Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Psychological aspects of Acquaintance rape'

Assignment (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This is an explorative literature study of the theoretical relationship between rape and masculinity. It is aimed at understanding how rape can be used by men to construct their gender identity. Its focus is only on this relationship and not the two phenomena in themselves. It approaches the topic from a social constructionist theoretical perspective. I found through my research that men do tend to use rape as a resource to attain a desirable or hegemonic masculinity when other economic or social resources are not available. The picture of a rapist, which emerged, was that of a man who was disempowered either economically or socially. This impotence influences men to seek power through sexual means.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie is ‘n eksploratiewe literatuurstudie oor die verhouding tussen verkragting en manlikheid. Dit poog om te verstaan hoe verkragting deur mans gebruik kan word om hulle geslagsidentiteit te konstrueer. Die fokus van die studie is slegs op hierdie verhouding en nie op die twee fenomene in sigself nie. Dit benader die onderwerp van ‘n sosiaal-konstruksionistiese teoretiese perspektief. Ek het in my navorsing gevind dat mans geneig is om verkragting as ‘n manier te gebruik om ‘n begeerde of hegemoniese manlikheid te bewerkstellig wanneer ander ekonomiese of maatskaplike middele nie beskikbaar is nie. Die beeld van ‘n verkragter wat te voorskyn gekom het, was van ‘n man wat of ekonomies of maatskaplik ontmagtig is. Hierdie ontmagtiging beïnvloed mans om mag deur middel van die seksuele te probeer verkry.

This thesis examines the nature of sexual violence, the trauma experienced by survivors, how report rate for this type of crime can be increased, and how secondary victimisation of survivors can be prevented. Laboratory examination of the attributions made about survivors of sexual violence found that they not only differ from those made about survivors of non-sexual crimes, but also that negative attitudes are strongly related to the gender-role attitudes of the attributor. Empirical research also suggested that providing written information may not be sufficient to alter negative attitudes. Results of a general public crime survey (N=266) suggest that the trauma experienced by survivors of sexual violence is higher than that of survivors of other crime types. Specific examination of the experiences and recovery of survivors of sexual violence (N=42) found that severe assaults, recent victimisation, and assault by a known offender, are related to high levels of symptomatology. Negative self-attributions and perceptions were also found to be related to high levels of symptomatology, and these cognitions were found to be the strongest predictors of recovery. Unlike previous findings with other subject groups, self-blame was not found to be related to increased control. Examination of post-assault factors suggests that the low report rate for sexual crimes may be due to lack of faith in the police and fear of Criminal Justice interactions. In addition, it was found that dissatisfaction with report decision was highly related to levels of symptomatology. A model of how assault factors, survivor cognitions and post-assault interactions may relate to each other and symptomatology is presented. The findings of the survey and laboratory research are discussed in terms of their implications for successful support of survivors, increasing report rate for sexual crimes, the prevention of secondary victimisation, and future psychological research.

The aims of this thesis are twofold: to provide an account of the lived experience of the harm of male-on-female rape in patriarchal societies and, on the basis of this account, to generate suggestions that could be of use in the recovery process for survivors of this type of rape. In order to reach these aims my thesis is divided into three parts. In the first part, I propose a phenomenologically based account of women’s situation as a group under patriarchy, according to which women as a group are subjugated to the hegemonic rule of patriarchal ideology. I argue, further, that the meaning, place and pervasiveness of sexual objectification in the lives of women under patriarchy typically results in women’s alienation from their bodies and creates an atmosphere of threat under which women qua women are especially vulnerable to rape. In the second part, I explore the lived experience of the harm of rape; focusing, first, on the reflexive process whereby a survivor attempts to understand how she has been harmed and, second, on providing explanations based on shared features in the lives of women for two phenomena reported to be experienced by rape victims in the aftermath of the trauma, which I call ‘shattering’ and ‘fragmentation'. My discussion of the lived experience of the harm of rape is meant to supplement existing accounts in the contemporary literature that, I argue, are limited to a thirdperson, objective point of view and so fail to provide a link between the harms they describe and the victim’s actual experience of these harms. Finally, I defend two suggestions for the building up of the survivor’s agency and personhood in the aftermath of rape—the deliberate therapeutic use of feminist consciousness-raising and the use of narrative understanding.
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This dissertation examined the relationship between support services for adult survivors of sexual assault and judicial outcomes. Specifically, this study explored survivors' willingness to participate in the judicial process. Although "victim unwilling to participate" is the primary reason given by the police for cases not progressing to prosecution, we know little about most aspects of survivors' willingness to participate in the judicial process, especially beyond initial reporting of the assault. The steps to prosecution are dependent on one another yet a survivor's willingness to participate in these steps is a fluid process. The primary research question explored was Are there clusters of survivors according to their responses to specific items on a Willingness to Participate scale? Additional research questions focused on differences among possible clusters of survivors. A semi-structured interview protocol was completed with 46 survivors of adult sexual assault. Cluster analysis was conducted and three clusters emerged. Findings suggest that support services were helpful to those who were highly willing to participate but that willingness was insufficient to influence judicial outcomes. Future research concerning judicial outcomes in sexual assault cases should focus on strategies to dispel myths about rape among survivors, within the judicial system, and with potential jurors as a means of improving both survivor participation and judicial outcomes.

