Books: 'Proximity effects'

1

Östbring, Lisa. Relatedness put in place: On the effects of proximity on firm performance. Umeå: Department of Geography and Economic History, Umeå University, 2015.

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2

Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Making Best Use of the Agent Orange Exposure Reconstruction Model., ed. The utility of proximity-based herbicide exposure assessment in epidemiologic studies of Vietnam veterans. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2008.

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3

Fraser, Ken. The effects of the perceived status and physical proximity of an observer on arousal and basketball free throw performance. Sudbury, Ont: Laurentian University, 2006.

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4

Lee, Harvey Shui-Hong. Assessment of potential aerodynamic effects on personnel and equipment in proximity to high-speed train operations: Safety of high-speed ground transportation systems. Washington, D.C: U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Office of Research and Development, 1999.

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5

Manfrida, Roberto, and Daniele Contini, eds. Proceedings of Physmod 2003 International Workshop on Physical Modelling of Flow and Dispersion Phenomena. Florence: Firenze University Press, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/88-8453-095-4.

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The various articles which make up this book concern both modelling (numerical and analytical) and experimental activities in relation to aspects of environmental fluid dynamics. Issues dealt with include the dispersion of pollutants in both urban and extra-urban areas, the effect of obstacles on the flow and dispersion in the turbulent boundary layer, and the simulation of the planetary boundary layer in proximity with the earth's surface. There is also a discussion of advanced issues which are also of interest in the sphere of urban planning, such as "wind comfort" and the effects of the shelter belt.

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6

Pirkola, Ari. Studies on linguistic problems and methods in text retrieval: The effects of anaphor and ellipsis resolution in proximity searching, and translation and query structuring methods in cross-language retrieval. Tampere: University of Tampere, 1999.

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7

Gurung, Raju. Computer visualisation and proximity effect correction for submicron electron beam lithography. Manchester: University of Manchester, 1995.

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8

Card, David E. Using geographic variation in college proximity to estimate the return to schooling. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1993.

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9

Walker, Robert. Would it have made any difference?: Cause and effect in commercial law. Edited by Sinnadurai Visu. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: RNS Publications, 2011.

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10

Pirkola, Ari. The effect of anaphora and ellipsis resolution on proximity searching in a text database. [Tampere]: Tampereen yliopisto, Informaatiotutkimuksen laitos, 1994.

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11

Flett, Andrew Robert. Voltage noise properties of bi-epitaxial and proximity effect Josephson junctions fabricated from yttrium barium copper oxide. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1996.

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12

Babalola, Stella O. The effects of urbanization on fertility in south-west Nigeria: The explanatory role of the proximate fertility variables. Dakar-Ponty, Dakar, Senegal: Union for African Population Studies, 1992.

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13

Crompton, John L. The proximate principle: The impact of parks, open space and water features on residential property values and the property tax base. 2nd ed. Ashburn, Va: National Recreation and Park Association, 2004.

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14

Center, Ames Research, and Joint Institute for Aeronautics and Acoustics., eds. A numerical study of the effects of wind tunnel wall proximity on an airfoil model. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1990.

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15

Karapetrov, G., S. A. Moore, and M. Iavarone. Mesoscopic Effects in Superconductor–Ferromagnet Hybrids. Edited by A. V. Narlikar. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198738169.013.8.

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This article examines the occurrence of mesoscopic effects in superconductor-ferromagnet hybrids. It begins with an overview of theories underpinning superconducting/ferromagnetic (S/F) hybrid structures, focusing on their vortex nucleation conditions and vortex behavior as well as the localized nucleation of superconductivity in an ideal S/F system. It then presents experimental measurements of the localized superconducting state in the cases of domain wall and reverse domain superconductivity, along with the vortex state in planar S/F hybrids. In particular, it considers nucleation thresholds for superconducting vortices and equilibrium vortex configurations. Finally, it discusses the results of local scanning probe measurements of the novel mesoscopic effects that emerge in magnetically coupled S/F hybrid structures in the absence of proximity effects.

