 235 pp.-Frank L. Mills, Thomas D. Boswell ,The Caribbean Islands: Endless geographical diversity. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992. viii + 240 pp., Dennis Conway (eds)-Alex van Stipriaan, H.W. van den Doel ,Nederland en de Nieuwe Wereld. Utrecht: Aula, 1992. 348 pp., P.C. Emmer, H.PH. Vogel (eds)-Idsa E. Alegría Ortega, Francine Jácome, Diversidad cultural y tensión regional: América Latina y el Caribe. Caracas: Nueva Sociedad, 1993. 143 pp.-Barbara L. Solow, Ira Berlin ,Cultivation and culture: Labor and the shaping of slave life in the Americas. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993. viii + 388 pp., Philip D. Morgan (eds)-Andrew J. O'Shaughnessy, Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630-1641: The other puritan colony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. xiii + 393 pp.-Armando Lampe, Johannes Meier, Die Anfänge der Kirche auf den Karibischen Inseln: Die Geschichte der Bistümer Santo Domingo, Concepción de la Vega, San Juan de Puerto Rico und Santiago de Cuba von ihrer Entstehung (1511/22) bis zur Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts. Immensee: Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft, 1991. xxxiii + 313 pp.-Edward L. Cox, Carl C. Campbell, Cedulants and capitulants; The politics of the coloured opposition in the slave society of Trinidad, 1783-1838. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1992. xv + 429 pp.-Thomas J. Spinner, Jr., Basdeo Mangru, Indenture and abolition: Sacrifice and survival on the Guyanese sugar plantations. Toronto: TSAR, 1993. xiii + 146 pp.-Rosemarijn Hoefte, Lila Gobardhan-Rambocus ,Immigratie en ontwikkeling: Emancipatie van contractanten. Paramaribo: Anton de Kom Universiteit, 1993. 262 pp., Maurits S. Hassankhan (eds)-Juan A. Giusti-Cordero, Teresita Martínez-Vergne, Capitalism in colonial Puerto Rico: Central San Vicente in the late nineteenth century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992. 189 pp.-Jean Pierre Sainton, Henriette Levillain, La Guadeloupe 1875 -1914: Les soubresauts d'une société pluriethnique ou les ambiguïtés de l'assimilation. Paris: Autrement, 1994. 241 pp.-Michèle Baj Strobel, Solange Contour, Fort de France au début du siècle. Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994. 224 pp.-Betty Wood, Robert J. Stewart, Religion and society in post-emancipation Jamaica. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992. xx + 254 pp.-O. Nigel Bolland, Michael Havinden ,Colonialism and development: Britain and its tropical colonies, 1850-1960. New York: Routledge, 1993. xv + 420 pp., David Meredith (eds)-Luis Martínez-Fernández, Luis Navarro García, La independencia de Cuba. Madrid: MAPFRE, 1992. 413 pp.-Pedro A. Pequeño, Guillermo J. Grenier ,Miami now! : Immigration, ethnicity, and social change. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992. 219 pp., Alex Stepick III (eds)-George Irving, Alistair Hennessy ,The fractured blockade: West European-Cuban relations during the revolution. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993. xv + 358 pp., George Lambie (eds)-George Irving, Donna Rich Kaplowitz, Cuba's ties to a changing world. Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993, xii + 263 pp.-G.B. Hagelberg, Scott B. MacDonald ,The politics of the Caribbean basin sugar trade. New York: Praeger, 1991. vii + 164 pp., Georges A. Fauriol (eds)-Bonham C. Richardson, Trevor W. Purcell, Banana Fallout: Class, color, and culture among West Indians in Costa Rica. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Afro-American studies, 1993. xxi + 198 pp.-Gertrude Fraser, George Gmelch, Double Passage: The lives of Caribbean migrants abroad and back home. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. viii + 335 pp.-Gertrude Fraser, John Western, A passage to England: Barbadian Londoners speak of home. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992. xxii + 309 pp.-Trevor W. Purcell, Harry G. Lefever, Turtle Bogue: Afro-Caribbean life and culture in a Costa Rican Village. Cranbury NJ: Susquehanna University Press, 1992. 249 pp.-Elizabeth Fortenberry, Virginia Heyer Young, Becoming West Indian: Culture, self, and nation in St. Vincent. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993. x + 229 pp.-Horace Campbell, Dudley J. Thompson ,From Kingston to Kenya: The making of a Pan-Africanist lawyer. Dover MA: The Majority Press, 1993. xii + 144 pp., Margaret Cezair Thompson (eds)-Kumar Mahabir, Samaroo Siewah, The lotus and the dagger: The Capildeo speeches (1957-1994). Port of Spain: Chakra Publishing House, 1994. 811 pp.-Donald R. Hill, Forty years of steel: An annotated discography of steel band and Pan recordings, 1951-1991. Jeffrey Thomas (comp.). Westport CT: Greenwood, 1992. xxxii + 307 pp.-Jill A. Leonard, André Lucrèce, Société et modernité: Essai d'interprétation de la société martiniquaise. Case Pilote, Martinique: Editions de l'Autre Mer, 1994. 188 pp.-Dirk H. van der Elst, Ben Scholtens ,Gaama Duumi, Buta Gaama: Overlijden en opvolging van Aboikoni, grootopperhoofd van de Saramaka bosnegers. Stanley Dieko. Paramaribo: Afdeling Cultuurstudies/Minov; Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, 1992. 204 pp., Gloria Wekker, Lady van Putten (eds)-Rosemarijn Hoefte, Chandra van Binnendijk ,Sranan: Cultuur in Suriname. Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen/Rotterdam: Museum voor Volkenkunde, 1992. 159 pp., Paul Faber (eds)-Harold Munneke, A.J.A. Quintus Bosz, Grepen uit de Surinaamse rechtshistorie. Paramaribo: Vaco, 1993. 176 pp.-Harold Munneke, Irvin Kanhai ,Strijd om grond in Suriname: Verkenning van het probleem van de grondenrechten van Indianen en Bosnegers. Paramaribo, 1993, 200 pp., Joyce Nelson (eds)-Ronald Donk, J. Hartog, De geschiedenis van twee landen: De Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba. Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek, 1993. 183 pp.-Aart G. Broek, J.J. Oversteegen, In het schuim van grauwe wolken: Het leven van Cola Debrot tot 1948. Amsterdam: Muelenhoff, 1994. 556 pp.''Gemunt op wederkeer: Het leven van Cola Debrot vanaf 1948. Amsterdam: Muelenhoff, 1994. 397 pp.

