Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Psychology, Counseling|Psychology, Clinical'

This study examined the relationship between compassion fatigue, how Cognitive Behavioral oriented therapists are, self-efficacy, how positively respondents viewed their time spent in therapy, and caseload. Surveys were mailed out to 400 doctorate level clinical psychologists licensed in Kentucky, Illinois, and Missouri. Respondents completed the Compassion Fatigue Self-Test for Psychotherapists, a demographics form, and a self-efficacy measure. Results indicated that the more positive therapists viewed their time spent in therapy, the lower their risk for compassion fatigue. Also, analyses found that clinicians who reported having a higher percentage of clients with a personality disorder diagnosis would be a higher risk for compassion fatigue.

Clinical utility has been offered by numerous researchers as a criterion for understanding the value of diagnostic constructs, but it does not yet have a standard operational definition or recommended forms of measurement. The construct has significant overlap with diagnostic validity and it is possible that sub-domains of clinical utility may emerge that would contribute to development of a scale which could assess for improvements and degradations following nosological revisions, and also provide opportunity for cross-analysis with alternative systems of mental health diagnosis. Therefore, the present study collected survey data from psychologists about the clinical utility of the DSM-5, using online data collection and quantitative methods. Seven questions of clinical utility were rated using a 5 point likert scale for each of the DSM-5's diagnostic categories and for the DSM-5 as an overall nosology. Descriptive data, internal consistency and inter-item correlations were analyzed so that results could help address research questions posed about the clinical utility of the DSM-5's diagnostic categories, the merits of DSM-5 when compared to DSM-IV, and additional recommendations regarding optimal measurement of the clinical utility of diagnostic constructs.

This phenomenological study examined first-generation Latina women who developed a bicultural strategy when choosing professional careers. A qualitative research methodology sought to analyze the participants’ academic and career planning journey, the challenges they encountered, the support they received from their families, and how utilizing a bicultural strategy aided them in attaining their career goals. Five Latina women were interviewed with ages ranging from 30 to 50. Several key findings were found to be congruent with research literature such as acculturation influence on ethnic identity, ethnic identity as protective factors from discrimination, and the influence of traditional cultural values in pursuing college careers. Data was analyzed through the lens of developmental and acculturation theories. The findings revealed the participants’ demonstrated bicultural competence in how they negotiated with their families for support, and how they separated from their families influence to support their own professional goals. Family support was a significant factor for the participants’ successful navigation of career goals. Minimal family support revealed participants compensating by achieving higher standards for themselves. Based on the results of this study it is recommended that academic counselors and psychotherapists recognize the difficulty of Latina women living between two worlds and make efforts to increase their sensitivity of cultural gender role pressures that influence their career decisions.

The study examined the sense of self-efficacy that clergy experience while providing pastoral care by analyzing 104 pastors' responses to the Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES). The variables that predicted higher self-efficacy scores included the number of years the participant worked as a pastor, the number of hours spent each week in counseling activities, and the number of counseling/pastoral care courses completed during seminary or pastoral training. Training with clinical pastoral education (CPE) and lay counseling activities, however, predicted lower CASES scores. This regression model accounted for 29% of the variance in CASES scores. Clergy reported significantly lower self-efficacy in their counseling skills in the Counseling Challenges factor of the CASES than in the Helping Skills and Session Management factors. This suggests that the pastors experience the lowest counseling self-efficacy (CSE) when faced with challenges such as severe psychopathology or manipulative individuals. The results carry implications for the training and continuing education that is offered to clergy. The study suggests that it could be beneficial with clergy training to focus on the areas in which CSE was lowest and on the variables that are associated with higher CSE.

