Academic literature on the topic 'Proteaceae – South Africa'

The Proteaceae, a Gondwanan family, are richly represented in South Africa’s Cape Floristic Region (CFR) (331 species, 14 genera) and Australia’s South West Botanical Province (SWBP) (682 species, 16 genera). Both of these regions have mediterranean-type climates, infertile soils, similar geomorphic and climatic histories, and show strong convergences in plant form and function. There are many similarities in the patterns and ecological correlates of diversity in the CFR and SWBP Proteaceae. First, both floras are overwhelmingly endemic, with many large genera and correspondingly high species to genus ratios, indicating massive in situ diversification (species flocks). Second, on both continents, high habitat (mainly edaphic) specialisation leads to similar levels of beta diversity. Third, most species are non-sprouters (i.e. killed by fire) and of intermediate size. There are, however, several divergences in these patterns and correlates. First, in the SWBP, Proteaceae invariably emerge as one of the largest families in florulas, whereas they occupy a much lower rank in the CFR. Second, species numbers in the SWBP peak in landscapes having intermediate levels of annual rainfall, whereas CFR Proteaceae diversity peaks in the wettest areas. Third, local diversity is higher in the SWBP where Proteaceae have exploited a wider array of temporal and spatial habitats than in the CFR. Fourth, despite lower environmental heterogeneity in the SWBP, gamma (geographical) diversity is higher there. Fifth, as a result of higher local and gamma diversity, regional richness in the SWBP is more than double that of the CFR. Finally, sprouting, serotiny, bird-pollination and tall stature are proportionally more important traits in the SWBP than the CFR where most species are low, non-sprouting, myrmecochorous, insect-pollinated shrubs. Subtle differences in the historical and contemporary climates of the two regions have resulted in different processes leading to the origin of these species flocks. In the CFR, milder conditions have favoured non-sprouters (short generation times): species have accumulated largely as a result of lineage turnover. Harsher conditions in the SWBP have favoured sprouters: here species have accumulated as a result of both persistence and turnover.

The American Proteaceae are outliers from the main centres of diversity of the family in Australia and South Africa. There are about 83 species in eight genera which all belong to the monophyletic subfamily Grevilleoideae. Three genera, Embothrium, Oreocallis and Lomatia, are placed in the tribe Embothrieae (sensu Johnson and Briggs), four Euplassa, Gevuina, Panopsis and Roupala in the Macadamieae and the single genus Orites in the Oriteae. There are five genera endemic to America and three also have species in Australia and New Guinea (Gevuina, Lomatia and Orites). The Proteaceae appear to have arrived in South America via two routes. The larger genera Euplassa, Panopsis and Roupala, which are all endemic to America and have a general distribution in northern South America and south-eastern Brazil, are derived from Gondwanaland before it separated from South America. The remaining genera are distributed either in temperate South America or in the high Andes and appear to have arrived more recently via the Australia–Antarctica–South American connection. Three of these genera have species in both regions. The centres of species diversity of Euplassa, Panopsis and Roupala fall outside hypothesised forest refugia, indicating that they are not true rainforest species but species of seasonal habitats like those achieved at higher altitudes where they are commonly found. Two genera,Panopsis and Roupala, have reached Central America after the central American land bridge was formed six million years ago. The exact relationship to genera on other continents is still unclear and there is a need for a cladistic biogeographic analysis of the group based on both morphological and molecular data.

A new vagrant eriophyoid mite species, collected from plant material imported into the United Kingdom, is described and illustrated: Aceria argentae n. sp. found on Leucadendron argenteum (L.) R. Br. (Proteaceae) from South Africa. A review of the eriophyoid mite species known from plants in the Proteaceae is also provided and recent findings of non-native eriophyoid mites in the United Kingdom are discussed.