Thesis (MA) -- Stellenbosch University, 1995.
Includes bibliography
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates womens' perceptions of social power, as illustrated by their experiences of rape. In the first chapter the principles of subjective feminist research are analyzed against the background of feminist critique on so-called objective science. This introduction also discusses the feminist research methodology used in the study. This is followed by an examination of mainstream political science's conception of "power". How mainstream political scientists conceptualise "power", how they define "the exercise of power". Analyses of the feminist critique against the mainstream conception of "power" are discussed. The account of Foucault's ideas on "power" is, to some degree, a link between mainstream political science's views and feminists views. An examination of patriarchy, the three main dichotomies present in our society that determine female/male relations and gendered sexuality follows. It is against the aforementioned background that the literature study moves into a practical research stage. The next chapter analyses womens' conceptions and experiences of "power" relations by looking at the feminist theory of rape. This is followed by an analysis of the research data and a discussion of the popular rape myths in our society. A historical overview and analysis of the current rape law is then given, while the last chapter examines a feminist alternative conception of "power"relations by re-visiting "power" and by providing a feminist vision of women-power.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek vrouens se persepsies van sosiale mag soos geïllustreer deur hulle ervarings van verkragting. In die eerste hoofstuk word die beginsels van subjektiewe feministiese navorsing geanaliseer teen die agtergrond van die feministiese kritiek teen sogenaamde objektiewe wetenskap. Dit verskaf 'n bespreking van die feministiese navorsingsmetodologie wat in die studie gebruik is. In die daaropvolgende hoofstuk word hoofstroom politieke wetenskap se konsepsie van "mag" ondersoek deur te kyk na hoe hoofstroom politieke wetenskap "mag" konseptualiseer, hoe dit "die uitoefening van mag" definieer en deur die analise van feministiese kritiek teen hoofstroom politieke wetenskap se konsepsie van "mag". Die opsomming van Faucault se idees oor "mag" is in sommige opsigte 'n skakel tussen hoofstroom politieke wetenskap se sieninge en die van feministe. 'n Ondersoek na patriargie, die drie belangrikste tweeledighede ("dichotomies") in ons samelewing wat die verhoudings tussen vrouens en mans bepaal en geslagtelike seksualiteit ("gendered sexuality") volg. Dit is teen die agtergrond van die voorafgaande dat die literatuurstudie gevolg word deur 'n praktiese navorsingsfase. Daar volg'In analise van vrouens se konsepsies en ondervindings van "magsverhoudinge" deur eerstens na die feministiese teorie van verkragting te kyk. Hierna volg 'n analise van die navorsingsdata en In bespreking van populêre verkragtingsmites in ons samelewing. In aansluiting by bogenoemde volg 'n historiese oorsig en analise van die huidige verkragtingswet en vrouens se ervarings daarvan. Laastens volg 'n feministiese alternatiewe konsepsie van "magsverhoudinge" deur 'n her-analise van "mag" voor te stel en deur 'n feministiese visie van vroue-mag ("women-power") te verskaf.

Sexual arousal is likely an important situational factor in date rape. Research shows that sexual arousal increases self-reported willingness to engage in sexually aggressive behaviour. Chapter One reviews the situational, perpetrator, and victim characteristics of date rape. Chapter Two describes an experiment that examined the effect of sexual arousal on measures of decision-making, including Risky Choice Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, Future Discounting, and on a measure of Viewing Time. Participants were 20 heterosexual men and 22 heterosexual women 18 to 25 years old. Results revealed that sexually aroused women preferred higher variance options compared to women who were not, and the opposite was observed for men. No other significant effects were observed. Chapter Three describes Experiment 2 which included another neutral condition and a measure of sexual decision-making. Results revealed no effect of condition on behavioural or sexual decision-making, nor on viewing times. Chapter Four provides a general discussion and directions for future research.
ix, 156 leaves; 29 cm

The relation between dissociative symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was investigated in women who had experienced trauma or sexual assault. Subjects were administered the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), the Sexual Experiences Scale (SES), and the PTSD Interview (PTSD-I). Subjects were grouped according to their scores on the SES and the PTSD-I. Analysis of variance revealed a relation between DES scores and PTSD symptom severity scores. Correlational analyses showed a relation between dissociative symptoms and PTSD symptom severity but not recency of trauma. Three factors from a previously published factor analysis of the DES were found to contribute to the DES scores of PTSD subjects.