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16

Committee on Making Best Use of the Agent Orange Exposure Reconstruction Model, Institute of Medicine, and Board on Military and Veterans Health. Utility of Proximity-Based Herbicide Exposure Assessment in Epidemiologic Studies of Vietnam Veterans. National Academies Press, 2008.

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17

Committee on Making Best Use of the Agent Orange Exposure Reconstruction Model, Institute of Medicine, and Board on Military and Veterans Health. Utility of Proximity-Based Herbicide Exposure Assessment in Epidemiologic Studies of Vietnam Veterans. National Academies Press, 2008.

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18

Committee on Making Best Use of the Agent Orange Exposure Reconstruction Model, Institute of Medicine, and Board on Military and Veterans Health. Utility of Proximity-Based Herbicide Exposure Assessment in Epidemiologic Studies of Vietnam Veterans. National Academies Press, 2008.

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19

Proximity Effect. Top Cow Productions/Image Comics, 2004.

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20

Burns, Catherine Marie. The effects of spatial and temporal proximity of means-end information in ecological display design for an industrial simulation. 1998.

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21

Bhattacharya, Shreya. Intergroup contact and its effects on discriminatory attitudes Evidence from India. 42nd ed. UNU-WIDER, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.35188/unu-wider/2021/980-8.

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The contact hypothesis posits that having diverse neighbours may reduce one’s intergroup prejudice. This hypothesis is difficult to test as individuals self-select into neighbourhoods. Using a slum relocation programme in India that randomly assigned neighbours, I examine the effects of exposure to other-caste neighbours on trust and attitudes towards members of other castes. Combining administrative data on housing assignment with original survey data on attitudes, I find evidence corroborating the contact hypothesis. Exposure to more neighbours of other castes increases inter-caste trust, support for inter-caste marriage, and the belief that caste injustice is growing. I explore the role of friendships in facilitating these favourable attitudes. The findings shed light on the positive effects of exposure to diverse social groups through close proximity in neighbourhoods.

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22

Measurements of the Effects of Tunnel Wall Proximity on the Velocity Field Upstream of a Rod with Vortex Shedding in Low-Speed Flow. Storming Media, 2000.

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23

Safety of High-Speed Ground Transportation Systems: Assessment of Potential Aerodynamic Effects on Personnel and Equipment in Proximity to High-Speed Train Operations. Lulu Press, Inc., 2015.

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24

McLaughlin, Kevin M. Thin film multilayer superconductors and the proximity effect. 1999.

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25

Davidson, Judy E., and Giora Netzer. Family Response to Critical Illness. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199398690.003.0008.

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Family members of ICU patients can have mental, physical, and social responses to critical illness. These responses can begin when their loved ones are in the ICU and persist after discharge. Interventions in the ICU could have long-term effects on family members. Communication, proximity, engagement, maintaining family integrity, optimizing sleep, and conflict resolution may all play a role in family health following the discharge or death of the patient. Research is needed to further quantify the epidemiology, mechanisms of action, and efficacy of interventions to optimize the health of this large group of people. While waiting for research results to definitively point us towards effective preventive measures and early interventions, it is prudent to optimize communication, encourage proximity and engagement, and support the health of family members while caring for the critically ill and injured. As patients and their families move into the home environment, it is important to consider their long-term health as well.

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26

Narlikar, A. V. Small Superconductors—Introduction. Edited by A. V. Narlikar. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198738169.013.1.

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This article provides an overview of small superconductors, including some of the basic definitions, prominent characteristics, and important effects manifested by such materials. In particular, it discusses size effects, surface effects, electron-mean-free-path effects, phase slips, unusual vortex states, and proximity effects. The article first considers the two characteristic length scales of superconductors, namely the magnetic penetration depth and coherence length, before proceeding with an analysis of two size effects that account for how superconductivity responds when the bulk sample is made smaller and smaller in the nano range: the small size effects and the quantum size effects. It then examines other phenomena associated with small superconductors such as quantum fluctuations, Anderson limit, parity and shell effects, along with the behaviour of nanowires and ultra-thin fims. It also describes some of the experimental techniques commonly used in the synthesis of small superconductors.