More than 120 leaf samples from 82 species of Proteaceae, representative of floras in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and South America, were studied for sugar composition. Generally, sucrose was dominant, with one or another polyol being second in importance. Presence of polygalatol (1,5-anhydrosorbitol), bornesitol (O-methyl-myo-inositol) and quebrachitol (O-methyl-D-chiro-inositol) was confirmed, pinitol (O-methyl-L-chiro-inositol) was identified and high levels of myo-inositol were sometimes encountered. Only four species, including Placospermum lacked any polyol other than inositol. High concentrations of polygalatol were characteristic of two South African genera, Protea and Faurea. Pinitol was characteristic of three genera in the Persoonieae and was also found in Petrophile (Australian) and Aulax (African). Most other genera were characterised by bornesitol alone, or by quebrachitol plus smaller amounts of bornesitol and inositol. Other unidentified compounds in the sugar fraction (possibly inositol isomers and glycosides) have potential to provide additional information on relationships. With only two exceptions, the pattern was consistent within a genus as currently defined; however, there was only partial concordance between the polyols and the phylogenetic relationships of genera. The findings support relatively close affinity between Buckinghamia and Grevillea, and between Aulax and Petrophile, as concluded from DNA sequencing. We suggest that the ability to produce the various inositol-based polyols in Proteaceae evolved early in the evolution of this ancient family, and has been retained in a wide range of habitats. Polygalatol has to be synthesised through a different biochemical pathway, which appears to have evolved later.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 1994.<br>Some digitised pages may appear illegible due to the condition of the Microfiche<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Many Proreaceae species indigenous to South Africa have potential as cutflower crops. Commercial production of proteas for expurt, mainly to Europe, must emphasise quality of flowers and time of production. Good export quality flowers have stems longer than 50cm and unblemished flowers. Cut-flower proteas are in greater demand and command better prices during the European winter (September to May, Southern hemisphere), when competition from flowers grown in Europe is less. Both quality and time of harvest can be manipulated by pruning techniques. Protea cv. Carnival (a natural hybrid, possibly between P. neriifolia and P. compacta) produces flowers in late summer, from February through to May. Picking flowers or pruning shoots of Proteo cv. Carnival entails removing the terminal portion of shoots with heading cuts to leave on the plant short stumps, known as bearers. Lateral shoots arising from axillary buds on bearers elongate by successive growth flushes until flowers are initiated terminally. The characteristics of the shoot determine whether or not flower initiation will take place, and will affect the quality of the resulting flower. Plants were pruned to produce bearers of different length and diameter. The characteristics of shoots arising from different bearers were recordea. Thick bearers of length 20-25cm produced the most shoots, and the longest shoots. Plants producing flowers biennially, rather than ann'Jally, produced thicker bearers, which, in turn, lead to production of better quality shoots arising from the bearers in the following season. Changing the time of pruning changed both the flowering cycle and the biomass allocation of Prorea cv. Carnival. Plants of Profea cv. Carnival were pruned on six different dates in 1991. Pruning in March, April or May, 1991, resulted in an annual flowering cycle. Less than 40% of the fresh mass produced in 1993 was reproductive, of which approximately 5% had stems long enough for export. The 1994 annual harvest was of s:milar size and quality as the 1993 annual harvest. Pruning in July, August or September, 1991, resulted in a biennial cycle of flowering. No flowers were produced in 1992, and a large crop was harvested in 1993. In 1993 lip to 70% of the fresh mass produced was reproductive, of which approximately 80% had stems long enough for export. Plants were pruned shortly after flowering in 1993, and the biennial cycle was replaced by an alternate flowering cycle, with a large crop being followed by a smaller crop. The large harvest in 1993 was significantly earlier than normal, but the small crop produced in 1994 was later. The harvest in 1994 from plants with an alternate flowering cycle was similar in size to the 1994 harvest from plants floweting annually, but flower stems were longer.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Heelwat inheemse Proteaceae spesies besit die vereiste eienskappe om as snyblomr.