This study examines attitudes regarding general violence, violence against women, gender roles, and rape myth and how they relate to music preference. Surveys were completed by 321 students from two large introductory sociology classes at a midsize Midwestern university. Data were analyzed using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression. The results indicate that those who listen to predominantly rap and r&b music are more accepting of general violence and violence against women. Also, findings support the idea that amount of music videos viewed affects views on gender roles. Results show no support for a relationship between attitudes about rape myth and listening to rap and r&b music.
Department of Sociology

As the written accompaniment for The Luxury of Tears, a twelve-minute documentary video exploring the emotional impact of sexual assault on male survivors and their partners, this document examines the visual texts of both the fiction and nonfiction genres. Specifically, I contend that fiction film manufactures male survivorship with regard to rape events in such manner which contributes to the thematization of social silence. Such silence perpetuates the feminization of rape as a social problem, and dissolves the development of male survivor resources. A discussion of production processes, challenges, and resolutions is included.

The study of cognitive factors in sexual aggression has, for the most part, been limited to beliefs and attitudes. The present study sought to detect a rape-supportive schema of sexual relationships that organizes and guides information processing in several cognitive domains: cognitions arising in the context of a simulated sexual situation, memory, person perception, and social reasoning.

This study investigated the psychological effects and coping strategies of women who were raped in the Gauteng province. The study aimed to dete1mine the effects that rape has on the victims and to determine the coping strategies that the victims employ to deal with their ordeal. Using a quantitative methodology the study was conducted among I 00 female rape victims that were sampled from selected rape crisis centres in the Gauteng province. The researcher used the Trauma Symptom CheckJ ist (TSC-40), as well as the Coping Strategies Inventory Short Form (CS I-SF) which are both standardised and validated instruments. The responses of the participants were analysed to determine which of them were more traumatised than others. To come to the conclusion of who was more traumatised than the other, a comparison of the rating of the Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC) was done and consideration of all questions was taken. It was then dete1mined how the more traumatised and the less traumatised used the coping strategies to deal with the negative emotions due to rape. This was done by analysing the coping strategies of each participant according to how they responded on each question on the Coping Strategies Inventory (SF). Using means, standard deviations and regression analysis, the results revealed that a high number of rape victims had higher levels of trauma. This was indicated by their high scores on the dissociation, anxiety, depression, sexual abuse trauma index, sleep disturbance and sexual problems subscales of the TSC. Higher percentages of those, rarely engaged in problem focused coping and resorted to emotion focused coping instead. Those who had less trauma were found to be engaging more in problem focused coping. The victims that had less trauma were found to be communicating effectively with other people and were engaging in positive thinking. Those who had high levels of trauma were found to be not interacting effectively with people in their immediate environment which may have influenced their emotion focused coping strategies. The results also revealed that emotional reactions and coping strategies are not affected by age and marital status of rape victims.
Thesis (M. Soc Sci (Clinical Psychology) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2012

During the second-wave feminist movement, anti-rape activists sought to heighten cultural awareness about the pervasiveness of rape and instigate legal reforms that would increase the number of prosecutions and convictions of rapists. Despite resulting legal reforms that expanded the definition of "rape" and that eliminated resistance requirements and marital exemptions, reform efforts have been a failure in terms of increased reporting and achieving heightened response from the criminal justice system. I attribute the ineffectiveness of rape law reforms partially to the way in which the concept of rape was framed during the anti-rape movement. In particular, I argue that broadening the concept, detaching it from its sexual features, and paralleling the phenomenon to other violations such as property and assault have the effect of obscuring the unique indignity of rape. This, in turn, has inhibited the full legal recognition of the victim and her injury. I explore possibilities for an alternative conceptualization of rape that instead acknowledges and accommodates the distinctive features of the phenomenon in terms of sexuality, embodied differences of gender and race, subjective states of submission, and the encompassing nature of the injury as a violation of the integrity of self in both bodily and psychological dimensions. In order to enhance the recognition of the victim and her injury, I suggest that: a) legal discourse should be opened up to better account for concrete circumstances and embodied differences (as opposed to the reliance on abstract rights and principles and the generalized subject); b) victims should be allowed to provide an uninterrupted narrative of their rape experience and its consequences; and, c) "consent" as the predominant guiding legal standard should be reevaluated and replaced with an assessment of how force was subjectively experienced.
text