RESUMENEl objetivo de este artículo es reflexionar sobre los mecanismos de financiación y de control de las instituciones religiosas por los laicos en las primeras décadas de la conquista y colonización de Hispanoamérica. Investigar sobre la inversión laica en lo sagrado supone en un primer lugar aclarar la historiografía sobre laicos, religión y dinero en las sociedades de Antiguo Régimen y su trasposición en América, planteando una mirada desde el punto de vista de las motivaciones múltiples de los actores seglares. A través del ejemplo de restituciones, donaciones y legados en losAndes, se explora el papel de los laicos españoles, y también de las poblaciones indígenas, en el establecimiento de la densa red de instituciones católicas que se construye entonces. La propuesta postula el protagonismo de actores laicos en la construcción de un espacio cristiano en los Andes peruanos en el siglo XVI y principios del XVII, donde la inversión económica permite contribuir a la transición de una sociedad de guerra y conquista a una sociedad corporativa pacificada.PALABRAS CLAVE: Hispanoamérica-Andes, religión, economía, encomienda, siglos XVI y XVII.ABSTRACTThis article aims to reflect on the mechanisms of financing and control of religious institutions by the laity in the first decades of the conquest and colonization of Spanish America. Investigating lay investment in the sacred sphere means first of all to clarifying historiography on laity, religion and money within Ancien Régime societies and their transposition to America, taking into account the multiple motivations of secular actors. The example of restitutions, donations and legacies inthe Andes enables us to explore the role of the Spanish laity and indigenous populations in the establishment of the dense network of Catholic institutions that was established during this period. The proposal postulates the role of lay actors in the construction of a Christian space in the Peruvian Andes in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, when economic investment contributed to the transition from a society of war and conquest to a pacified, corporate society.KEY WORDS: Hispanic America-Andes, religion, economics, encomienda, 16th and 17th centuries. BIBLIOGRAFIAAbercrombie, T., “Tributes to Bad Conscience: Charity, Restitution, and Inheritance in Cacique and Encomendero Testaments of 16th-Century Charcas”, en Kellogg, S. y Restall, M. (eds.), Dead Giveaways, Indigenous Testaments of Colonial Mesoamerica end the Andes, Salt Lake city, University of Utah Press, 1998, pp. 249-289.Aladjidi, P., Le roi, père des pauvres: France XIIIe-XVe siècle, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2008.Alberro, S., Les Espagnols dans le Mexique colonial: histoire d’une acculturation, Paris, A. Colin, 1992.Alden, D., The making of an enterprise: the Society of Jesus in Portugal, its empire, and beyond 1540-1750, Stanford California, Stanford University Press, 1996.Angulo, D., “El capitán Gómez de León, vecino fundador de la ciudad de Arequipa. Probança e información de los servicios que hizo a S. M. en estos Reynos del Piru el Cap. Gomez de León, vecino que fue de cibdad de Ariquipa, fecha el año MCXXXI a pedimento de sus hijos y herederos”, Revista del archivo nacional del Perú, Tomo VI, entrega II, Julio-diciembre 1928, pp. 95-148.Atienza López, Á., Tiempos de conventos: una historia social de las fundaciones en la España moderna, Madrid, Marcial Pons Historia, 2008.Azpilcueta Navarro, M. de, Manual de penitentes, Estella, Adrián de Anvers, 1566.Baschet, J., “Un Moyen Âge mondialisé? Remarques sur les ressorts précoces de la dynamique occidentale”, en Renaud, O., Schaub, J.-F., Thireau, I. (eds.), Faire des sciences sociales, comparer, Paris, éditions de l’EHESS, 2012, pp. 23-59.Boltanski, A. y Maldavsky, A., “Laity and Procurement of Funds», en Fabre, P.-A., Rurale, F. (eds.), Claudio Acquaviva SJ (1581-1615). 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Di Stefano (eds.), Invertir en lo sagrado: salvación y dominación territorial en América y Europa (siglos XVI-XX), Santa Rosa, EdUNLPam, 2018, cap. 1, mobi.Colmenares, G., Haciendas de los jesuitas en el Nuevo Reino de Granada, siglo XVIII, Bogotá, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1969.Comaroff, J. y Comaroff, J., Of Revelation and Revolution. Vol. 1, Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1991.Costeloe, M. P., Church wealth in Mexico: a study of the “Juzgado de Capellanias” in the archbishopric of Mexico 1800-1856, London, Cambridge University Press, 1967.Croq, L. y Garrioch, D., La religion vécue. Les laïcs dans l’Europe moderne, Rennes, PUR, 2013.Cushner, N. P., Farm and Factory: The Jesuits and the development of Agrarian Capitalism in Colonial Quito, 1600-1767, Albany, State University of New York Press, 1982.Cushner, N. P., Jesuit Ranches and the Agrarian Development of Colonial Argentina, 1650-1767, Albany, State University of New York Press, 1983.Cushner, N. P., Why have we come here? The Jesuits and the First Evangelization of Native America, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2006.De Boer, W., La conquista dell’anima, Turin, Einaudi, 2004.De Certeau M., “La beauté du mort : le concept de ‘culture populaire’», Politique aujourd’hui, décembre 1970, pp. 3-23.De Certeau, M., L’invention du quotidien. T. 1. Arts de Faire, Paris, Gallimard, 1990.De la Puente Brunke, J., Encomienda y encomenderos en el Perú. Estudio social y político de una institución, Sevilla, Diputación provincial de Sevilla, 1992.Del Río M., “Riquezas y poder: las restituciones a los indios del repartimiento de Paria”, en T. Bouysse-Cassagne (ed.), Saberes y Memorias en los Andes. In memoriam Thierry Saignes, Paris, IHEAL-IFEA, 1997, pp. 261-278.Van Deusen, N. 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(eds.), Cultural Studies, New York, Routledge, 1986, pp. 277-294.Horne, J., “Démobilisations culturelles après la Grande Guerre”, 14-18, Aujourd’hui, Today, Heute, Paris, Éditions Noésis, mai 2002, pp. 45-5.Iogna-Prat, D., “Sacré’ sacré ou l’histoire d’un substantif qui a d’abord été un qualificatif”, en Souza, M. de, Peters-Custot, A. y Romanacce, F.-X., Le sacré dans tous ses états: catégories du vocabulaire religieux et sociétés, de l’Antiquité à nos jours, Saint-Étienne, Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne, 2012, pp. 359-367.Iogna-Prat, D., Cité de Dieu. Cité des hommes. L’Église et l’architecture de la société, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 2016.Kalifa, D., “Les historiens français et ‘le populaire’», Hermès, 42, 2005, pp. 54-59.Knowlton, R. J., “Chaplaincies and the Mexican Reform”, The Hispanic American Historical Review, 48.3 (1968), pp. 421-443.Lamana, G., Domination without Dominance: Inca-Spanish Encounters in Early Colonial Peru, Durham, Duke University Press, 2008.Las Casas B. de, Aqui se contienen unos avisos y reglas para los que oyeren confessiones de los Españoles que son o han sido en cargo a los indios de las Indias del mas Océano (Sevilla : Sebastián Trujillo, 1552). Edición moderna en Las Casas B. de, Obras escogidas, t. V, Opusculos, cartas y memoriales, Madrid, Biblioteca de Autores Españoles, 1958, pp. 235-249.Lavenia, V., L’infamia e il perdono: tributi, pene e confessione nella teologia morale della prima età moderna, Bologne, Il Mulino, 2004.Lempérière, A., Entre Dieu et le Roi, la République: Mexico, XVIe-XIXe siècle, Paris, les Belles Lettres, 2004.Lenoble, C., L’exercice de la pauvreté: économie et religion chez les franciscains d’Avignon (XIIIe-XVe siècle), Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2013.León Portilla, M., Visión de los vencidos: relaciones indígenas de la conquista, México, Universidad nacional autónoma, 1959.Levaggi, A., Las capellanías en la argentina: estudio histórico-jurídico, Buenos Aires, Facultad de derecho y ciencias sociales U. B. A., Instituto de investigaciones Jurídicas y sociales Ambrosio L. 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La donation de Juan Clemente de Fuentes, marchand des Andes, à la Compagnie de Jésus au milieu du XVIIe siècle”, ASSR, publicación prevista en 2020.Maldavsky, A., “Giving for the Mission: The Encomenderos and Christian Space in the Andes of the Late Sixteenth Century”, en Boer W., Maldavsky A., Marcocci G. y Pavan I. (eds.), Space and Conversion in Global Perspective, Leiden-Boston, Brill, 2014, pp. 260-284.Maldavsky, A., “Teología moral, restitución y sociedad colonial en los Andes en el siglo XVI”, Revista portuguesa de teología, en prensa, 2019.Margairaz, D., Minard, P., “Le marché dans son histoire”, Revue de synthèse, 2006/2, pp. 241-252.Martínez López-Cano, M. del P., Speckman Guerra, E., Wobeser, G. von (eds.) La Iglesia y sus bienes: de la amortización a la nacionalización, México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, 2004.Mauss, M., “Essai sur le don. 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This article is about a work developed between 2013 and 2015 within the Sociological Observatory of Student Life at the Federal University of Viçosa –UFV – (Brazil), a research group that produces and disseminates knowledge about students from working classes’ university life. This work aimed at creating possibilities for poor students do an intellectual affiliation to the public university. First, eighteen pedagogy female students developed a self-analysis of their own school trajectories and academic experiences, describing them reflexively based on Bourdieu ideas. Then, projects and researches were done about the themes that emerged from the self-analysis stage. The method used to generate the data was the biographical stories, and, most of those who were investigated were UFV’s students, consequently, it was possible to do a connection between the knowledge from the students as researchers and as research subjects. Among the results of this work was the fact that the self-analysis enabled the students to interpret principles, which engendered their practices and the incorporation and/or updating of favorable dispositions, which constituted the academic quality of their trajectories. It also showed that the trajectories may promote the intellectual affiliation to the public university and that it can face up the effects that social origin may have on the academic trajectories. The association of self-analysis, as an interpretive work of dispositions and practices, with the research development, and the connection of knowledge among students, with affinities of habitus, made possible the constitution sociability networks and permanence at UFV.ResumoO artigo trata de um trabalho realizado nos anos de 2013 a 2015, no âmbito do Observatório Sociológico da Vida Estudantil da Universidade Federal de Viçosa – UFV – (Brasil), instância formativa, de produção e de divulgação do conhecimento sobre a vida estudantil de universitários das camadas populares. O objetivo do trabalho foi criar possibilidades para a afiliação intelectual de estudantes pobres à universidade pública. Na primeira etapa, dezoito universitárias, do curso de Pedagogia, realizaram autoanálises das trajetórias escolares e vivências acadêmicas, tendo como referência o pensamento bourdieusiano, e fzeram a descrição reflexiva delas. Na segunda etapa, foram elaborados projetos e desenvolvidas pesquisas sobre temas que emergiram dessas autoanálises. O método de geração de dados foi o relato biográfico, e os investigados, em sua maior parte, eram estudantes da UFV, o que, juntamente com as autoanálises realizadas, viabilizou a conexão de saberes entre as estudantes na condição de pesquisadoras e os sujeitos investigados. Dentre os resultados desse trabalho há o fato de que as autoanálises permitiram às estudantes a interpretação dos princípios que engendram suas práticas e a incorporação e/ou atualização de disposições favoráveis à constituição de percursos acadêmicos de qualidade e se mostraram uma forma de promover a afiliação intelectual à universidade pública e de enfrentamento dos efeitos que a origem social possa ter nos percursos acadêmicos. 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Camadas Populares e universidades públicas. Trajetórias e experiência escolares. São Carlos: Pedro & João Editores, 2014, p. 45-88.LAHIRE, Bernard. O ponto de vista do conhecimento. In: LAHIRE, Bernard. Sucesso escolar nos meios populares: as razões do improvável. São Paulo: Ática, 1997. p. 17-46.LUCAS, S. R. Effectively Maintained Inequality: education transitions, track mobility, and social background effects. The American Journal of Sociology, v. 106, n. 6, p. 1642-1690, maio 2001.MONT’ALVÃO, A. A dimensão vertical e horizontal da estratificação educacional. Teoria e Cultura. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Sociais – UFJF, v. 11, n. 1 jan/jun. p. 13-20, 2016.PAIVANDI, Saeed. A qualidade da aprendizagem dos estudantes e a pedagogia na universidade. In: SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Estudos sobre a vida e cultura universitárias. Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2012, p. 31-59.PAIVANDI, Saeed. A avaliação do ensino pelo estudante, a pedagogia universitária e o ofício de professor. In: SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Universidade, responsabilidade social e juventude. Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2013, p. 319-352.PAIVANDI, Saeed. Que significa o desempenho acadêmico dos estudantes? In: SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha; CARVALHO, Ava. (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Avaliação e qualidade no ensino superior: formar como e para que mundo? Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2015, p. 23-60.PASSERON, Jean-Claude. A encenação e o corpus: biografias, fluxos, itinerários, trajetórias. In: ______. O raciocínio sociológico: o espaço não-popperiano do raciocínio natural. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1995. p. 204-227.PEREIRA, Aline Juliana de Souza. Três famílias de camadas populares e a escolarização dos filhos: entre estabelecimentos de ensino públicos e privados. 2016. 119 p. 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Trajetórias das desigualdades: como o Brasil mudou nos últimos cinquenta anos. São Paulo: Editora UNESP, 2015, p. 133-162.SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Estudos sobre a vida e cultura universitárias. Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2012.SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Universidade, responsabilidade social e juventude. Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2013.SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha; CARVALHO, Ava. (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Avaliação e qualidade no ensino superior: formar como e para que mundo? Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2015.SILVA, Sabrina Lopes Nogueira. A formação de professores e o Programa de Licenciaturas Internacionais (PLI): experiências de licenciandos em Letras da UFV. 2017. 239 p. Dissertação (Mestrado em Educação) – Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, 2017.SOARES, José Francisco. Qualidade da Educação. In: DAYRELL, Juarez et al. (Orgs.). Família, escola e juventude. Olhares cruzados Brasil-Portugal. Belo Horizonte: Editora da UFMG, 2016, p.231-251.TEIXEIRA, Ana Maria Freitas. A universidade entre as palavras de jovens de origem popular. In: SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Estudos sobre a vida e cultura universitárias. Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2012, p. 163-185.TEIXEIRA, Ana Maria Freitas. Aprendendo a ser estudante universitário: uma relação entre o campo disciplinar e a construção de si. In: SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Universidade, responsabilidade social e juventude. Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2013, p. 99-119.TEIXEIRA, Ana Maria Freitas; COULON, Alain. Interiorização do ensino superior público e afiliação: e se eu conseguir uma vaga, como é que vai ser? In: SANTOS, Georgina Gonçalves dos; SAMPAIO, Sônia Maria Rocha; CARVALHO, Ava. (Orgs.). Observatório da vida estudantil. Avaliação e qualidade no ensino superior: formar como e para que mundo? Salvador/BA: EDUFBA, 2015, p. 209-230.TERRAIL, J. P. L’issue scolaire: de quelques histories de transfuges. In: TERRAIL, J. P. Destins ouvriers. La fin d’une classe? Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990. p. 223-258.VIANA, Maria José Braga. Longevidade escolar em famílias de camadas populares: algumas condições de possibilidades. In: NOGUEIRA, Maria Alice; ROMANELLI; Geraldo, ZAGO, Nadir. Família & escola: trajetórias de escolarização em camadas médias e populares. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2000. p. 45-60.VIANA, Maria José Braga. As práticas socializadoras familiares como locus de constituição de disposições facilitadoras de longevidade escolar em meios populares. Educação e Sociedade, Campinas, v. 26, n. 90, p. 107-125, jan.-abr. 2005.VIANA, Maria José Braga. Longevidade escolar em famílias populares. Algumas condições de possibilidade. Goiânia: Editora da UFG, 2007.