-le verhanctci te wod. Indien proteas kommersieel verbou sou word vir uitvoer moet die klem val op gehalte van blomme en die tyd van produksie. Goeie gehalte uitvoer blomme moet steellengte van langer as 50cm en perfek gevormde blomme besit. Daar is 'n groter aanvraag na kommersieel verboude proteas gedurende die Europese winter (September tot Mei, suidelike halfrond) en beter pryse word derhalwe ook dan verkry. Beide gehalte en die oes periode kan gemanipuleer word deur snoeitegnieke. Wanneer blomme gepluk word of lote gesnoei word van Profea cv. Carnival (waarskynlik 'n kruising tussen P. compacta x P. neriifolia) word die terminale gedeelte van die loot teruggesny. Die oorblywende gedeelte bestaan uit kort stompe wat bekend staan as draers. Laterale lote afkomstig van okselknoppe op draers verleng totdat 'n blom terminaal ontwikkel. Die eienskappe van die loot bepaal of 'n blom inisieer sal word of nie, en sal ook die gehalte van die gevormde blom beinvloed. Protea plante was gesnoei om draers van verkillende lengtes en deursnee te produseer. Die eienkappe van lote afkomstig van die verskillende tipe draers was gemeet. Dik ..draers van lengte 20-25cm het die meeste asook die langste lote geproduseer. Plante wat twee-jaarliks, in teenstelling met jaarliks, geblom het, het dikker draers geproduseer en ook gelei tot produksie van beter gehalte lote in die opeenvolgende seisoen. Die verandering in die tyd van snoei het beide die blom siklus en die biomassa verspreiding beinvloed. Plante van Protea cv. Carnival was up 6 verskillende datums in 1991 gesnoei. Snoei in Maart, April of Mei, 1991, het 'n jaarlikse blom siklus veroorsaak. Minder as 40% van die vars massa geproduseer in 1993 was reproduktief, waarvan 5% steellengte lank genoeg vir uitvoer gehad hel. Die 1994 jaarlikse oes was van dieselfde grootte en gehalte as die van 1993. Snoei in Julie, Augustus of September, 1991, het egter 'n twee-jaarlikse blom siklus veroorsaak. Geen blomme was in 1992 geproduseer nie, maar die oes in 1993 was heelwat groter as die jaarlikse oeste. In 1993 was to 70% van die vars massa geproduseer, reproduktief, waarvan 80% steellengte lank genoeg vir uitvoer gehad het. Die twee-jaarlikse blom siklus het 'n vroeer oes in 1993 veroorsaak, maar 'n later oes in 1994. Die twee-jaarlikse oes in 1994 was van dieseifde grootte as die jaarlikse oes in 1994, maar die blomstele was langer.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The commercial cultivation of Proteaceae is an important industry in the Western Cape, however, farmers are challenged with arthropod infestation which compels them to solely rely on chemical pesticides. Past studies in South Africa have shown that Proteaceae comprise a rich and diverse arthropod fauna. However, as most of these studies were conducted on wild Proteaceae, they may not be representative of cultivated proteas. Moreover, most of these species remained unidentified due to lack of identification expertise. These past studies, however, form a useful baseline for arthropod studies in proteas, e.g. the feeding guilds found in proteas. The aim of this research was to conduct an intensive and extensive survey of the arthropod-fauna associated with commercially-cultivated proteas across an entire year. Specifically, this survey was designed to document the composition of the arthropod fauna (creating a comprehensive reference collection for pest management purposes) and to assess whether the arthropod fauna differed between seasons and pesticide treatments. Infructescences, inflorescences and foliage of mainly commercial Proteaceae were sampled for arthropods seasonally for a period of twelve months by collection of plant material and direct searching. Seven commercial protea blocks, and a wild protea block (remnant patch of fynbos vegetation), were used as the sampling sites, and two sprayed blocks were used for assessing pesticide efficacy. Individual arthropods were identified as far as possible, with 37% identified to species level. A species accumulation curve showed that rare (minor) arthropod species made up of 70% of arthropods occurring in cultivated proteas. More than 8 700 individuals from more than 140 species and about 80 families were collected and identified, revealing that cultivated proteas have a rich and diverse insect fauna. These arthropods represent the full range of plant-feeding guilds: leaf miners, leaf chewers, flower bud borers, sap suckers and seed feeders. Flower visitors/free living guild was the most abundant (72%) and speciose (25%). In addition to phytophages, there was a large suite of insect predators and parasitoids. A large number of the arthropods were endemic to the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) and some (7.86%) have a pest status, in that they cause significant damage to the protea plants (for example, 60% of Safari sunset cultivar (Leucadendron salignum x L. laureolum) new flush stems and leaves were affected by Epichoristodes acerbella (Tortricidae). Capys alphaeus (Lycaenidae) and Phyllocnistis sp. (Phyllocnistidae) appear to be specialist pests, as they attack mainly Protea cynaroides and Susara cultivar (Protea magnifica x P. susannae) respectively. Arthropod abundance did not differ significantly between seasons, although significant seasonal effects were observed in species richness when the protea cultivars were examined separately. Pesticide application did not affect arthropod abundance, but did decrease species richness in sprayed blocks. Pesticides appeared to negatively affect minor (rare) species disproportionately, probably due to their lack of prior exposure