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27

Cuevas, J. C., D. Roditchev, T. Cren, and C. Brun. Proximity Effect A New Insight from In Situ Fabricated Hybrid Nanostructures. Edited by A. V. Narlikar. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198738169.013.4.

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This article investigates the proximity effect on small length and energy scales in novel low-dimensional systems using in situ fabricated superconducting nanostructures (SNSs) and scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy (STM/STS) techniques. After a brief historical review of research on superconductivity and the proximity effect, the article describes how to build a variety of in situ superconducting hybrid nanostructures and how to investigate the proximity density of states with the help of STM/STS. It then considers the proximity effect in a correlated 2D disordered metal and in diffusive SNS junctions before discussing proximity Josephson vortices. It also examines the proximity effect between two dissimilar superconductors and concludes by highlighting several fundamental problems related to proximity effect in the framework of quasiclassical microscopic Usadel theory.

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28

Sobey, Christopher. Orofacial Pain. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190217518.003.0023.

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Management of orofacial pain in the general population can be a challenging and demanding undertaking due to the complex neurological anatomy and close proximity to vital structures. Differentiating various syndromes and origins of pain can prove difficult; thus, specific emphasis on establishing the correct diagnosis is of the utmost importance in formatting a successful treatment plan. The questions in this chapter delve into the presentations, physical exam findings, diagnostic testing, psychological effects, and evidence-based medical and interventional treatment algorithms of both common and less common craniofacial pain disorders. This chapter covers pathophysiology of the neurological, biomechanical, and central causes of facial pain.

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29

King, Adele, and Christopher McKee. Anesthetic Management of Pediatric Craniopharyngioma. Edited by Kirk Lalwani, Ira Todd Cohen, Ellen Y. Choi, and Vidya T. Raman. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190685157.003.0045.

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The challenging perioperative management of craniopharyngiomas requires a multidisciplinary team approach. Though histologically benign, craniopharyngiomas are aggressive with local invasion and frequent recurrences. Significant morbidity maybe there at presentation. Treatment can worsen. Common perioperative concerns include hypothalamic dysfunction, tumor size and its effects on intracranial pressure, as well as the close proximity to nearby vessels and neural structures. Optimal anesthetic management includes thorough preoperative evaluation and planning with detailed knowledge of the tumor extent and symptomology. Management of hypothalamo-pituitary dysfunction plays a major role in achieving a successful outcome and should feature collaborative input from the endocrinology service.

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30

Müller, A., S. E. C. Dale, and M. A. Engbarth. Micromagnetic Measurements on Electrochemically Grown Mesoscopic Superconductors. Edited by A. V. Narlikar. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198738169.013.10.

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This article examines the behavior of superconductivity in mesoscopic type-I superconductors based on micromagnetic measurements on two electrochemically grown mesoscopic superconductors, namely lead and tin. It first provides an overview of the basic properties of mesoscopic superconductivity and the interface between two different superconductors that are in close contact with one another. It then describes the electrochemical preparation of β-tin samples in a variety of shapes and sizes in the mesoscopic regime. It also presents the results of micromagnetic measurements, carried out using micro-Hall probes, including observations of the vortex states in mesoscopic tin and lead triangles and of proximity effects in lead/tin core–shell structures.

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31

Li, Y. Y., and J. F. Jia. Topological Superconductors and Majorana Fermions. Edited by A. V. Narlikar. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198738169.013.6.

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This article discusses recent developments relating to the so-called topological superconductors (TSCs), which have a full pairing gap in the bulk and gapless surface states consisting of Majorana fermions (MFs). It first provides a background on topological superconductivity as a novel quantum state of matter before turning to topological insulators (TIs) and superconducting heterostructures, with particular emphasis on the vortices of such materials and the Majorana mode within a vortex. It also considers proposals for realizing TSCs by proximity effects through TI/SC heterostructures as well as experimental efforts to fabricate artificial TSCs using nanowires, superconducting junctions, and ferromagnetic atomic chains on superconductors.