In the 1994 Rwandan genocide, rape was widely used as a strategic weapon against Tutsi women. This study explored the long term psychological effects of rape experienced by these women in order to develop a middle range theory to guide the management of the lasting psychological effects of rape in the context of genocide. A Grounded Theory approach using Strauss and Corbin’s paradigm (Strauss and Corbin, 1990) was used. Data collection entailed in-depth interviews of twenty nine participants, twelve of whom were rape survivors, ten were women who had not been raped, and seven were men from their community. Open coding, axial coding and selective coding were used to analyse the data. The results have shown that women were negatively affected, physically, psychologically and socially, by the rape. Genocide Rape Trauma emerged as a concept that defines these outcomes. It includes unbearable memories, overwhelming feelings, sense of helplessness, somatic distress, negative self-image, altered intimate relationships and social isolation. The extreme brutality, the humiliation that accompanied the experience of rape and multiple losses were reported as risk factors for the lasting psychological effects of rape. These negative outcomes were maintained by poverty, poor physical health, the burden of raising the children born of rape, hostility and stigma from their community, and lack of appropriate support and effective health care services. Facilitating the management of Genocide Rape Trauma emerged as the core category of the middle range developed theory. Recovery from Genocide Rape Trauma required formal and informal support, including psychological and medical care, sensitivity in dealing with genocide rape survivors, and advocacy. Economic empowerment was a key element, while educating the community contributed to the social integration of rape survivors and their children born of rape into their community. Women had developed coping mechanisms of their own to attain psychological relief, and had organized themselves into support groups. This study contributed to clinical practice by providing a holistic approach to taking care of rape survivors. The inclusion of such theory in the curriculum of health care professionals should contribute to the understanding of the lasting impact of rape and how to handle it in an efficient manner. Key words: Rwanda, Genocide, women survivors, Genocide Rape Trauma, Management of the long term psychological effects of rape and Grounded theory.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

This study consisted of an evaluation of different processes of change observed during the implementation of a treatment programme for incarcerated rapists that was developed by the researcher for a unique South African context. As no treatment programme was readily available for rapists, such a programme for incarcerated rapists first had to be developed and then implemented before the evaluation process could proceed. In order to do this, the researcher utilized a processual approach as well as two models of change to guide and evaluate the different processes within the broad research process. The Total Transformation Management Process (Mink, Esterhuysen, Mink&Owen, 1993) focused on the process to develop the treatment programme, while the Interchange Cycle (Brock&Salerno, 1994) focused on the changes that took place in the rapists during and after the implementation of the treatment programme. The information obtained from the results suggests that the two models that were used to evaluate the different change processes complemented each other as both models indicated that change took place on different levels. The findings determined that the treatment programme for incarcerated rapists was effective for first-time rapists and recommendations were made for future research. Copyright 2002, University of Pretoria. All rights reserved. The copyright in this work vests in the University of Pretoria. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the University of Pretoria. Please cite as follows: Bergh, LB 2002, Evaluation of a treatment programme for incarcerated rapists, PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, viewed yymmdd < http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-09302005-100826 / >
Thesis (PhD (Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2006.
Psychology
unrestricted