to pesticides and hence sensitivity. Due to this inefficacy of pesticides in cultivated proteas, an increasing emphasis on the importance of non-chemical control measures, and our improved knowledge of the predatory and parasitic species in this system, integrated pest management strategies deserve greater research attention. Monitoring and use of threshold values for arthropod pests were suggested here, as well as the use of biological, cultural, physical and chemical (optimal use) control. For instance, in cultural control, polycropping and intercropping in proteas to increase plant diversity in the monocultures to promote a higher density of predators and parasitoids can be used. Certain flowering plants are known to provide greater temporal and spatial distribution of nectar and pollen sources, which can increase parasitoid reproductive potential and abundance of alternative hosts/prey when the pest species are scarce or at an inappropriate stage.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die kommersiële verbouing van Proteaceae (proteas) is 'n belangrike bedryf in die Wes-Kaap. Menige plantasie wemel egter van artropodes, wat boere noop om slegs van chemiese plaagdoders gebruik te maak. Vorige studies in Suid-Afrika toon dat proteas die gasheerplant vir 'n ryke en diverse artropodefauna is. Aangesien die meeste van hierdie studies egter op wilde proteas uitgevoer is, weerspieël dit moontlik nie die stand van sake met verboude proteas nie. Weens 'n gebrek aan kundigheid om die artropodes te eien word baie van die spesies boonop nooit uitgeken nie. Dié studies voorsien egter 'n nuttige grondlyn vir 'n ondersoek na die artropodes op proteas, veral vir die bestudering van die gilde wat van die protea leef (“the feeding guild”). Hierdie navorsing het ten doel om 'n intensiewe en omvattende opname te maak van die artropodefauna wat oor die tydperk van 'n jaar op kommersieel verboude proteas voorkom. Die opname is meer bepaald ontwerp om die samestelling van die artropodefauna te bestudeer (deur 'n omvattende verwysingsversameling vir plaagbestuurdoeleindes te skep), en om vas te stel of seisoene en plaagbehandelings enige beduidende uitwerking op die artropodefauna het. Oor 'n tydperk van 12 maande is seisoenale monsters van die vrug- en bloeistadia, saadkoppe en blare van hoofsaaklik kommersiële proteas gesoek en ingesamel. Sewe kommersiële proteablokke sowel as 'n blok wilde proteas het as proefpersele gedien, en twee bespuite blokke is gebruik om die doeltreffendheid van plaagdoder te beoordeel. Individuele artropodes is so noukeurig moontlik uitgeken – 37% tot op spesievlak. Volgens 'n spesieakkumulasiekurwe maak seldsame (kleiner) artropodespesies sowat 70% van die artropodes uit wat op verboude proteas voorkom. Die meer as 8 700 individue van meer as 140 spesies en sowat 80 families wat ingesamel en uitgeken is, toon die rykheid en diversiteit van die artropodefauna op verboude proteas. Hierdie artropodes verteenwoordig die volle reeks plantvreterspesies – van blaardelwers en blaarkouers tot blomknopboorders, sapsuiers en saadvreters. Blombesoeker-/vrylewende spesies was die volopste (72%) en mees divers (25%). Buiten plantvreters was daar ook 'n groot aantal roofinsekte en parasitoïede. Baie van die artropodes was inheems, en sommige (7,86%) het boonop plaagstatus, aangesien hulle beduidende skade aan die proteaplant aanrig. [By ongeveer 60% van die Safari Sunset-kultivar (Leucadendron salignum x L. laureolum) is nuwe stamme en blare byvoorbeeld deur die Epichoristodes acerbella (Tortricidae) aangetas.] Capys alphaeus (Lycaenidae) en Phyllocnistis sp. (Phyllocnistidae) blyk spesialisplae te wees wat onderskeidelik hoofsaaklik die Protea cynaroides en die Susarakultivar (Protea magnifica x P. susannae) in die visier het. Artropodegetalle het nie juis tussen seisoene gewissel nie, hoewel 'n afsonderlike ondersoek van die proteakultivars 'n beduidende seisoenale uitwerking op spesierykheid aan die lig gebring het. Eweneens het die toediening van plaagdoder nie die artropodegetalle verminder nie, maar wel spesierykheid op die bespuite blokke verswak. Plaagdoders blyk besonder negatiewe uitwerking op kleiner (seldsame) spesies te hê – waarskynlik omdat dié spesies nie voorheen aan plaagdoders blootgestel was nie, en dus gevoelig is daarvoor. Weens die oënskynlike ondoeltreffendheid van plaagdoders op verboude proteas, verg 'n toenemende klem op die belang van niechemiese beheermaatreëls, 'n behoefte aan meer kennis van die roof- en parasitiese spesies in die stelsel, en die vraag na geïntegreerde plaagbeheerstrategieë, meer navorsing. Die studie moniteer en gebruik drempelwaardes vir artropodeplae, sowel as biologiese, kulturele, fisiese én chemiese (‘optimalegebruik’-) plaagbeheer. Met kulturele beheer kan poli- en interverbouing van proteas byvoorbeeld gebruik word om plantdiversiteit in die monokulture te verbeter, ten einde só 'n hoër digtheid van roofspesies en parasitoïede in die hand te werk. Sekere blomplante bied kenmerkend 'n wyer tyd- en ruimtelike verspreiding van nektar- en stuifmeelbronne, wat parasitoïede se voortplantingsvermoë en die getalle van alternatiewe gashere/prooi kan verbeter wanneer die plaagspesies skaars is of in 'n ontoepaslike stadium verkeer.