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32

Superconductivity In Graphene And Carbon Nanotubes Proximity Effect And Nonlocal Transport. Springer International Publishing AG, 2013.

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33

Atienza, Pablo Burset. Superconductivity in Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes: Proximity Effect and Nonlocal Transport. Springer International Publishing AG, 2016.

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34

Atienza, Pablo Burset. Superconductivity in Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes: Proximity Effect and Nonlocal Transport. Springer London, Limited, 2013.

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35

Blamire, M. G., and J. W. A. Robinson. Superconducting Spintronics and Devices. Edited by A. V. Narlikar. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198738169.013.14.

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This article reviews the current status of superconducting spintronics and devices, with particular emphasis on the critical issues and developments needed for their application to low-power quantum computing. It first provides an overview of conventional spintronics before discussing the rationale for superconducting spintronics. It then considers the proximity effects and Josephson junctions in superconductor-ferromagnet heterostructures, along with spin transport in the superconducting state. It also examines the issue of memory in superconducting spintronics, especially with respect to reading and writing magnetic data via superconducting states, and how to generate memory logic in such devices. Finally, it evaluates the potential application of superconductor-ferromagnetic insulator devices as thermoelectric systems in low-temperature electronic circuits.

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36

Pollack, Detlef, and Gergely Rosta. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198801665.003.0014.

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The most important conclusions of this summarizing chapter are the following: The religious landscape of Eastern Europe is more diverse than that of Western Europe. The cases of Poland and the GDR confirm the hypothesis that there is a link between the diffusion of functions and the growth in the importance of religion. The strong processes of biographical individualization that occurred in the post-communist states did not necessarily intensify individual religiosity. The economic market model cannot be confirmed for Eastern Europe. There is in Eastern and Central Europe a demonstrable link between economic prosperity and the loosening of religious and church ties. What can act as a bulwark against the eroding effects of modernization is church activity on the one hand, and the everyday proximity, visibility, and concreteness of religious practices and rituals, symbols, images, and objects on the other.

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37

Corbett, Jack, and Wouter Veenendaal. Democratization and Geography. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796718.003.0006.

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Chapter 6 problematizes the conflicting arguments that proximity to democratic neighbours and islandness strongly affect democratic development. First, even though small states are extremely susceptible to external and regional influences, the argument that democracy is caused by demonstration effects does not fit (partially) authoritarian small states in ‘democratic’ Europe (i.e. Liechtenstein and Monaco), but also not the fully democratic small states in ‘undemocratic’ Africa (i.e. Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe). Second, while most small states are islands, insularity can pose formidable obstructions to democratic performance, especially in remote archipelagic states such as Comoros, Kiribati, Maldives, FSM, Marshall Islands, and Seychelles. Relations between islands united in one political unit are often strongly antagonistic, posing a threat to political stability and democracy. We conclude that the ways elites frame external influence is the key factor, with the discourse of vulnerability acting as a powerful means of obtaining internal acquiescence.

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38

Rucas, Stacey L. Cooperation Drives Competition among Tsimane Women in the Bolivian Amazon. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.10.

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This chapter connects work conducted among the Tsimane of Bolivia with others and highlights the value and scope of social capital as a driver of competition among women. It further examines proximate and ultimate levels of causation to understand what forces instigate women to seek relationships with certain individuals and what benefits might be reaped through costly investments in maintenance of social status and networks. In particular, women invest in social resources such as friendships, kin-groups, and social status because they may increase inclusive fitness through higher quantity or quality of offspring. Finally, the chapter connects the ultimate effects with their underlying proximate levels of causation, showing that women view cooperators, helpers, and advisors as more interpersonally attractive. The conclusion offers a robust connection between proximate and ultimate causation effects and helps explain in richer theoretical detail the extent, progression, and complexity of women’s same-sex relationships over evolutionary time.

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39

Bove, Vincenzo, Chiara Ruffa, and Andrea Ruggeri. Composing Peace. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790655.001.0001.