Forensic literature has shown particularly high prevalence of violent behavior in offenders convicted of rape but not the otherwise. There is empirical and theoretical support for the development of rape behavior being preceded by a sequence of increasingly non-violent and violent acts. All these point to rape as a subset of violent behavior. However, no existing research has studied the co-occurrence of rape and violent behavior coupled with their underlying mediating factors. This study represents the first empirical attempt to explore the developmental paths to rape behavior in association with its co-occurred violent behavior within the cognitive framework, tracing from distal developmental adversities to cognitive variables common and specific to rape and violent behavior, and then pornography use. Using structural equation modeling, the hypothesized model was tested in a sample of 175 adult male prisoners serving sentence in the Correctional Services Department, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region for the conviction of rape and / or violent offence. The resulting Developmental Sexual-Aggressive Model of Rape Behavior explicated that distal developmental adversities, a host of cognitive mediators namely hostility toward women, sexual masculinity factor, antisocial / violent attitudinal factor and entitlement, together with the more proximate behavioral precursors namely pornography use and violent behavior all contributed to explain rape behavior after controlling for social desirability. While hostility toward women and sexual masculinity constituted rape-specific cognitive constructs, the other cognitive constructs were common factors of both rape and violent behavior. The strongest cognitive construct was hostility toward women which emerged early on in the developmental model. Three etiologic paths underlying the development of rape behavior had been identified: one Sexual Path and two Aggressive Paths. The extent of influence between the Sexual Path and the two Aggressive Paths in total was comparable but the two Aggressive Paths became more influential to repeat rape behavior with higher frequency. The Aggressive Paths not only rendered empirical support to the co-occurrence of rape and violent behavior but more importantly revealed a violence-to-rape behavioral pattern. Taking a developmental perspective, the model made direct clinical implications for multiple entry points for rape prevention strategies targeting the general population, the at-risk males and the convicted rapists in order to achieve the ultimate goal of protecting public safety. Research implications with suggestions for future empirical studies were also included.
犯罪學文獻表明暴力行為在犯了強姦罪名的犯人中特別普遍，但相反則不然；亦有實證和理論支持強姦行為是由一連串非暴力以致暴力行為逐步發展而成。這都顯示強姦行為是暴力行為的一個子集。然而，沒有任何現有的研究探究了強姦行為和暴力行為的共存，及它們背後的中介因素。這項研究是第一個科研致力探討強姦行為和與它並存的暴力行為的發展路徑。在認知框架下，發展路徑從遠端成長期遇到的逆境，至強姦行為和暴力行為共同及特殊的認知因素，然後到色情資訊的使用。根據結構方程式模型，假設模型在175名因強姦和/或暴力罪名，在香港特區政府懲教署服刑的男性成年犯人所組成的樣本進行測試。研究控制了社會讚許變項後所得的「性侵略性模型發展」(Developmental Sexual-Aggressive Model)，闡述遠端成長期遇到的逆境、一系列認知中介因素即敵視女性、以性主導的男子氣概、反社會 / 暴力思想及權利主意，行為方面的近因即色情資訊的使用和暴力行為，有助於解釋強姦行為。敵視女性及以性主導的男子氣概構成強姦行為特殊的認知因素，而其他認知因素則構成強姦行為和暴力行為的共同因素。敵視女性是當中最重要的因素，而又在發展模型中早期出現。強姦行為背後的三個病因路徑是：一個性的路徑(Sexual Path)和兩個攻擊路徑(Aggressive Path)。單一的性路徑和總的兩個攻擊路徑之間的影響程度是類似的，但兩個攻擊路徑對高頻的重複強姦行為變得更有影響力。兩個攻擊路徑不僅提供了實證支持強姦行為和暴力行為的共存，更重要的是揭示了「暴力演變至強姦的行為模式」(violence-to-rape behavioral pattern)。研究所得的模型別具臨床意義，為預防強姦的策略提供多個入口點，包括針對公眾、存有風險的男性和被定罪的強姦犯，以達到保障公眾安全的最終目標。最後，對未來的實證研究亦提出了建議。
Lee, Kit Shan Yvonne.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2015.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 192-223).
Abstracts also in Chinese; appendixes in Chinese.
Title from PDF title page (viewed on 06, January, 2017).
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

In an attempt to find more information on the developing of an offender profile through docket analysis, the researcher utilised sources available in the Greater George area, as well as national and international material. The initial idea was to test the general knowledge of the concept “offender” profiling locally, in order to research and later suggest how such a profile of a rape offender could be developed through docket analysis. To establish this, it was important to indicate how offender profiling forms part of the objectives of investigation of crime. The objective – the individualisation of crime – was directly linked to profiling, as it suggests that the crime is an act of a particular person or persons. At the heart of the concept “profiling”, it is suggested that the trademarks of the offender can be deduced by carefully and painstakingly examining the characteristics of the offence. This information can, at a later stage, predict the most likely offender who could have committed the offence. When the odds are against one in the investigation of crime – more specifically, a rape case – the concept and goals of offender profiling should most definitely be considered as a key aid.
Police practice
M. Tech. (Forensic Investigation)