Magister Scientiae (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) - MSc (Biodiv & Cons Biol)<br>Research focused on ecological impacts and control of invasive alien species (IAS) is gaining attention worldwide. The eradication and control of invasive alien plants (IAP) is essential for the restoration of native plant communities. Understanding ecological impacts and potential invasive risks of IAP is important for their effective management, particularly for prioritisation. Most studies concerning impacts on vegetation structure and plant-pollinator interactions have measured few ecological metrics, resulting in a superficial understanding of plant species invasion. Additionally, most studies related to the control of IAP have focused on major invaders which have demonstrated severe impacts, with less focus on emerging invaders. This study assessed ecological impacts, invasive risks and chemical control options for alien Hakea drupacea and Banksia species in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Multiple ecological metrics data on vegetation, soil and plant-pollinator parameters were measured and compared between invaded and uninvaded sites. The invasion risk of fourteen Banksia species which have been introduced to South Africa was evaluated by conducting a weed risk assessment (WRA). The herbicide efficacy of resprouting Banksia integrifolia and Banksia serrata was determined by rating plants response to different treatments, with percentage, height and resprout vigour as measures. Results revealed significant negative impacts of alien H. drupacea and Banksia speciosa invasion on native plant species richness and diversity and on the abundance of native pollinators. The study demonstrated that 79% of Banksia species have a high risk of invading the Fynbos Biome. Chemical control with triclopyr+picloram mix provided effective means of controlling resprouting Banksia species. The high invasive risk of Banksia species and competitive effects of invasive alien B. speciosa and H. drupacea with native plant species for biotic and abiotic resources represents a major threat to biodiversity conservation in the Fynbos Biome. The removal of both naturalised and invasive alien H. drupacea and Banksia populations is recommended in order to conserve native plant communities in the Fynbos Biome.<br>2020-08-31

This thesis examines the ecology of rare Proteaceae of the Fynbos Biome. South Africa. The aim was to determine whether there are any unifying ecological parameters which might be significant for their conservation. The current status of all Cape Proteaceae was initially assessed. A total of 124 taxa were ascribed the I U C N status of recently extinct (3 taxa), endangered (33 taxa), vulnerable (29 taxa) and naturally rare (59 taxa). The distributions of rare taxa are characteristically small in size and range, 59 taxa occurring in only one or two populations and 63 taxa being restricted to a range of less than 5 km². Small nature reserves are proposed for the protection of such restricted taxa. An examination of the distribution of all the rare taxa shows exceptionally high concentrations in the Cape Town urban area and the lowlands north of Cape Town. This indicates the need for conservation considerations by urban and regional planners in the long term development of this area. Naturally rare taxa exhibit nodes (areas of high concentrations) over the centres of well-defined centres of endemism. Such areas merit conservation as representative and diverse habitats of fynbos plant species. Threats occurring at rare Proteaceae sites were recorded. An inappropriate fire interval and invasion by the Argentine ant. Iridomyrmex humilis, were shown to be the probable cause of rarity in Proteaceae exhibiting short lifespans and myrmecochorous seed stores. The monitoring of fire intervals at rare Proteaceae sites and the removal of the Argentine Ant are considered priorities for conservation management of rare Proteaceae.