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The book explores how diversity in United Nations’ peace mission composition affects peacekeeping effectiveness. It identifies four key dimensions of composition: Blue Helmets’ field diversity, top mission leadership diversity (between Force Commander and Special Representative of the Secretary General), vertical leadership distance (Leadership-Blue Helmets), and horizontal distance with the local population. Each dimension of diversity of mission is measured as linguistic, geographical, and religious distance. Our book conceptualizes original mechanisms—i. resolve commitment; ii. informative trust; iii. informative communicability; iv. skilled persuasion—through which diversity can shape mission effectiveness such as trust, communicability, deterrence, and persuasion. It then evaluates each dimension separately through three pathway case studies—the UN missions in Lebanon, in Mali, and in the Central African Republic—and quantitative analyses based on a global dataset of peacekeeping operations deployed since the end of the Cold War. The book finds that diversity of Blue Helmets and diversity of top leadership may increase the mission’s capacity to reduce battle-field violence and civilian victimization. At the same time, the effects of diversity are contextual and contingent. In fact, looking at the relation between peacekeepers and Force Commanders, proximity between them is generally associated with better performances. Furthermore, homogeneity between local populations and peacekeepers, or low distance between them, is also related to low levels of hostility and casualties. This book crucially demonstrates why diversity of mission composition is a key variable to consider when trying to enhance peacekeeping effectiveness.

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40

Howlett, David J. New Shrines and New Capital, 1990–2012. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252038488.003.0007.

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This chapter discusses how sacred sites are also built through cooperation. At sites of parallel pilgrimage, people may negotiate with others and form alliances that allow them access to otherwise denied resources. In addition, people who form alliances benefit from a multiplier effect—meaning the resources of a group are greater than the sum of its parts. Group membership carries with it a form of power, or social capital that can only be established and maintained by “reacknowledgement of proximity”—that is, “relations of proximity in physical (geographical) space or even in economic and social space.” The chapter then looks at the changing proximal relationships in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints around the Kirtland Temple.

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41

Danny, Busch. Part IV Supervision and Enforcement, 20 The Private Law Effect of MiFID I and MiFID II: The Genil Case and Beyond. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198767671.003.0020.

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This chapter examines how far civil courts are bound by MiFID I/MiFID II under European law, within the following topics: whether civil courts and contracting parties may be less strict or stricter than MiFID I/MiFID II, whether MiFID I/MiFID II has any influence on the principle of ‘relativity’ or ‘proximity’, proof of causation, or a contractual limitation or exclusion of liability in the Member States; and whether the civil courts are obliged to determine if MiFID I/MiFID II rules have been infringed in disputes between investment firms and private investors. The chapter concludes that MiFID II and MiFID I are unclear, and, as the EU Court of Justice has not yet explicitly answered the main questions, it will be necessary to await the further judgments.

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42

Nai Peng, Tey, Lai Siow Lai, and Jennifer Chan Kim Lian, eds. Demographic and Socioeconomic Changes in Sabah. UMS Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.51200/demographicumspress2021-978-967-2738-23-7.

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Population growth can have positive or negative effects on development, depending on the circumstances. The more rapid growth of the working-age population relative to the dependent population provides a demographic dividend for economic growth. However, in many less developed countries, a large population puts pressure on limited resources. A better understanding of the interrelationship between population and development is essential for planning at the national, state and local levels. This book is the first of its kind that provides a comprehensive analysis of the demographic and socioeconomic landscapes of Sabah which can be used as a reference by policymakers, investors, and researchers. It consists of fourteen chapters, addressing a wide range of issues related to population growth, distribution and composition, education, labour force, income, migration, fertility and its proximate determinants (marriage and family planning), and specific target groups – families, women, youth and non-citizens. Data from population censuses, household surveys, vital statistics, service statistics, administrative records, and official documents were used for the analysis.

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43

Soroka, Stuart N. Gatekeeping and the Negativity Bias. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.43.