Lee, Shuk Ling Candy.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2010.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 180-193).
Abstracts in English and Chinese; appendix C also in Chinese.
Abstract --- p.i
Abstract in Chinese --- p.iii
Acknowledgment --- p.iv
Table of contents --- p.v
List of tables --- p.viii
List of figures --- p.ix
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction
Chapter 1.1. --- Background of this study --- p.1
Chapter 1.2. --- Purpose of this study --- p.4
Chapter 1.3. --- Scope and delimitation --- p.4
Chapter 1.4. --- Organization of thesis --- p.5
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Literature Review
Chapter 2.1. --- Introduction --- p.8
Chapter 2.2. --- Rape as a sexual offense --- p.8
Chapter 2.2.1. --- The legal definition of rape --- p.9
Chapter 2.2.2. --- The social definition of rape --- p.12
Chapter 2.3. --- Rape myths --- p.13
Chapter 2.3.1. --- The victim is lying --- p.15
Chapter 2.3.2. --- The intercourse was consensual --- p.17
Chapter 2.3.3. --- No damaged was done to the victim --- p.18
Chapter 2.3.4. --- The victim is blamed --- p.20
Chapter 2.4. --- Rape myths for male victims only --- p.22
Chapter 2.4.1. --- "Outside of prisons, male rapes are impossible" --- p.22
Chapter 2.4.2. --- Rapists and victims are homosexuals --- p.25
Chapter 2.4.3. --- Males victims are weak --- p.26
Chapter 2.5. --- Dyadic differences in attribution of rape myths --- p.27
Chapter 2.6. --- Rape myths in Hong Kong --- p.30
Chapter 2.7. --- Secondary victimization --- p.32
Chapter 2.7.1. --- Post-traumatic stress disorder --- p.34
Chapter 2.7.2. --- Underreporting of rape --- p.35
Chapter 2.8. --- Conversational practice --- p.38
Chapter 2.9. --- Metaphor and rape ´ب --- p.44
Chapter 2.10. --- Summary --- p.49
Chapter Chapter 3 --- Method
Chapter 3.1. --- Introduction
Chapter 3.2. --- Research questions --- p.51
Chapter 3.3. --- Research design --- p.52
Chapter 3.3.1. --- Research procedures --- p.52
Chapter 3.3.2. --- Participants --- p.53
Chapter 3.3.3. --- Research setting --- p.55
Chapter 3.3.4. --- Materials --- p.55
Chapter 3.4. --- The vignette method --- p.56
Chapter 3.5. --- Data analysis --- p.61
Chapter 3.6. --- Feminist standpoint --- p.62
Chapter 3.7. --- Triangulation --- p.62
Chapter 3.8. --- Summary --- p.62
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Results and discussion: Dyadic differences
Chapter 4.1. --- Introduction --- p.64
Chapter 4.2. --- Summary of the goal and procedure of the study --- p.64
Chapter 4.3. --- Overview of rape myths --- p.65
Chapter 4.4. --- Dyadic differences --- p.66
Chapter 4.4.1. --- Distribution of rape myths 一 female rape --- p.66
Chapter 4.4.2. --- Distribution of rape myths 一 male rape --- p.68
Chapter 4.4.3. --- Conversational practices --- p.73
Chapter 4.4.3.1. --- Who dominates the floor? --- p.73
Chapter 4.4.3.2. --- Male pauses between turns --- p.79
Chapter 4.4.3.3. --- The effect of the research context --- p.82
Chapter 4.5. --- Summary --- p.83
Chapter Chapter 5 --- Results and discussion: Female rape talk
Chapter 5.1. --- Introduction --- p.85
Chapter 5.2. --- Rape myths in detail --- p.85
Chapter 5.2.1. --- Rape myth 1: The victim is lying --- p.86
Chapter 5.2.1.1. --- Women are evil --- p.87
Chapter 5.2.1.2. --- Women take pride of their sex appeal --- p.89
Chapter 5.2.1.3. --- Rape is an easy accusation to make --- p.90
Chapter 5.2.1.4. --- Rape is a shame and should be concealed from anyone --- p.93
Chapter 5.2.1.5. --- Discussion --- p.94
Chapter 5.2.2. --- Rape myth 2: The intercourse was consensual --- p.95
Chapter 5.2.2.1. --- "Women never mean ""no""" --- p.96
Chapter 5.2.2.2. --- Victims must have struggled hard --- p.97
Chapter 5.2.2.3. --- Discussion --- p.98
Chapter 5.2.3. --- Rape myth 3: No damage was done to the victim --- p.99
Chapter 5.2.3.1. --- Raped women are impure --- p.100
Chapter 5.2.3.2. --- Rape has done no damage to dissolute women --- p.101
Chapter 5.2.3.3. --- Discussion --- p.102
Chapter 5.2.4. --- Rape myth 4: The victim is blamed --- p.103
Chapter 5.2.4.1. --- The public sphere is dangerous to females --- p.104
Chapter 5.2.4.2. --- Victims are accused of their reckless behaviors --- p.107
Chapter 5.2.4.3. --- Good things happen to good people; bad things happen to bad people --- p.112
Chapter 5.2.4.4. --- Discussion --- p.113
Chapter 5.3. --- Summary --- p.116
Chapter Chapter 6 --- Results and discussion: Male rape talk
Chapter 6.1. --- Introduction --- p.119
Chapter 6.2. --- Male rape myths in detail --- p.119
Chapter 6.2.1. --- Rape myth 1: Outside of prisons，male rape cannot happen --- p.119
Chapter 6.2.1.1. --- Male rape is unexpected --- p.120
Chapter 6.2.1.2. --- The male victim is relatively blameless --- p.122
Chapter 6.2.1.3. --- Discussion --- p.124
Chapter 6.2.2. --- Rape myth 2: Rapists and victims are homosexuals --- p.125
Chapter 6.2.2.1. --- The rapist is homosexual because rape is a sexually motivated crime --- p.126
Chapter 6.2.2.2. --- Male victims are construed as feminine --- p.129
Chapter 6.2.2.3. --- Homophobia --- p.132
Chapter 6.2.2.4. --- Discussion --- p.134
Chapter 6.2.3. --- Rape myth 3: Male victims are weak --- p.136
Chapter 6.2.3.1. --- Males should have the ability to resist --- p.136
Chapter 6.2.3.2. --- Male rape victims are of young age --- p.138
Chapter 6.2.3.3. --- Discussion --- p.139
Chapter 6.3. --- Summary --- p.140
Chapter Chapter 7 --- Results and discussion: Metaphors in rape talk
Chapter 7.1. --- Introduction --- p.142
Chapter 7.2. --- Metaphors --- p.142
Chapter 7.2.1. --- Female rape is science; male rape is supernatural --- p.143
Chapter 7.2.2. --- The rapist is a wolf; rape is preying; the victim is a prey --- p.146
Chapter 7.2.3. --- The act of rape is holding in the hand --- p.149
Chapter 7.2.4. --- Rape is war --- p.151
Chapter 7.3. --- Discussion --- p.152
Chapter 7.4. --- Summary --- p.158
Chapter Chapter 8 --- Conclusion
Chapter 8.1. --- Introduction --- p.150
Chapter 8.2. --- Summary --- p.160
Chapter 8.2.1. --- How do Hong Kong students of mixed- and same-sex dyads talk about rape? --- p.160
Chapter 8.2.2. --- How are rape myths constructed through conversations of dyads about female and male rape? --- p.162
Chapter 8.2.3. --- What metaphors do the dyads use when discussing rape? --- p.166
Chapter 8.3. --- Limitation --- p.168
Chapter 8.4. --- Contributions --- p.169
Chapter 8.5. --- Recommendations --- p.172
Chapter 8.6. --- Suggestions for further research --- p.176
References --- p.180
Appendices
Appendix A Participant information --- p.194
Appendix B Personal information questionnaire --- p.200
Appendix C The vignettes --- p.201
Appendix D Consent form --- p.203