Macadamia (Proteaceae) is indigenous to Australia; four of the nine species have been used in plant breeding for cultivation and the production of a rapidly growing product. First introduced to Hawaii in the 1880s, macadamias’ potential as a crop was only really considered in 1910. It is due to the early Hawaiian pioneers’ research and the development of Hawaiian cultivars upon which most of the current world’s production is based today. Prior to the 1980s, cultivation in Australia was based mainly on Hawaiian cultivars. Extensive research has been conducted on cultivar development, performance, best practice, production, crop protection and processing. South Africa has become one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of macadamias. The cultivation of macadamia in South Africa began 80 years ago, but the phenology of macadamia has not been rigorously studied under local conditions, and neither has the thrips communities in macadamia. Data collected during this study on the macadamia phenological stages can be used as a foundation on which seasonal data of all insect pests can be plotted, as a basis on which an extensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programme can be developed for the macadamia industry in South Africa. Extensive sampling of thrips communities present in macadamias was undertaken over two years, with more than 142,000 individuals collected. The most basic, common trait into which specimens could be sorted were colour groups. Specimens from each colour group were identified through slide-mounting individuals. Fifteen species of thrips were identified to species-level, excluding specimens from the Panchaetothripinae, Haplothrips and Scolothrips which occurred only periodically. The presence of larvae indicated that macadamia is a host plant for some species. Due to their size and morphology, identification i of the total collection could not be processed to species level using a dissection microscope, although Scirtothrips aurantii Faure were distinguishable from other species and their distribution over the seasons observed. Due to logistical constraints and events beyond the author’s control, the results are mainly qualitative. There seems to be phenological variation within and between cultivars. The date of anthesis and duration of immature nut-drop was estimated; some cultivars set out- of-season flowers and nuts; this “secondary crop” could have far-reaching effects on the implementation of an IPM programme. Comparisons of the phenological data of macadamia and thrips showed the highest abundances and diversity of thrips species occurred when flowers were present. An extensive study of abscised nuts showed no significant difference between most cultivars or at the sites where management practices were implemented and those sites where these practices were not. There was however a consistent difference between the two seasons. There was no difference in maturity of abscised nuts, regardless of whether thrips damage to the husk was present or not. Excessive Bathycoelia distincta (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) damage was found on the kernels of the abscised nuts processed for maturity testing, which is more likely to have been the primary cause of abscission. The Author’s opinion is that thrips damage to the outer husk does not lead to abscission of maturing nuts. Ascertaining the cause of abscission at nut-set and immature nut-drop is more problematic as there are numerous other potential causes. Damage to new flush, especially the late summer flush essential for the build-up of carbohydrates and resources for the following yield, should be carefully monitored and controlled when necessary.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Five new species of ophiostomatoid fungi, colon ising the infructescences of serotinous Protea species, have recently been discovered in South Africa. Prior to this, ophostomatoid fungi were thought to be restricted to the Northern Hemisphere. The discovery of these five species thus extensively expanded the known geographical range of these fungi, now also to include the Southern Hemisphere. Since this discovery, few studies have focused on the interesting ecology of this group, which is uniquely adapted for spore dispersal by arthropods. Studies focussed on ophiostomatoid fungi provide an unique opportunity to study inter-organism interactions between fungi, their host plants and the arthropods responsible for their spore dispersal. Very few similar studies have been undertaken, particularly in the Fynbos Biome, to which most of our economically important Protea species are confined. The current study provides insight into some ecological aspects of these complex interactions. The seasonal distribution of the ophiostomatoid fungi associated with the infructescences of members of the Proteaceae was investigated. Definite seasonal patterns were observed, with peak fungal colonisation occurring during the wetter winter months. While determining the host specificity of these fungi, a new Protea host for Ophiostoma splendens was identified, and a new species of Rhyncomeliola was discovered. All ophiostomatoid species native to Fynbos in the Stellenbosch region are exclusively associated with the infructescences of species in the plant genus Protea. By employing a multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), a set of group specific primers was developed for the identification of South African Ophiostoma and Gondwanamyces fungal DNA. This newly developed method was used to scan arthropods collected from the infructescences of P. repens for the presence of 0. splendens and G. proteae spores. By