Resumen 
 Ethan Kleinberg, es profesor de Historia y Letras de la Universidad de Wesleyan, director del Centro de Humanidades y editor ejecutivo de la revista History and Theory. Su primer libro, Generation Existential: Heidegger’s Philosophy in France, 1927-1961, fue publicado por la Universidad de Cornell, y galardonado con el Premio Morris D. Forkosch 2006 al mejor libro de historia intelectual otorgado por la revista Journal of the History of Ideas. Recientemente, el profesor Kleinberg co-editó de la mano de Ranjan Ghosh el volumen Presence: Philosophy, History and Cultural Theory for the 21st Century, publicado también por la Universidad de Cornell. Por otro lado, su libro, Haunting History: For a Deconstructive Approach to the Past, fue lanzado en las Series meridianas de la Universidad de Stanford en el otoño de 2017. 
 Actualmente, se encuentra culminando su libro The Myth of Emmanuel Levinas, centrado en las lecturas Talmúdicas que el filósofo franco-judío presentó en París entre 1960 y 1990. En junio de 2016, tuve la oportunidad de llevar a cabo una entrevista con el profesor Kleinberg, cuando fui un estudiante visitante de investigación en el Centro de Humanidades de la Universidad Wesleyan. Además, aprovechamos la segunda Conferencia Internacional de Teoría de la Historia (2ª INTH), ocurrida en Ouro Preto, Brasil, del 23 de agosto al 26 de agosto, para ampliar la entrevista y para grabar una versión corta. El video se encuentra en el siguiente enlace: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PH9q_bJboHs 
 Palabras clave 
 Teoría de la Historia; Historia de la Historiografía; Fantología. 
 Abstract 
 Ethan Kleinberg is Professor of History and Letters of Wesleyan University. He is the Director of the Center for Humanities and the Editor-in-Chief of History and Theory. His first book, Generation Existential: Heidegger’s Philosophy in France, 1927-1961, published by Cornell University Press, was awarded the 2006 Morris D. Forkosch prize for the best book in intellectual history by the Journal of the History of Ideas. Recently, Professor Kleinberg co-edited with Ranjan Ghosh the volume Presence: Philosophy, History, and Cultural Theory for the 21st Century, published by Cornell University Press as well. His book, Haunting History: For a Deconstructive Approach to the Past, was released in the Meridian Series from Stanford University Press in fall 2017. 
 He is also finishing The Myth of Emmanuel Levinas, centered on the Talmudic Lectures that the French-Jewish philosopher presented in Paris between 1960 and 1990. I had the opportunity to conduct an interview with Professor Kleinberg in June 2016, when I was a Visiting Student Researcher at the Center for Humanities at Wesleyan University. We also took advantage of the Second International Network for Theory of History Conference (2nd INTH) in Ouro Preto, Brazil, from August 23 to August 26, 2016, to expand the interview and to record a short version. Here it is the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PH9q_bJboHs
 Key Words 
 Theory of History; History of Historiography; Hauntology.

Ethan Kleinberg is Professor of History and Letters of Wesleyan University. He is the Director of the Center for Humanities and the Editor-in-Chief of History and Theory. His first book, Generation Existential: Heidegger’s Philosophy in France, 1927-1961, published by Cornell University Press, was awarded the 2006 Morris D. Forkosch prize for the best book in intellectual history, by the Journal of the History of Ideas. Recently, Professor Kleinberg co-edited with Ranjan Ghosh the volume Presence: Philosophy, History and Cultural Theory for the 21st Century, published by Cornell University Press as well. His book, Haunting History: For a Deconstructive Approach to the Past, will appear in the Meridian Series from Stanford University Press in Fall 2017. He is also finishing the book The Myth of Emmanuel Levinas, centered on the Talmudic Lectures that the French-Jewish philosopher presented in Paris between 1960 and 1990. I had the opportunity to conduct an interview with Professor Kleinberg in June 2016, when I was a Visiting Student Researcher in the Center for Humanities at Wesleyan University. We also took the advantage of the Second International Network for Theory of History conference (2nd INTH), that happened in Brazil at Ouro Preto from August 23 to August 26, to expand the interview.