Many women today, irrespective of their colour, race, age or religion, are being raped and some brutally killed by their rapists. The rape crisis increases daily and that shows that women are not even safe in their homes because they live in fear of their lives everyday. In this research paper I will try to examine the issues surrounding rape that contribute to the increasing of this crisis of the women living in Khorixas. There are sociological, economic, psychological and cultural issues that contribute to the rape crisis. The social issues that contribute to the rape of women contributed to the fact that most men abuse alcohol, some of the men are unemployed, and most of the people live in poverty. The economic condition of women is weaker than that of men. Most are unemployed and those who are working are domestic workers who earn a salary wage below the poverty line, and are, therefore, economically dependent on their husbands and boyfriends. Some of the men who live in Khorixas experience psychological problems such as hatred, desolation, loneliness and aggression. These psychological problems contribute to the fact that the rapists can closely identify sex with violence. In most cases, men show their masculinity by raping women. In the Damara culture the man is the head of the family. The woman is a submissive wife who is to take care of the children. Traditional women are unable to attack the power of the customs, therefore, the men keep them in an inferior and subordinate position. That is why the women are not speaking out against the rape that is committed. The purpose of my research is to try and address this rape crisis among the Damara women living in Khorixas. The research is pastoral and it is a challenge to the ELCRN to serve the vulnerable women who are the survivors of rape. The church can launch awareness programmes and also educate its members in moral sexual behaviour. Through pastoral care and counselling the pastor can assist the rape survivor to regain her dignity. Furthermore, the pastor can use the ABCD method of counselling to build up a relationship of trust between him or her and the rape survivor so that the survivor can feel comfortable in telling her story or the experiences of her rape. A further purpose of this research paper is to advise women to seek help and to speak out against rape and not to be silent on this issue. The central focus of this study lies in chapters four, five and six. Chapter four explores what the church can do about the crisis and the responsibility of ELCRN towards its members with regards to the moral sexual behaviour of members. Chapter five discusses the prevention necessary and the precaution any methods women need and the necessity of rape survivors understanding rape as a crime and reporting it to the police. Chapter six explores and validates the use of the ABCD method of crisis counselling by the counsellor to support the rape survivor in coping with the crisis.
Thesis (M.Th.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