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Research on media gatekeeping is focused on the factors leading to a distribution of information in media content that is systematically different from the “real world.” Early gatekeeping work examined editorial decisions, and emphasized the effect that a single editor’s preferences and beliefs could have on the content new consumers receive. The literature has gradually shifted to focus on more generalizable factors, however. These include organization-level assessments of newsworthiness and commercial/economic considerations; broader system-level factors including the impact of dominant ideologies and political and social norms; and common individual-level factors, including a range of cognitive and psychological biases.The tendency for humans to prioritize negative over positive information is one such cognitive bias—and the growing literature on the negativity bias is discussed here as one example of a set of organization-, system-, and individual-level “gates” that have a systematic impact on news content. Negativity is just one example, however. Sensationalism, violence, geographic proximity, availability of visuals, prominence of celebrities—all of these tendencies in media content can and have been examined effectively using the gatekeeping metaphor. Some of this work is reviewed here, alongside some recent trends in gatekeeping work, including the “distributional” approach to gatekeeping, and the shift in gatekeeping brought on by the “new media” environment.

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44

Tolley, Clinton. Idealism and the Question of Truth. Edited by Michael Glanzberg. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557929.013.4.

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This chapter traces developments in idealist theories of truth in and after Kant, focusing especially on key moments in the nineteenth-century history of analytic philosophy and phenomenology. Though Kant intended his transcendental idealism to effect a Copernican revolution in philosophy, he did not advocate for revisions in the traditional definition of truth in terms of a correspondence or agreement between our judgments and their objects. Many of his successors countered that it was only by carefully revisiting the nature of truth itself that philosophy could hope to avoid the “subjectivizing” pitfalls they saw latent in Kantian idealism. Intense post-Kantian reflection on the concept of truth led to a series of accounts which were deeply influential across a number of philosophical traditions and which provide the crucial proximate historical and conceptual context for many of the most influential discussions of truth, and semantics more generally, in the twentieth century.

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45

Harbus, Antonina. The Long View. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190457747.003.0008.

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This chapter considers how a modern reader can make sense of a medieval text, but also to have an aesthetic and emotional reaction to the text. It deploys insights from neuroscientific work on emotion in mental processing, the psychology and history of emotions, and cognitive poetic approaches to the aesthetics of reading, to consider how poetic language use interacts with cognitive structures and processes. By using a new diachronic perspective, this chapter explores the shared cognitive basis of meaning and feeling in short (translated) elegiac poems written over 1,000 years ago in Old English. It demonstrates that readerly emotional investment arises from linguistic features, including metaphoric language and affective triggers, to produce a literary effect. By tracing the interaction of affective and interpretive processes, this chapter considers the shared cognitive/emotional basis of meaning-making in both proximate and distant literary responses and broadens the scope of inquiries into cognition and poetics.

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46

Szewczyk, Janusz. Rola zaburzeń w kształtowaniu struktury i dynamiki naturalnych lasów bukowo-jodłowo-świerkowych w Karpatach Zachodnich. Publishing House of the University of Agriculture in Krakow, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.15576/978-83-66602-35-9.