This variable describes what kind of concept of culture underlies the cultural coverage at a certain point of time or across time. The variable dissects the concept of culture into cultural forms that are being journalistically covered. It presupposes that each article predominantly focuses on one cultural genre or discipline, such as literature, music, or film, which is the case in most articles in the cultural beat that are written according to cultural journalists’ areas of specialization. By identifying the cultural forms covered, the variable delivers an answer to the question of what kind of culture has been covered, or what kind of culture has been represented. Forms of culture are sometimes also called artistic or cultural disciplines (Jaakkola, 2015) or cultural genres (Purhonen et al., 2019), and cultural classification (Janssen et al., 2011) or cultural hierarchy (Schmutz, 2009). The level of detail varies from study to study, according to the need of knowledge, with some scholars tracing forms of subculture (Schmutz et al., 2010), while others just identify the overall development of major cultural forms (Purhonen et al., 2019; Jaakkola, 2015a).
 The concepts of culture can roughly be defined as being dominated by high cultural, popular cultural, or everyday cultural forms (Kristensen, 2019). While most culture sections in newspapers are dominated by high culture, and the question is rather about which disciplines, in the operationalization it is not always easy to draw lines between high and popular forms in the postmodern cultural landscape where boundaries are being blurred. Nevertheless, the major forms of culture in the journalistic operationalization of culture are literature, classical music, theatre, and fine arts. As certain forms of culture – such as classical music and opera – are focused on classical high culture, and other forms – such as popular music and comics – represent popular forms, distribution of coverage according to cultural forms may indicate changes in the cultural concept.
 Field of application/theoretical foundation
 The question of the concept of culture is a standard question in content analyses on arts and cultural journalism in daily newspapers and cultural magazines, posed by a number of studies conducted in different geographical areas and often with a comparative intent (e.g., Szántó et al., 2004; Janssen, 1999; Reus & Harden, 2005; Janssen et al., 2008; Larsen, 2008; Kõnno et al., 2012; Jaakkola, 2015a, 2015b; Verboord & Janssen, 2015; Purhonen et al., 2019; Widholm et al., 2019). The essence of culture has been theorized in cultural studies, predominantly by Raymond Williams (e.g., 2011), and sociologists of art (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952). In studying journalistic coverage of arts and culture, the concept of culture reveals the anatomy of coverage and whether the content is targeting a broader audience (inclusive concept of culture) or a narrow audience (exclusive or elitist concept of culture). A prevalent motivation to study the ontological dimension of cultural coverage is also to trace cultural change, which means that the concept of culture is longitudinally studied (Purhonen et al., 2019).
 References/combination with other methods of data collection
 Concept of culture often occurs as a variable to trace cultural change. The variable is typically coupled with other variables, mainly with representational means, i.e., the journalistic genre (Jaakkola, 2015), event type (Stegert, 1998), or author gender (Schmutz, 2009; Jaakkola, 2015b). Quantitative content analyses may also be complemented with qualitative analyses (Purhonen et al., 2019).
 Sample operationalization
 Cultural forms are separated according to the production structure (journalists and reviewers specializing in one cultural form typically indicate an increase of coverage for that cultural form). At a general level, the concept of culture can be divided into the following cultural forms: literature, music – which is, according to the newsroom specialization typically roughly categorized into classical and popular music – visual arts, theatre, dance, film, design, architecture and built environment, media, comics, cultural politics, cultural history, arts education, and other. Subcategories can be separated according to the interest and level of knowledge. The variable needs to be sensitive towards local features in journalism and culture.
 
 Example study
 Jaakkola (2015b)
 
 Information about Jaakkola, 2015
 Author: Maarit Jaakkola
 Research question/research interest: Examination of the cultural concept across time in culture sections of daily newspapers
 Object of analysis: Articles/text items on culture pages of five major daily newspapers in Finland 1978–2008 (Aamulehti, Helsingin Sanomat, Kaleva, Savon Sanomat, Turun Sanomat)
 Timeframe of analysis: 1978–2008, consecutive sample of weeks 7 and 42 in five year intervals (1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, 1998, 2003, 2008)
 
 Info about variable
 Variable name/definition: Concept of culture
 Unit of analysis: Article/text item
 Values: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cultural form
 
 
 Description
 
 
 
 
 1. Fiction literature
 
 
 Fiction books: fictional genres such as poetry, literary novels, thrillers, detective novels, children’s literature, etc.
 
 
 
 
 2. Non-fiction literature
 
 
 
 Non-fiction books: non-fictional genres such as textbooks, memoirs, encyclopedias, etc.
 
 
 
 
 3. Classical music
 
 
 Music of more high-cultural character, such as symphonic music, chamber music, opera, etc.
 
 
 
 
 4. Popular music
 
 
 Music of more popular character, such as pop, rock, hip-hop, folk music, etc.
 
 
 
 
 5. Visual arts
 
 
 Fine arts: painting, drawing, graphical art, sculpture, media art, photography, etc.
 
 
 
 
 6. Theatre
 
 
 Scene art, including musicals (if not treated as music, i.e. in coverage of concerts and albums)
 
 
 
 
 7. Dance
 
 
 Scene art, including ballet (if not treated as music, .e. in coverage of concerts and albums)
 
 
 
 
 8. Film
 
 
 Cinema: fiction, documentary, experimental film, etc.
 
 
 
 
 9. Design
 
 
 Design of artefacts, jewelry, fashion, interiors, graphics, etc.
 
 
 
 
 10. Architecture
 
 
 Design, aesthetics, and planning of built environment
 
 
 
 
 11. Media
 
 
 Television, journalism, Internet, games, etc.
 
 
 
 
 12. Comics
 
 
 Illustrated periodicals
 
 
 
 
 13. Cultural politics
 
 
 Policies, politics, and administration concerning arts and culture in general
 
 
 
 
 14. Cultural history
 
 
 Historical issues and phenomena
 
 
 
 
 15. Education
 
 
 Educational issues concerning different cultural disciplines
 
 
 
 
 16. Other
 
 
 Miscellaneous minor categories, e.g., lifestyle issues (celebrity, gossip, everyday cultural issues), and larger categories developed from within the material can be separated into values of their own
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scale: nominal
 Intercoder reliability: Cohen's kappa > 0.76 (two coders)
 