using these group-specific primers, three insects possibly responsible for long range dispersal of fungal spores were identified. Three further insect species, possibly contributing to the short-range dispersal of ophiostomatoid spores, were also implicated through this method. All arthropods associated with the fruiting structures of selected members of the Proteaceae were also investigated. A total of 62 pseudospecies (ca. 7500 individuals), belonging to 45 different arthropod families, were collected. Proteaceae species with larger fruiting structures housed more arthropod species and higher numbers of individuals than Proteaceae taxa with smaller fruiting structures. Some plant species housed similar arthropod communities, while others housed unique suites of arthropods. Seasonal patterns in arthropod numbers were observed, and it was found that, in most instances, arthropod numbers peaked during the autumn and winter months. Twenty-five fungal taxa were isolated from various Proteaceae arthropods, many of which are genera known to include Proteaceae pathogenic species. Ophiostomatoid fungi have a saprophytic relationship with their Protea hosts, and may deter some of these potentially harmful fungi from colon ising the infrutescences. Some fungi showed a high degree of specificity towards potential vectors, while others were found on a diverse range of arthropods. This study highlights the existence of complex inter-organismal interactions within the Fynbos Biome, a study area where the interactions between plants, fungi and insects have been grossly neglected. The few studies that have been conducted in this field have mostly focussed on a limited number of organisms, and no wide-scale attempts, such as presented here, have been published. It is important to obtain a holistic view in any ecological study that focuses on interactions between different suites of organisms. Ultimately this will aid in the development of better conservation strategies. This study thus provides a muchneeded start in studies on multi-organismal interactions in the Fynbos Biome.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vyf nuwe ophiostoma-agtige fungus spesies is onlangs in die vrug-liggame van Suid Afrikaanse Protea plante ontdek. Voor hierdie ontdekking, was die algemene opvatting dat ophiostoma-agtige fungi beperk is tot die Noordelike Halfrond. Die ontdekking van hierdie vyf spesies het dus die bekende geografiese verspreiding van hierdie tipe fungi vergroot om nou ook die Suidelike Halfrond in te sluit. Sederdien het min studies gefokus op die interesante ekologie van hierdie groep, wat aangepas is vir spoorverspreiding deur geleedpotiges. Studies wat fokus op die ophiostoma-agtige fungi voorsien 'n unieke geleentheid om die inter-organismiese-interaksies tussen fungi, hul gasheer plante en die geleedpotiges wat hul spore versprei, te bestudeer. Baie min soortgelyke studies is al voorheen in die Fynbos Bioom, waar die meeste van ons ekonomies-belangrike Protea spesies voorkom, onderneem. Die huidige studie verleen meer inligting oor sommige ekologiese aspekte van hierdie komplekse interaksies. Seisoenale verspreidingspatrone van ophiostoma-agtige fungi geassosieer met die vrug-liggame van lede van die Proteaceae, is ondersoek. Daar is defnitiewe seisoenale patrone in die aanwesigheid van fungi gevind, met 'n piek in fungi kolonisasie-getalle gedurende die vogtiger wintermaande. 'n Nuwe Protea gasheer vir Ophiostoma splendens en 'n nuwe fungus spesie (Rhyncomeliola sp.), is ontdek. Alle Fynbos ophiostoma-agtige spesies in die Stellenbosch area, is beperk tot Protea spesies. 'n Multipleks Polimerase Ketting Reaksie is ontwikkel om die spesifieke DNS van ophiostoma-agtige fungi te herken. Hierdie metode is gebruik om te toets vir die aanwesigheid van spore van hierdie fungi op die liggame van geleedpotiges (geassosieerd met P. repens). Hierdeur is drie insekte wat waarskynlik verantwoordelik is vir die langafstand verspreiding van spore geidentifiseer. Drie verdere insekte wat moontlik verantwoordelik is vir die kortafstand verspreiding van ophiostoma-agtige fungi is ook aangewys. Alle geleedpotiges geassosieer met die vrugstrukture van geselekteerde lede van die Proteaceae is ondersoek. 'n Totaal van 62 pseudo-spesies (omtrent 7500 individue), wat tot 45 families behoort, is versamel. Proteaceae spesies met groter vrugstrukture het meer geleedpotige spesies en individue gehuisves as taksa met kleiner vrugstrukture. Sommige plant spesies het soortgelyke geleedpotige gemeenskappe gehuisves, terwyl unieke groepe geleedpotiges in ander plante voorgekom het. Alhoewel die geleedpotiges seisonale variasies in getalle geopenbaar het, het die meeste groepe 'n piek in getalle getoon gedurende die herfs- en wintermaande. Vyf-en-twintig fungi taksa is geïsoleer vanaf verskeie Proteaceae geleedpotiges. Sommige van hierdie is genera wat Proteaceae patogeniese spesies insluit. Sommige fungi het 'n hoë graad van spesifisiteit teenoor potensiële vektore getoon, terwyl ander weer algemeen op verskeie geleedpotige spesies gevind is. Hierdie studie dui op die bestaan van komplekse inter-organismiese-interaksies in die Fynbos Bioom, in 'n area waar die studie van interaksies tussen plante, fungi en insekte nog baie min aandag geniet het. Die beperkte aantal studies wat tot dusver in hierdie veld onderneem is, fokus gewoonlik slegs op 'n paar organismes. Geen grootskaalse studies, soos die een hier voorgelê, is al gepubliseer nie. In enige ekologiese studie wat fokus op interaksies tussen verskeie organismes, is dit belangrik om 'n holistiese siening te probeer verkry. Uiteindelik sal dit bydra tot die ontwikkeling van beter bewarings-strategië. Hierdie studie verleen dus 'n noodsaaklike begin tot studies op multiorganismiese- interaksies.