This research aims to investigatethe relationship between rape survivors levels of distress, coping style, health profile and immune system. Psychoneuroimmunology, an interdisciplinary field of study, is employed as a framework to understand the relationship between the levels of distress, coping style, health profile and the immune system A sample of 36 rape survivors was initially recruited for this study. However data collected from a sample of 12 female rape survivors was selected for this research. These participants completed questionnaires measuring levels of distress, impact of the event, recent life changes and health profile at time 1 (5 days post rape), time 2 (15 days post rape) and time 3 (35 days post rape) . the immunological measures included CD 3, CD 4, CD 8, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, lymphocytes, white cell count, platelets and mv(time 1 only). The results revealed significant relationships between levels of distress and immune parameters; health profile and immune parameters; ways of coping and immune parameters and levels of distress and immune parameters. Significant differences were obtained for CD 4 5 (p= 0.039) between time 1 and time 2, as well as between time 2 and time 3. A significant difference (p = 0.039) was noted for platelets between time 2 and time 3. The levels of distress were raised at time 2. Observation ofeach participant revealed no dramatic changes across time 1, 2 and 3. When a person is subjected to rape, heightened levels of distress are experienced 15 days post rape. Rape survivors experience changes in the levels of distress , health profile, ways of coping and immune parameters over a 35 days post rape period.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

This thesis looks at how relevant 2 Corinthians 5:18-21 and Romans 5:1-11 is for bringing about reconciliation between victims and offenders in serious crime. Their relevance is discussed in the light of a psychological model of rape trauma and recovery and the real experiences of rape victims and rape offenders. The crime of rape is used and examined paradigmatically for serious crime as a whole. I contend in this thesis that reconciliation between victims and offenders, in serious crime, can promote healing, especially if it is done through careful mediation.
Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Text in English
The purpose of this study was to explore factors contributing to poor reporting of rape by school going adolescents. A qualitative descriptive study was conducted among the 16-19 year old school going adolescents in grade 10-12 living in Matsulu Township of South Africa. Data collection was done using audio-taped semi-structured focus group discussions and individual interviews. Non-probability sampling was utilised for the study and purposive sampling was used to identify participants. Content analysis as proposed by Polit and Beck (2012:557) was utilised for this study. The study’s findings indicated that non-reporting of rape by adolescents is linked to structural, psychological, socio-cultural and economic causes. The study recommends that a comprehensive integrated approach should be used.
Health Studies
M. A. (Nursing Science)

Facilitating forgiveness: an NLP approach to forgiving is an attempt at uncovering features of the blocks that prevent people to forgive. These blocks to forgiveness can be detected in the real life situations of the six individuals who told me their stories. The inner thoughts, feelings and the subsequent behaviour that prevented them from forgiving others is clearly uncovered in their stories. The facilitation process highlights the features that created the blocks in the past thus preventing forgiveness to occur. The blocks with their accompanying features reveal what needs to be clarified or changed in order to eventually enable the hurt individuals to forgive those who have hurt them. The application of discourse analysis to the stories of hurt highlights the links between the real life stories of the individuals within their contexts with regard to unforgiveness to the research findings of the existing body of knowledge, thereby creating a complexly interwoven comprehensive understanding of the individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours in conjunction with their developmental phases within their socio-cultural contexts. Neuro-linguistic-programming (NLP) is the instrument with which forgiving is facilitated in the six individuals who expressed their conscious desire to forgive, because they were unable to do so on their own. Their emotions had the habit of keeping them in a place in which they were forced to relive the hurtful event as if it were happening in the present. Arresting the process of reliving negative emotions requires a new way of being in this world. The assumption that this can be learnt is based on the results from a previous study, in which forgiveness was uncovered by means of the grounded theory approach as a cognitive process (Von Krosigk, 2000). The results from the previous research in conjunction with the results and insights from this research study are presented in the form of a grounded theory model of forgiveness.
Psychology
D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of forensic nurses when providing care to victims of sexual assault in selected public hospitals of Limpopo province. Methods: A qualitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual research design was employed in this study. A sample of 7 registered nurses was purposively selected to partake in in-depth unstructured interviews. Results: Four themes associated with the experience of providing care to victims of sexual assaults emerged during data analysis. These included (1) psychological experiences of nursing victims of sexual assault, (2) physical challenges associated with implementing the forensic nursing specialty in a clinical setting, (3) psychological coping strategies to deal with challenges experienced, and (4) the experience of managerial support. Conclusion: Participants reported negative psychological and physical experiences of providing care to victims of sexual assault, which resulted to occupational stress. Recommendations of forensic nurses support guidelines and further research were made.
Health Studies
M.A. (Health Studies)

This research focused on the personal experiences of both male and female victims of violent crimes. The aim of this research was to explore how indigenous Black South Africans understand and deal with victimisation. An African epistemology was used to help gain a deeper understanding of the experiences of the participants. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling strategy. Five participants were selected for this study. Data was collected using individual face-to-face semi-structured interviews. Based on the transcribed data, themes were extracted and analysed using content analysis. The results indicate that participants attributed varying meanings to their victimisation.
Psychology
M. A. (Clinical Psychology)