 References
 Jaakkola, M. (2015a). The contested autonomy of arts and journalism: Change and continuity in the dual professionalism of cultural journalism. Tampere: Tampere University Press.
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Cet article examine l’usage que Chloé Delaume et Sophie Divry font du comique respectivement dans Les Sorcières de la République (2016) et Quand le diable sortit de la salle de bain (2015). Les deux autrices déploient une panoplie comique variée : comique de caractère, comique de situation, comique de mots (détournements de chansons et de formules, néologismes, onomatopées), parodie, trompe-l’œil (insertion de pseudo-documents, agitations typographiques, calligrammes). Delaume et Divry décrient et critiquent au moyen du comique la société française contemporaine et le sort qu’elle réserve aux femmes. Elles produisent un comique complexe qui secoue la sérieuse raideur hétéronormative des conventions sociales et littéraires contemporaines et tracent la voie à une production comique d’écrivaines en plein essor.
 Mots-clés : Divry, Delaume, comique, féminisme, sororité 
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In the summer of 1999, four ships carrying 599 Fujianese people arrived on the west coast of Canada. They survived a desperate and dangerous journey only for the Canadian Government to put them in prison. After numerous deportations, there are still about 40 of these people in Canadian prisons as of January 2001. They have been in jail for over a year and a half under mere suspicion of flight risk. About 24 people have been granted refugee status. Most people deported to China have been placed in Chinese prisons and fined. It is worth remembering that these migrants may have been undocumented but they are not "illegal" in that they have mobility rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes everyone's right to leave any country and to seek asylum. It can be argued that it is not the migrants who are illegal, but the unjust laws that criminalize their freedom of movement. In considering people's rights, we need to keep in mind not only the civil and political rights that the West tends to privilege, but equally important social and economic rights as well. As a local response to a global phenomenon, Direct Action Against Refugee Exploitation (DAARE) formed in Vancouver to support the rights of the Fujianese women, eleven of whom at the time of writing are still being held in the Burnaby Correctional Centre for Women (BCCW). In DAARE’s view, Immigration Canada's decision to detain all these people is based on a racialized group-profiling policy which violates basic human rights and ignores Canadian responsibility in the creation of the global economic and societal conditions which give rise to widespread migration. In light of the Canadian government's plans to implement even more punitive immigration legislation, DAARE endorses the Coalition for a Just Immigration and Refugee Policy's "Position Paper on Bill C31." They call for humanitarian review and release for the remaining Fujianese people. This review would include a few released refugee claimants who are still in Canada, children, women who were past victims of family planning, people facing religious persecution and, of course, those who are still in prison after 18 months and who have never been charged with any crime. Suspicion of flight risk is not a valid reason to incarcerate people for such a long time. Who Is a Migrant? The lines between "voluntary" and "forced" migration are no longer adequate to explain the complexities of population movements today. Motives for forced displacement include political, economic, social and environmental factors. This spectrum runs from the immediate threats to life, safety and freedom due to war or persecution, to situations where economic conditions make the prospects of survival marginal and non-existent. (Moussa 2000). Terms like "economic migrant" and "bogus refugee" have been used in the media to discredit migrants such as the Fujianese and to foster hostility against them. This scapegoating process oversimplifies the situation, for all refugees and all migrants are entitled to the basic respect due all human beings as enshrined in the UN Declaration of Human Rights. There can be multiple reasons for an individual to migrate—ranging from family reunification to economic pressures to personal survival; to fear of government corruption and of political persecution, to name just a few. The reduction of everything to merely the economic does not allow one to understand why migration is occurring and likely to increase in the future. Most immigrants to Canada could also be described as economic migrants. Conrad Black is an economic migrant. The privileging of rich migrants over poor ones romanticizes globalization as corporate progress and ignores the immense human suffering it entails for the majority of the world's population as the gap between the wealthy and the poor rapidly increases. Hundreds of years ago, when migrants came to this aboriginal territory we now call Canada, they came in order to survive—in short, they too were "economic migrants." Many of those migrants who came from Europe would not qualify to enter Canada today under its current immigration admissions guidelines. Indeed, over 50% of Canadians would not be able to independently immigrate to Canada given its current elitist restrictions. One of the major reasons for an increase in migration is the destruction of rural economies in Asia and elsewhere in the world. Millions of people have been displaced by changes in agriculture that separate people from the land. These waves of internal migration also result in the movement of peoples across national borders in order to survive. Chinese provinces such as Fujian and Guangdong, whose people have a long history of overseas travel, are particularly common sources of out-migration. In discussing migration, we need to be wary of how we can inadvertently reinforce the colonization of First Nations people unless we consciously work against that by actively supporting aboriginal self-determination. For example, some First Nations people have been accused of "smuggling" people across borders—this subjects them to the same process of criminalization which the migrants have experienced, and ignores the sovereign rights of First Nations people. We need ways of relating to one another which do not reenact domination, but which work in solidarity with First Nations' struggles. This requires an understanding of the ways in which racism, colonialism, classism, and other tactics through which "dividing and conquering" take place. For those of us who are first, second, third, fourth, fifth generation migrants to this land, our survival and liberation are intimately connected to that of aboriginal people. History Repeating Itself? The arrival of the Fujianese people met with a racist media hysteria reminiscent of earlier episodes of Canadian history. Front page newspaper headlines such as "Go Home" increased hostility against these people. In Victoria, people were offering to adopt the dog on one of the ships at the same time that they were calling to deport the Chinese. From the corporate media accounts of the situation, one would think that most Canadians did not care about the dangerous voyage these people had endured, a voyage during which two people from the second ship died. Accusations that people were trying to enter the country "illegally" overlooked how historically, the Chinese, like other people of colour, have had to find ways to compensate for racist and classist biases in Canada's immigration system. For example, from 1960 to 1973, Canada granted amnesty to over 12,000 "paper sons," that is, people who had immigrated under names other than their own. The granting of "legal" status to the "paper sons" who arrived before 1960 finally recognized that Canada's legislation had unfairly excluded Chinese people for decades. From 1923 to 1947, Canada's Chinese Exclusion Act had basically prevented Chinese people from entering this country. The xenophobic attitudes that gave rise to the Chinese Exclusion Act and the head tax occurred within a colonial context that privileged British migrants. Today, colonialism may no longer be as rhetorically attached to the British empire, but its patterns—particularly the globally inequitable distribution of wealth and resources—continue to accelerate through the mechanism of transnational corporations, for example. As Helene Moussa has pointed out, "the interconnections of globalisation with racist and colonialist ideology are only too clear when all evidence shows that globalisation '¼ legitimise[s] and sustain[s] an international system that tolerates an unbelievable divide not only between the North and the South but also inside them'" (2000). Moreover, according to the United Nations Development Programme, the income gap between people in the world's wealthiest nations and the poorest nations has shifted from 30:1 in 1960 to 60:1 in 1990 and to 74:1 in 1997. (Moussa 2000) As capital or electronic money moves across borders faster than ever before in what some have called the casino economy (Mander and Goldsmith), change and instability are rapidly increasing for the majority of the world's population. People are justifiably anxious about their well-being in the face of growing transnational corporate power; however, "protecting" national borders through enforcement and detention of displaced people is a form of reactive, violent, and often racist, nationalism which scapegoats the vulnerable without truly addressing the root causes of instability and migration. In short, reactive nationalism is ineffective in safe-guarding people's survival. Asserting solidarity with those who are most immediately displaced and impoverished by globalization is strategically a better way to work towards our common survival. Substantive freedom requires equitable economic relations; that is, fairly shared wealth. Canadian Response Abilities The Canadian government should take responsibility for its role in creating the conditions that displace people and force them to migrate within their countries and across borders. As a major sponsor of efforts to privatize economies and undertake environmentally devastating projects such as hydro-electric dams, Canada has played a significant role in the creation of an unemployed "floating population" in China which is estimated to reach 200 million people this year. Punitive tactics will not stop the movement of people, who migrate to survive. According to Peter Kwong, "The well-publicized Chinese government's market reforms have practically eliminated all labor laws, labour benefits and protections. In the "free enterprise zones" workers live virtually on the factory floor, laboring fourteen hours a day for a mere two dollars—that is, about 20 cents an hour" (136). As Sunera Thobani has phrased it, "What makes it alright for us to buy a t-shirt on the streets of Vancouver for $3, which was made in China, then stand up all outraged as Canadian citizens when the woman who made that t-shirt tries to come here and live with us on a basis of equality?" Canada should respond to the urgent situations which cause people to move—not only on the grounds upon which Convention refugees were defined in 1949 (race, religion, nationality, social group, political opinion) which continue to be valid—but also to strengthen Canada's system to include a contemporary understanding that all people have basic economic and environmental survival rights. Some migrants have lives that fit into the narrow definition of a UN Convention refugee and some may not. Those who do not fit this definition have nonetheless urgent needs that deserve attention. The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives has pointed out that there are at least 18 million people working in 124 export zones in China. A living wage in China is estimated to be 87 cents per hour. Canadians benefit from these conditions of cheap labour, yet when the producers of these goods come to our shores, we hypocritically disavow any relationship with them. Responsibility in this context need not refer so much to some stern sense of duty, obligation or altruism as to a full "response"—intellectual, emotional, physical, and spiritual—that such a situation provokes in relations between those who "benefit"—materially at least—from such a system and those who do not. References Anderson, Sarah, et al. Field Guide to the Global Economy. New York: New Press, 2000. Canadian Council of Refugees. "Migrant Smuggling and Trafficking in Persons." February 20, 2000. Canadian Woman Studies: Immigrant and Refugee Women. 19.3 (Fall 1999). Chin, Ko-lin. Smuggled Chinese. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999. Coalition for a Just Immigration and Refugee Policy. "Position Paper on Bill C31." 2000. Davis, Angela. The Angela Davis Reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998. Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, Foundation Against Trafficking in Women, and International Human Rights Law Group. "Human Rights Standards for the Treatment of Trafficked Persons." January 1999. Henry, Frances and Tator, Carol. Racist Discourses in Canada's English Print Media. Toronto: Canadian Foundation for Race Relations, 2000. Jameson, Fredric and Miyoshi, Masao, Eds. The Cultures of Globalization. Durham: Duke University Press, 1998. Kwong, Peter. Forbidden Workers. New York: New Press, 1997. Mander, Jerry and Goldsmith, Edward, Eds. The Case Against the Global Economy. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1996. Moussa, Helene. "The Interconnections of Globalisation and Migration with Racism and Colonialism: Tracing Complicity." 2000. ---. "Violence against Refugee Women: Gender Oppression, Canadian Policy, and the International Struggle for Human Rights." Resources for Feminist Research 26 (3-4). 1998 Migrant Forum statement (from Asia Pacific People's Assembly on APEC) 'Occasional Paper Migration: an economic and social analysis.' Pizarro, Gabriela Rodriguez. "Human Rights of Migrants." United Nations Report. Seabrook, Jeremy. "The Migrant in the Mirror." New Internationalist 327 (September 2000): 34-5. Sharma, Nandita. "The Real Snakeheads: Canadian government and corporations." Kinesis. October/November (1999): 11. Spivak, Gayatri. "Diasporas Old and New: Women in the Transnational World." Class Issues. Ed. Amitava Kumar. New York: New York University Press, 1997. States of Disarray: The Social Effects of Globalization. London: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UN RISD), 1995. Thobani, Sunera. "The Creation of a ‘Crisis’." Kinesis October/November (1999): 12-13. Whores, Maids and Wives: Making Links. Proceedings of the North American Regional Consultative Forum on Trafficking in Women, 1997.