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Cape Floristic Region (CFR) is situated at the southern tip of Africa and possesses a flora that is unique amongst the floras of the rest of the world, both in terms of its incredibly high species richness, and its high levels of endemism. Proteaceae, the family to which Serruria belongs, is widely distributed amongst the landmasses of the southern hemisphere, with its centres of diversity occurring in Australia and southern Africa. Previous molecular and morphological analyses performed on the South African subfamily Proteoideae have shown Serruria, a CFR endemic, to form a well-supported monophyletic group. Based upon the strong monophyly of Serruria, DNA sequence data were collected for 53 of the 55 species from the plastid (rps16 intron, atpB-rbcL intergenic spacer, trnL-F region and psbA-trnH intergenic spacer) and nuclear (internal transcribed spacer region or ITS) genomes in order to investigate evolutionary relationships within the genus. Spatalla taxa were used as the outgroup. Both parsimony and Bayesian analyses were carried out on each of these data sets. The resulting trees were reasonably well resolved. All the Serruria taxa grouped together in a well-supported clade, except for S. f1ava, which emerged well within the Serruria clade in the analyses of the nuclear genome, but outside the clade in the plastid analyses. It was therefore proposed that this taxon represents a hybrid. Apart from this case, there was widespread agreement between the trees reconstructed using data from the two genomes. The plastid and nuclear data were therefore combined in order to analyse the data sets together. The molecular data does not support most of the groupings proposed by previous authors based on morphological data. Additionally, in some cases, multiple representatives of species do not group together. These specimens probably do not represent monophyletic taxa. Current ideas about relationships within Serruria are based predominantly on floral characters, and it is suggested that pollinator pressures have led to plasticity in the floral characters. Consequently, it is evident from this study that relationships within Serruria need to be re-examined in order to determine the patterns of evolution within the genus.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Kaapse Floristiese Streek is aan die suiderpunt van Afrika geleë, en beskik oor 'n unieke flora relatief tot ander wêreldfloras, beide ten opsigte van die ongelooflike hoë spesie diversiteit en die hoë vlakke van endemisme. Proteaceae, die familie waaraan Serruria behoort, kom wydverspreid tussen die vastelande van die Suidelike Halfrond voor, en het diversiteitsentrums in Australië en suider Afrika. Vorige molekulêre sowel as morfologiese analises wat op die Suid-Afrikaanse subfamilie Proteoideae uitgevoer is, dui aan dat Serruria (wat endemies is tot die Kaapse Floristiese Streek) 'n goed ondersteunde monofiletiese groep is. Gebaseer op die sterk monofilie van Serruria, is DNA-volgorde-data vir 53 van die 55 spesies vanuit die plastied (rps16 intron, atpB-rbcL intergeniese spasie, trnL-F area en psbA-trnH intergeniese spasie) en kern (intern getranskribeerde spasie area, ook ITS genoem) ingewin om die evolusionêre verwantskappe binne die genus te ondersoek. Spatalla is as die buitegroep gebruik. Beide parsimonie en Bayesian analises is op elk van hierdie datastelle uitgevoer. Die resulterende bome het redelike hoë resolusie getroon. AI die Serruria-taxa het in 'n goed ondersteunde klade saam gegroepeer, behalwe vir S. f1ava, wat binne die Serruria klade val vir die kern genoom, maar buite die klade vir die plastied analise. Dit is dus voorgestel dat hierdie taxon as 'n hibried beskou mag word. Behalwe vir hierdie geval, was daar wydverspreide ooreenstemming tussen die bome wat verkry is vanaf data van die twee genome. Die plastied- en kern-data is derhalwe gekombineer om die datastelle saam te kan analiseer. Die molekulêre data ondersteun nie die meerderheid van morfologiese groeperings wat deur verskeie outeurs voorgestel is nie. Verder, in sommige gevalle, groepeer verskillende monsters van dieselfde spesies nie bymekaar nie. Dit is derhalwe voorgestel dat hierdia taxa nie monofileties is nie. Huidige idees omtrent die verwantskappe binne Serruria is grotendeels op blommorfologiese kenmerke gebaseer, en dit word voorgestel dat bestuiwing-druk gelei het tot plastisiteit van die blommorfologiese kenmerke. Verskille tussen die bome wat uit plastied- en kern-data gerekonstrueer is word aan vroeëre hibridisasie gebeure toegeskryf. Op grond van hierdie studie is dit duidelik dat die verhoudings binne Serruria verder ondersoek moet word om die patrone van evolusie binne die genus te bepaal.

The fire-prone mountain fynbos of the southwestern Cape Province of South Africa has been severely invaded by introduced trees and shrubs. These invasions have transformed fynbos shrublands to dense thickets of trees and shrubs in many parts of the region, thus disrupting various natural ecosystem processes. The ecology of invasions by species of Pinus and Hakea (the most successful genera) was studied using a series of natural experiments in conjunction with autecological studies. The study was divided into main four parts: (i) case studies to elucidate major patterns and processes of invasion; (ii) studies of the life history and population ecology of selected invaders; (iii) studies of the determinants of invasibility; and (iv) assessments of the consequences of invasion and of control programmes. Bibliography: pages 235-272.