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The aim of the study was to determine the influence of different disturbances (both natural and anthropogenic) on species composition and stand structure of old-growth mixed mountain forests in the Western Carpathians. These stands are usually dominated by beech, fir and spruce, mixed in different proportions. The tree main species represent different growth strategies, and they compete against each other. The longevity of trees makes the factors influencing the stand structure difficult to identify, even during longitudinal studies conducted on permanent research plots. That is why dendroecological techniques, based upon the annual variability of tree rings, are commonly used to analyze the disturbance histories of old-growth stands. Dendroecological methods make it possible to reconstruct the stand history over several centuries in the past by analyzing the frequency, intensity, duration and spatial scale of disturbances causing the death of trees. Combining the dendroecological techniques with the detailed measurements of stand structure, snag volume, CWD volume, and the analyses of regeneration species composition and structure allows us to identify the factors responsible for the changes in dynamics of mixed mountain forests. Various disturbance agents affect some species selectively, while some disturbances promote the establishment of tree seedlings of specific species by modifying environmental conditions. Describing the disturbance regime requires a broad scope of data on stand structure, on dead wood and tree regeneration, while various factors affecting all the stages of tree growth should be taken into consideration. On the basis of the already published data from permanent sample plots, combined with the available disturbance history analyses from the Western Carpathians, three research hypotheses were formulated. 1. The species composition of mixed mountain forests has been changing for at least several decades. These directional changes are the consequence of simultaneous conifer species decline and expansion of beech. 2. The observed changes in species composition of mixed mountain forests are the effect of indirect anthropogenic influences, significantly changing tree growth conditions also in the forests that are usually considered natural or near-natural. Cumulative impact of these indirect influences leads to the decrease of fir share in the tree layer (spruce decline has also been observed recently),and it limits the representation of this species among seedlings and saplings. The final effect is the decrease of fir and spruce share in the forest stands. 3. Small disturbances, killing single trees or small groups of trees, and infrequent disturbances of medium size and intensity dominate the disturbance regime in mixed mountain forests. The present structure of beech-fir-spruce forests is shaped both by complex disturbance regime and indirect anthropogenic influences. The data were gathered in permanent sample plots in strictly protected areas of Babia Góra, Gorce, and Tatra National Parks, situated in the Western Carpathians. All plots were located in the old-growth forest stands representing Carpathian beech forest community. The results of the measurements of trees, snags, coarse woody debris (CWD) and tree regeneration were used for detailed description of changes in the species composition and structure of tree stands. Tree ring widths derived from increment cores were used to reconstruct the historical changes in tree growth trends of all main tree species, as well as the stand disturbance history within the past two to three hundred years. The analyses revealed complex disturbance history in all of the three forest stands. Intermediate disturbances of variable intensity occurred, frequently separated by the periods of low tree mortality lasting from several decades up to over one hundred years. The intervals between the disturbances were significantly shorter than the expected length of forest developmental cycle, in commonly used theories describing the dynamics of old-growth stands. During intermediate disturbances up to several dozen percent of canopy trees were killed. There were no signs of stand-replacing disturbances, killing all or nearly all of canopy trees. The periods of intense tree mortality were followed by subsequent periods of increased sapling recruitment. Variability in disturbance intensity is one of the mechanisms promoting the coexistence of beech and conifer species in mixed forests. The recruitment of conifer saplings depended on the presence of larger gaps, resulting from intermediate disturbances, while beech was more successful in the periods of low mortality. However, in the last few decades, beech seems to benefit from the period of intense fir mortality. This change results from the influence of long-term anthropogenic disturbances, affecting natural mechanisms that maintain the coexistence of different tree species and change natural disturbance regimes. Indirect anthropogenic influence on tree growth was clearly visible in the gradual decrease of fir increments in the twentieth century, resulting from the high level of air pollution in Europe. Synchronous decreases of fir tree rings’ widths were observed in all three of the sample plots, but the final outcomes depended on the fir age. In most cases, the damage to the foliage limited the competitive abilities of fir, but it did not cause a widespread increase in tree mortality, except for the oldest firs in the BGNP (Babia Góra National Park) plot. BGNP is located in the proximity of industrial agglomeration of Upper Silesia, and it could be exposed to higher level of air pollution than the other two plots. High level of fir regeneration browsing due to the deer overabundance and insufficient number of predators is the second clear indication of the indirect anthropogenic influence on mixed mountain forests. Game impact on fir regeneration is the most pronounced in Babia Góra forests, where fir was almost completely eliminated from the saplings. Deer browsing seems to be the main factor responsible for limiting the number of fir saplings and young fir trees, while the representation of fir among seedlings is high. The experiments conducted in fenced plots located in the mixed forests in BGNP proved that fir and sycamore were the most preferred by deer species among seedlings and saplings. In GNP (Gorce National Park) and TNP (Tatra National Park), the changes in species composition of tree regeneration are similar, but single firs or even small groups of firs are present among saplings. It seems that all of the analysed mixed beech-fir-spruce forests undergo directional changes, causing a systematic decrease in fir representation, and the expansion of beech. This tendency results from the indirect anthropogenic impact, past and present. Fir regeneration decline, alongside with the high level of spruce trees’ mortality in recent years, may lead to a significant decrease in conifers representation in the near future, and to the expansion of beech forests at the cost of mixed ones.

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