Photograph by Gonzalo Echeverria (2010)The Screen would light up. They would feel a thrill of satisfaction. But the colours had faded with age, the picture wobbled on the screen, the women were of another age; they would come out they would be sad. It was not the film they had dreamt of. It was not the total film each of them had inside himself, the perfect film they could have enjoyed forever and ever. The film they would have liked to make. Or, more secretly, no doubt, the film they would have liked to live. (Perec 57) Over the years that I have watched and thought about Jean-Luc Godard’s films I have been struck by the idea of him as an artist who works with the moving image and perhaps just as importantly the idea of cinema as an irresolvable series of problems. Most obviously this ‘problematic condition’ of Godard’s practice is evidenced in the series of crises and renunciations that pepper the historical trace of his work. A trace that is often characterised thus: criticism, the Nouvelle Vague, May 1968, the Dziga Vertov group, the adoption of video, the return to narrative form, etc. etc. Of all these events it is the rejection of both the dominant cinematic narrative form and its attendant models of production that so clearly indicated the depth and intensity of Godard’s doubt in the artistic viability of the institution of cinema. Historically and ideologically congruent with the events of May 1968, this turning away from tradition was foreshadowed by the closing titles of his 1967 opus Week End: fin de cinema (the end of cinema). Godard’s relentless application to the task of engaging a more discursive and politically informed mode of operation had implications not only for the films that were made in the wake of his disavowal of cinema but also for those that preceded it. In writing this paper it was my initial intention to selectively consider the vast oeuvre of the filmmaker as a type of conceptual project that has in some way been defined by the condition of doubt. While to certain degree I have followed this remit, I have found it necessary to focus on a small number of historically correspondent filmic instances to make my point. The sheer size and complexity of Godard’s output would effectively doom any other approach to deal in generalities. To this end I am interested in the ways that these films have embodied doubt as both an aesthetic and philosophical position. There is an enduring sense of contentiousness that surrounds both the work and perceived motives of the filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard that has never come at the cost of discourse. Through a period of activity that now stretches into its sixth decade Godard has shaped an oeuvre that is as stylistically diverse as it is theoretically challenging. This span of practice is noteworthy not only for its sheer length but for its enduring ability to polarise both audiences and critical opinion. Indeed these opposing critical positions are so well inscribed in our historical understanding of Godard’s practice that they function as a type of secondary narrative. It is a narrative that the artist himself has been more than happy to cultivate and at times even engage. One hardly needs to be reminded that Godard came to making films as a critic. He asserted in the pages of his former employer Cahiers du Cinema in 1962 that “As a critic, I thought of myself as a filmmaker. Today I still think of myself as a critic, and in a sense I am, more than ever before. Instead of writing criticism, I make a film, but the critical dimension is subsumed” (59). If Godard did at this point in time believe that the criticality of practice as a filmmaker was “subsumed”, the ensuing years would see a more overt sense of criticality emerge in his work. By 1968 he was to largely reject both traditional cinematic form and production models in a concerted effort to explore the possibilities of a revolutionary cinema. In the same interview the director went on to extol the virtues of the cine-literacy that to a large part defined the loose alignment of Nouvelle Vague directors (Chabrol, Godard, Rohmer, Rivette, Truffaut) referred to as the Cahiers group claiming that “We were the first directors to know that Griffiths exists” (Godard 60). It is a statement that is as persuasive as it is dramatic, foregrounding the hitherto obscured history of cinema while positioning the group firmly within its master narrative. However, given the benefit of hindsight one realises that perhaps the filmmaker’s motives were not as simple as historical posturing. For Godard what is at stake is not just the history of cinema but cinema itself. When he states that “We were thinking cinema and at a certain moment we felt the need to extend that thought” one is struck by how far and for how long he has continued to think about and through cinema. In spite of the hours of strict ideological orthodoxy that accompanied his most politically informed works of the late 1960s and early 1970s or the sustained sense of wilful obtuseness that permeates his most “difficult” work, there is a sense of commitment to extending “that thought” that is without peer. The name “Godard”, in the words of the late critic Serge Daney, “designates an auteur but it is also synonymous with a tenacious passion for that region of the world of images we call the cinema” (Daney 68). It is a passion that is both the crux of his practice as an artist and the source of a restless experimentation and interrogation of the moving image. For Godard the passion of cinema is one that verges on religiosity. This carries with it all the philosophical and spiritual implications that the term implies. Cinema functions here as a system of signs that at once allows us to make sense of and live in the world. But this is a faith for Godard that is nothing if not tested. From the radical formal experimentation of his first feature film À Bout de soufflé (Breathless) onwards Godard has sought to place the idea of cinema in doubt. In this sense doubt becomes a type of critical engine that at once informs the shape of individual works and animates the constantly shifting positions the artist has occupied. Serge Daney's characterisation of the Nouvelle Vague as possessed of a “lucidity tinged with nostalgia” (70) is especially pertinent in understanding the way in which doubt came to animate Godard’s practice across the 1960s and beyond. Daney’s contention that the movement was both essentially nostalgic and saturated with an acute awareness that the past could not be recreated, casts the cinema itself as type of irresolvable proposition. Across the dazzling arc of films (15 features in 8 years) that Godard produced prior to his renunciation of narrative cinematic form in 1967, one can trace an unravelling of faith. During this period we can consider Godard's work and its increasingly complex engagement with the political as being predicated by the condition of doubt. The idea of the cinema as an industrial and social force increasingly permeates this work. For Godard the cinema becomes a site of questioning and ultimately reinvention. In his 1963 short film Le Grand Escroc (The Great Rogue) a character asserts that “cinema is the most beautiful fraud in the world”. Indeed it is this sense of the paradoxical that shadows much of his work. The binary of beauty and fraud, like that of faith and doubt, calls forth a questioning of the cinema that stands to this day. It is of no small consequence that so many of Godard’s 1960s works contain scenes of people watching films within the confines of a movie theatre. For Godard and his Nouvelle Vague peers the sale de cinema was both the hallowed site of cinematic reception and the terrain of the everyday. It is perhaps not surprising then he chooses the movie theatre as a site to play out some of his most profound engagements with the cinema. Considered in relation to each other these scenes of cinematic viewing trace a narrative in which an undeniable affection for the cinema is undercut by both a sense of loss and doubt. Perhaps the most famous of Godard’s ‘viewing’ scenes is from the film Vivre Sa Vie (My Life to Live). Essentially a tale of existential trauma, the film follows the downward spiral of a young woman Nana (played by Anna Karina) into prostitution and then death at the hands of ruthless pimps. Championed (with qualifications) by Susan Sontag as a “perfect film” (207), it garnered just as many detractors, including famously the director Roberto Rosellini, for what was perceived to be its nihilistic content and overly stylised form. Seeking refuge in a cinema after being cast out from her apartment for non payment of rent the increasingly desperate Nana is shown engrossed in the starkly silent images of Carl Dreyer’s 1928 film La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc (The Passion of Joan of Arc). Godard cuts from the action of his film to quote at length from Dreyer’s classic, returning from the mute intensity of Maria Faloconetti’s portrayal of the condemned Joan of Arc to Karina’s enraptured face. As Falconetti’s tears swell and fall so do Karina’s, the emotional rawness of the performance on the screen mirrored and internalised by the doomed character of Nana. Nana’s identification with that of the screen heroine is at once total and immaculate as her own brutal death at the hands of men is foretold. There is an ominous silence to this sequence that serves not only to foreground the sheer visual intensity of what is being shown but also to separate it from the world outside this purely cinematic space. However, if we are to read this scene as a testament to the power of the cinematic we must also admit to the doubt that resides within it. Godard’s act of separation invites us to consider the scene not only as a meditation on the emotional and existential state of the character of Nana but also on the foreshortened possibilities of the cinema itself. As Godard’s shots mirror those of Dreyer we are presented with a consummate portrait of irrevocable loss. This is a complex system of imagery that places Dreyer’s faith against Godard’s doubt without care for the possibility of resolution. Of all Godard’s 1960s films that feature cinema spectatorship the sequence belonging to Masculin Féminin (Masculine Feminine) from 1966 is perhaps the most confounding and certainly the most digressive. A series of events largely driven by a single character’s inability or unwillingness to surrender to the projected image serve to frustrate, fracture and complexify the cinema-viewing experience. It is however, a viewing experience that articulates the depth of Godard’s doubt in the viability of the cinematic form. The sequence, like much of the film itself, centres on the trials of the character Paul played by Jean-Pierre Léaud. Locked in a struggle against the pop-cultural currents of the day and the attendant culture of consumption and appearances, Paul is positioned within the film as a somewhat conflicted and ultimately doomed romantic. His relationship with Madeleine played by real life yé-yé singer Chantal Goya is a source of constant anxiety. The world that he inhabits, however marginally, of nightclubs, pop records and publicity seems philosophically at odds with the classical music and literature that he avidly devours. If the cinema-viewing scene of Vivre Sa Vie is defined by the enraptured intensity of Anna Karina’s gaze, the corresponding scene in Masculin Féminin stands, at least initially, as the very model of distracted spectatorship. As the film in the theatre starts, Paul who has been squeezed out of his seat next to Madeleine by her jealous girlfriend, declares that he needs to go to the toilet. On entering the bathroom he is confronted by the sight of a pair of men locked in a passionate kiss. It is a strange and disarming turn of events that prompts his hastily composed graffiti response: down with the republic of cowards. For theorist Nicole Brenez the appearance of these male lovers “is practically a fantasmatic image evoked by the amorous situation that Paul is experiencing” (Brenez 174). This quasi-spectral appearance of embracing lovers and grafitti writing is echoed in the following sequence where Paul once again leaves the theatre, this time to fervently inform the largely indifferent theatre projectionist about the correct projection ratio of the film being shown. On his graffiti strewn journey back inside Paul encounters an embracing man and woman nestled in an outer corner of the theatre building. Silent and motionless the presence of this intertwined couple is at once unsettling and prescient providing “a background real for what is being projected inside on the screen” (Brenez 174). On returning to the theatre Paul asks Madeleine to fill him in on what he has missed to which she replies, “It is about a man and woman in a foreign city who…”. Shot in Stockholm to appease the Swedish co-producers that stipulated that part of the production be made in Sweden, the film within a film occupies a fine line between restrained formal artfulness and pornographic violence. What could have been a creatively stifling demand on the part of his financial backers was inverted by Godard to become a complex exploration of power relations played out through an unsettling sexual encounter. When questioned on set by a Swedish television reporter what the film was about the filmmaker curtly replied, “The film has a lot to do with sex and the Swedish are known for that” (Masculin Féminin). The film possesses a barely concealed undertow of violence. A drama of resistance and submission is played out within the confines of a starkly decorated apartment. The apartment itself is a zone in which language ceases to operate or at the least is reduced to its barest components. The man’s imploring grunts are met with the woman’s repeated reply of “no”. What seemingly begins as a homage to the contemporaneous work of Swedish director Ingmar Bergman quickly slides into a chronicle of coercion. As the final scene of seduction/debasement is played out on the screen the camera pulls away to reveal the captivated gazes of Madeleine and her friends. It finally rests on Paul who then shuts his eyes, unable to bear what is being shown on the screen. It is a moment of refusal that marks a turning away not only from this projected image but from cinema itself. A point made all the clearer by Paul’s voiceover that accompanies the scene: We went to the movies often. The screen would light up and we would feel a thrill. But Madeleine and I were usually disappointed. The images were dated and jumpy. Marilyn Monroe had aged badly. We felt sad. It wasn't the movie of our dreams. It wasn't that total film we carried inside ourselves. That film we would have liked to make. Or, more secretly, no doubt the film we wanted to live. (Masculin Féminin) There was a dogged relentlessness to Godard’s interrogation of the cinema through the very space of its display. 1963’s Le Mépris (Contempt) swapped the public movie theatre for the private screening room; a theatrette emblazoned with the words Il cinema é un’invenzione senza avvenire. The phrase, presented in a style that recalled Soviet revolutionary graphics, is an Italian translation of Louis Lumiere’s 1895 appraisal of his new creation: “The cinema is an invention without a future.” The words have an almost physical presence in the space providing a fatalistic backdrop to the ensuing scene of conflict and commerce. As an exercise in self reflexivity it at once serves to remind us that even at its inception the cinema was cast in doubt. In Le Mépris the pleasures of spectatorship are played against the commercial demands of the cinema as industry. Following a screening of rushes for a troubled production of Homer’s Odyssey a tempestuous exchange ensues between a hot-headed producer (Jeremy Prokosch played by Jack Palance) and a calmly philosophical director (Fritz Lang as himself). It is a scene that attests to Godard’s view of the cinema as an art form that is creatively compromised by its own modes of production. In a film that plays the disintegration of a relationship against the production of a movie and that features a cast of Germans, Italians and French it is of no small consequence that the movie producer is played by an American. An American who, when faced with a creative impasse, utters the phrase “when I hear the word culture I bring out my checkbook”. It is one of Godard’s most acerbic and doubt filled sequences pitting as he does the implied genius of Lang against the tantrum throwing demands of the rapacious movie producer. We are presented with a model of industrial relations that is both creatively stifling and practically unworkable. Certainly it was no coincidence that Le Mépris had the biggest budget ($1 million) that Godard has ever worked with. In Godard’s 1965 film Une Femme Mariée (A Married Woman), he would once again use the movie theatre as a location. The film, which dealt with the philosophical implications of an adulterous affair, is also notable for its examination of the Holocaust and that defining event’s relationship to personal and collective memory. Biographer Richard Brody has observed that, “Godard introduced the Auschwitz trial into The Married Woman (sic) as a way of inserting his view of another sort of forgetting that he suggested had taken hold of France—the conjoined failures of historical and personal memory that resulted from the world of mass media and the ideology of gratification” (Brody 196-7). Whatever the causes, there is a pervading sense of amnesia that surrounds the Holocaust in the film. In one exchange the character of Charlotte, the married woman in question, momentarily confuses Auschwitz with thalidomide going on to later exclaim that “the past isn’t fun”. But like the barely repressed memories of her past indiscretions, the Holocaust returns at the most unexpected juncture in the film. In what starts out as Godard’s most overt reference to the work of Alfred Hitchcock, Charlotte and her lover secretly meet under the cover of darkness in a movie theatre. Each arriving separately and kitted out in dark sunglasses, there is breezy energy to this clandestine rendezvous highly reminiscent of the work of the great director. It is a stylistic point that is underscored in the film by the inclusion of a full-frame shot of Hitchcock’s portrait in the theatre’s foyer. However, as the lovers embrace the curtain rises on Alain Resnais’s 1955 documentary Nuit et Brouillard (Night and Fog). The screen is filled with images of barbed wire as the voice of narrator Jean Cayrol informs the audience that “even a vacation village with a fair and a steeple can lead very simply to a concentration camp.” It is an incredibly shocking moment, in which the repressed returns to confirm that while memory “isn’t fun”, it is indeed necessary. An uncanny sense of recognition pervades the scene as the two lovers are faced with the horrendous evidence of a past that refuses to stay subsumed. The scene is all the more powerful for the seemingly casual manner it is relayed. There is no suspenseful unveiling or affected gauging of the viewers’ reactions. What is simply is. In this moment of recognition the Hitchcockian mood of the anticipation of an illicit rendezvous is supplanted by a numbness as swift as it is complete. Needless to say the couple make a swift retreat from the now forever compromised space of the theatre. Indeed this scene is one of the most complex and historically layered of any that Godard had produced up to this point in his career. By making overt reference to Hitchcock he intimates that the cinema itself is deeply implicated in this perceived crisis of memory. What begins as a homage to the work of one of the most valorised influences of the Nouvelle Vague ends as a doubt filled meditation on the shortcomings of a system of representation. The question stands: how do we remember through the cinema? In this regard the scene signposts a line of investigation that would become a defining obsession of Godard’s expansive Histoire(s) du cinéma, a project that was to occupy him throughout the 1990s. Across four chapters and four and half hours Histoire(s) du cinéma examines the inextricable relationship between the history of the twentieth century and the cinema. Comprised almost completely of filmic quotations, images and text, the work employs a video-based visual language that unremittingly layers image upon image to dissolve and realign the past. In the words of theorist Junji Hori “Godard's historiography in Histoire(s) du cinéma is based principally on the concept of montage in his idiosyncratic sense of the term” (336). In identifying montage as the key strategy in Histoire(s) du cinéma Hori implicates the cinema itself as central to both Godard’s process of retelling history and remembering it. However, it is a process of remembering that is essentially compromised. Just as the relationship of the cinema to the Holocaust is bought into question in Une Femme Mariée, so too it becomes a central concern of Histoire(s) du cinéma. It is Godard’s assertion “that the cinema failed to honour its ethical commitment to presenting the unthinkable barbarity of the Nazi extermination camps” (Temple 332). This was a failure that for Godard moved beyond the realm of doubt to represent “nothing less than the end of cinema” (Brody 512). In October 1976 the New Yorker magazine published a profile of Jean Luc Godard by Penelope Gilliatt a writer who shared the post of film critic at the magazine with Pauline Kael. The article was based on an interview that took place at Godard’s production studio in Grenoble Switzerland. It was notable for two things: Namely, the most succinct statement that Godard has made regarding the enduring sense of criticality that pervades his work: “A good film is a matter of questions properly put.” (74) And secondly, surely the shortest sentence ever written about the filmmaker: “Doubt stands.” (77)ReferencesÀ Bout de soufflé. Dir. Jean Luc Godard. 1960. DVD. Criterion, 2007. Brenez, Nicole. “The Forms of the Question.” For Ever Godard. Eds. Michael Temple, James S. Williams, and Michael Witt. London: Black Dog, 2004. Brody, Richard. Everything Is Cinema: The Working Life of Jean-Luc Godard. New York: Metropolitan Books / Henry Holt & Co., 2008. Daney, Serge. “The Godard Paradox.” For Ever Godard. Eds. Michael Temple, James S. Williams, and Michael Witt. London: Black Dog, 2004. Gilliat, Penelope. “The Urgent Whisper.” Jean-Luc Godard Interviews. Ed. David Sterritt. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998. Godard, Jean-Luc. “Jean-Luc Godard: 'From Critic to Film-Maker': Godard in Interview (extracts). ('Entretien', Cahiers du Cinema 138, December 1962).” Cahiers du Cinéma: 1960-1968 New Wave, New Cinema, Reevaluating Hollywood. Ed. Jim Hillier. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986. Histoires du Cinema. Dir. and writ. Jean Luc Godard. 1988-98. DVD, Artificial Eye, 2008. Hori, Junji. “Godard’s Two Histiographies.” For Ever Godard. Eds. Michael Temple, James S. Williams, and Michael Witt. London: Black Dog, 2004. Le Grand Escroc. Dir. Jean Luc Godard. Perf. Jean Seberg. Film. Ulysse Productions, 1963. Le Mépris. Dir. Jean Luc Godard. Perf. Jack Palance, Fritz Lang. 1964. DVD. Criterion, 2002. La Passion de Jeanne d’Arc. Dir. Carl Theodor Dreyer. Film. Janus films, 1928. MacCabe, Colin. Godard: A Portrait of the Artist at 70. London: Bloomsbury, 2003. Masculin Féminin. Dir. and writ. Jean Luc Godard. Perf. Jean-Pierre Léaud. 1966. DVD. Criterion, 2005. Nuit et Brouillard. Dir Alain Resnais. Film. Janus Films, 1958. Perec, Georges. Things: A Story of the Sixties. Trans. David Bellos. London: Collins Harvill, 1990. (Originally published 1965.) Sontag, Susan. “Godard’s Vivre Sa Vie.” Against Interpretation and Other Essays. New York: Picador, 2001. Temple, Michael, James S. Williams, and Michael Witt, eds. For Ever Godard. London: Black Dog, 2004. Une Femme Mariée. Dir. and writ. Jean Luc Godard. Perf. Macha Meril. 1964. DVD. Eureka, 2009. Vivre Sa Vie. Dir. and writ. Jean Luc Godard. Perf. Anna Karina. 1962. DVD. Criterion, 2005. Week End, Dir. and writ. Jean Luc Godard. 1967. DVD. Distinction Series, 2005.

A l'orée des années 1960, la majorité des Etats africains jadis sous domination coloniale va progressivement accéder à l'indépendance. Ainsi se clot une ère historique qui a fortement contribué à l'édification d'un certain nombre de représentations entre dominants et dominés. En France ce passage allait entraîner un désintérêt de plus en plus patent par rapport aux questions africaines, du moins dans quelques secteurs. Pourtant, l'Hexagone continue, après ces autodéterminations, d'entretenir avec le continent noir, en particulier avec ses ex colonies, des relations assez étroites. Qualifiés par d'aucuns de néocolonialisme, ces liens furent l'objet de plusieurs récits, surtout au tournant des années 1980. Et en dépit de leur spécificité, ces rapports s'inscrivent tout de même dans un imaginaire populaire envers l'Afrique qui s'est construit au cours des siècles. Dans le dessein d'éviter tout formalisme, l'approche ici considérée cherche-t-elle à mettre en évidence les mécanismes et facteurs qui désormais animent cette société au sortir de la période coloniale dans sa perception du continent noir et des Africains en général. C'est donc dans ce cadre-ci que la presse est convoquée (de façon certes imparfaite et incomplète) comme baromètre de ladite société. Et pour représenter l'Afrique, les hommes d'Etat ont recruté. Car dans moult regards hexagonaux, leur personnalité se confond à s'y méprendre avec le pays dont ils ont la charge<br>Most of the African countries under colonial domination progressively gained independence in the eve of the sixties. Thus, that was the end of an era which took an outstanding part in the conception of a certain number of representations between colonizers and their subjects. In France, that transition would bring about a more and more fading interest in comparison to African questions, at least in two domains. However France's relationships with its former sub-Saharan African countries stayed unabated even after independence. But in the eighties, these relations were considered as neocolonialism. In spite of their particularity, these ties belong to a long traditional African psyche that has been conceived through ages. In order to avoid any form of formalism, our approach rather foregrounds mechanisms and factors which make such a former colonial society maintain its imagery of the African continent and Africans as well. So it's a typical context in which the media are called upon to evaluate that so called society. And statesmen recruit in order to represent Africa, as the latter's political personalities are the best reflection of the countries there are running, according to many western conceptions

La communication sur le nucléaire en France a évolué au cours du temps, pour devenir aujourd’hui souvent critique, politique et conflictuelle hors des milieux directement impliqués. Cette évolution interroge. Elle est étudiée ici plus spécifiquement en appui sur l’hebdomadaire majeur de la période, L’Express. La première partie de cette étude permet de mieux comprendre comment, entre 1965 et 1974, le “fait” nucléaire est devenu la “question” du nucléaire, entrant alors dans le débat politique national. Entre 1975 et 1986, seconde partie de cette étude, une nouvelle étape se dessine, au cours de laquelle le nucléaire, objet politisé, devient motifs et arguments électoraux, tout en étant dans le même temps banalisé, enfermé dans des stéréotypes contrastés, entre son caractère dangereux et son aspect indispensable. 1986 à 1997 constitue le moment le plus étrange de cette étude, entre des chocs majeurs et un progressif apaisement des positions sur le nucléaire, l’aspect négatif de cette technologie s’étant alors durablement installé, d’autres préoccupations ayant également pris le dessus. Au terme de cette troisième partie est effectué un bilan, tant sur l’emploi politique du nucléaire que sur celui des images mentales du nucléaire dans L’Express. Ce bilan est complété par de brèves synthèses permettant de mieux comprendre le cadre de cette étude, dont L’Express et ses dirigeants, les évolutions de la vie politique et des médias, ou encore une présentation ordonnée des journalistes de l’hebdomadaire ayant écrit sur le nucléaire. Enfin, des documents importants sont reproduits, pour mieux percevoir ce que fut l’évolution de cette communication du nucléaire au fil du temps<br>Communication on nuclear power in France has evolved in time, to become today often critical, political and conflictual outside the circles directly involved. This evolution questions. It is studied here more specifically through the major weekly of the period, L’Express. The first part of this study allows to understand better how, between 1965 and 1974, the nuclear “fact” became the “question” of nuclear power, entering then into the national political debate. Between 1975 and 1986, second part of this study, a new stage has emerged, during which nuclear power, a politicized object, became electoral motives and arguments, while being at the same time trivialized, locked into contrasted stereotypes, between its dangerous character and its essential aspect. 1986 to 1997 is the strangest moment of this study, between major shocks and a gradual appeasement of the positions on nuclear power, the negative aspect of this technology having been installed durably then, other concerns having also gained the upper hand. At the end of this third part, a balance sheet is made, both on the political use of nuclear power and on the mental images of nuclear power in L’Express. This balance sheet is completed by brief syntheses allowing to understand better the framework of this study, including L’Express and its leaders, the evolutions of politics and the media, or an orderly introduction of the journalists of the weekly having written on nuclear power. Finally, some important documents are reproduced, in order to perceive better what has been the evolution of this communication on nuclear power over time

A partir d'un corpus hétérogène par sa thématique et sa périodicité, nous avons effectué une analyse de contenu et du discours de Jeune Afrique et du Nouvel Afrique Asie portant sur les titres des articles à la "Une" que ces deux journaux ont consacré au Bénin, au Congo, au Cameroun et à la Côte d'Ivoire au cours de la décennie 1990 pour déterminer l'évolution du processus démocratique engagé dans ces pays au début de cette décennie. Nous partons de l'hypothèse suivante : comme lors des indépendances acquises en 1960, les dirigeants des quatre pays semblent s'être appropriés le renouveau démocratique que ces pays ont connu au début de la décennie 1990. Nous nous interrogeons sur le rôle de la presse panafricaine notamment de Jeune Afrique et du Nouvel Afrique Asie, sur ce processus. Dans la première partie, nous retraçons brièvement l'histoire des quatre pays depuis les indépendances jusqu'à la fin des années 80. Dans la deuxième partie, nous restituons les faits exogènes et endogènes qui ont amené les quatre pays à instaurer la démocratie au détriment du monopartisme. Dans la troisième partie de la thèse, nous procédons à une analyse de contenu des titres à la "Une", où nous pointons le discours des journalistes de Jeune Afrique et du Nouvel Afrique Asie sur les pays de référence. Cette analyse est complétée par le dépouillement d'un nombre limité d'entretien. Cette thèse s'efforce d'identifier les logiques médiatiques à l'œuvre, afin de cerner le rôle que pourrait jouer la presse panafricaine dans un continent où le processus démocratique va s'intensifiant<br>Through an heterogenous corpus out of his thematic and his periodicity, we worked an analysis of content and discourse of Jeune Afrique and Nouvel Afrique Asie, two panafrican news magazine. This analysis is about the headlines on the front page that these news magazine consecrated to Benin, Congo, Cameroon and Ivory Coastin order to determine the evolution of democratic processus engaged in these countries at the beginning of 1990 decade. We suppose that , like in 1960, the four countries'independnce year, theirs leaders took over themselves the revival democratic that these countries live since the beginning of 1990 decade. We ask ourselves about panafrican press place in this processus. In the first part, we relate briefly the history of these countries since the independences until 80 end's years. In te second part, through national and international facts, we show how these countries choose democraty to the detriment of monolithic system. In the third part of the thesis, we analyze the content of headlines on the front page where we establish the discourse of Jeune Afrique and Nouvel Afrique Asie reporters about the countries of reference. This analysis is completed by the studying of a limited nomber of interview. This thesis try to identify the media logics those exist in order to determine the role panafrican press could play in a continent where democratic processus intensify

L'image du Burkina Faso dans les médias français, les hebdomadaires en particuleir, ne semble pas donner la mesure des progrès de toutes sortes par ailleurs quantifiables que ce pays enregistre aujourd'hui, et qui sont reconnus et salués par la communauté internationale. Comment, entre 1998 et 2008, l'information en provenance du Burkina Faso a-t-elle été traitée par les grands hebdomadaires français. L'étude des titres : " Le Point, L'Express, Le Nouvel Observateur, Marianne et Courrier international" est confrontée aux réalités complexes de ce PMA africain, dont on sait qu'il compte parmi les cinq pays les plus pauvres du monde. Une anlyse des responsabilités des organes de presse, et de celles des journalistes, permet de déterminer la marge de manoeuvre dont peut bénéficier tout rédacteur ou "reporter" français lorsqu'il aborde l'actualité burkinabé. Un retour sur le traitement médiatique de l'ex-Haute-Volta dans ces mêmes hebdomadaires depuis la naissance des premiers "newsmagazines" français, en 1964, aide à mettre en lumière les origines de ce conformisme journalistique, et démontre que les idéologies politiques comme les activismes radicaux jouent un rôle déterminant dans la restitution de cette actualité. Les constats formulés tout au long de cette analyse à partir des hebdomadaires français sont mis en perspective dans une dernière approche des autres médias hexagonaux: quotidiens nationaux et régionaux, mensuels, radios et chaînes de télévision.