The anima and animus are central concepts in Jungian psychology and play important roles in individuation, gender identity and presentation, and the experience and development of love and relationships. Although they are important concepts, the anima and animus (collectively called the syzygy) are limited in their capability to describe the psyche of many individuals who do not meet expectations set in place by current hegemonic normativity. Rather, the Jungian concept of the syzygy reflects a structured archetypal pattern that has emerged from a crystallization of archetypal constellations. This thesis uses hermeneutics to examine how emerging relationship configurations and dynamics in polyamorous relationships reflect and contribute to emergent archetypal patterns and dynamics. In doing so, this thesis suggests a reconceptualization of the syzygy drawing on concepts from polytheistic psychology, archetypal emergence, and other sources of knowledge.

This production thesis investigates the unique and valuable role image creation can play in the exploration of inner psychological processes. The alchemical operations provide rich metaphors for particular psychological stages. Using artistic-creative and heuristic methodologies, specific alchemical operations are explored through research, amplification, and, ultimately, an experiential creative process. The importance of image as a natural expression of psyche and the particular benefits of working with images as a means to psychological insight are realized through image making. The entire production process is examined as a means to increased insight regarding the alchemical process, inner psychological experiences, and the natural bridges between psychological and creative processes. This first-hand exploration of psychological processes through image demonstrates that imaginal work can be a source for emergent meaning, evoke affect, access and embrace multiple meanings, provide perspective on both personal and archetypal levels, and ultimately serve as a vehicle for personal transformation.

Two of the hallmark symptoms for psychosis are hallucinations and delusions, indicating to mental health practitioners that the person is experiencing a form of nonconsensual reality. These patients are not given the same opportunities to collaborate in planning for their treatment as those who are being treated for other conditions. Psychosis is a condition with myriad and controversial theories of etiology and treatment, leading to great variation in treatment outcomes. This research offers a perspective on the subjective experience of people being treated for psychosis in the modern mental health system in the United States by documenting how they think and feel about the treatment they are receiving. The method of inquiry was an interpretative phenomenological analysis with six people responding to 15 questions in a semi-structured interview that included questions about what has been beneficial and not beneficial in accessing therapeutic support for their distressing experiences and what advice they would give to mental health workers.

All participants reported having a positive experience in the study, which indicates the value of asking people about their mental health treatment. Several of the participants explicitly stated that they had never shared, much less had been asked to share, their experiences of treatment throughout sometimes decades of having received treatment for a mental health diagnosis. Advice participants wished to give to mental health workers included being more compassionate and expressing authentic caring, encouraging recovery as opposed to dependency, and instilling hope. Some benefits of current treatments noted by participants included frequent contact with mental health workers in a range of capacities including the development of relaxation skills and activities of daily living (ADLs), family therapy, and individual psychotherapy. This research indicates the following areas for improvement in the treatment of psychosis: focusing on the development of the therapeutic relationship, including active listening and authentic concern; including the patient in the development of goal setting and treatment planning; and focusing on recovery with an attitude of hope.

The purpose of this research study was to determine the effects of Fostering Resilience™ (FR), a new integrative relapse prevention group protocol for improving relapse risk, internalized shame, and psychological well-being in adults with substance use disorders (SUD). This study also sought to identify any relationship among relapse risk, internalized shame, and psychological well-being. It is the first study to investigate the new FR manualized program model compared to treatment as usual (TAU). The FR model was created based upon direct client experience, the supposition of the intrinsic role shame plays in SUD, and the corresponding belief in the essential value of implementing shame reduction techniques for improving treatment outcomes. Participants were 43 adults with SUD (19 FR and 24 TAU) seeking outpatient treatment. All participants received the 8-week intensive outpatient (IOP) treatment, with the FR group receiving 16 sessions of the manualized FR relapse prevention group protocol in lieu of other TAU group options. Assessments were administered pre and post-intervention.

Results indicated that the FR treatment group produced a significant reduction in relapse risk (p = .002, ES = .825), shame (p = .004, ES = .763), and psychological well-being (p = .008, ES = .679) from baseline to post-intervention, while the TAU comparison group produced a non-significant improvement in relapse risk (p = .209, ES = .264), shame (p = 055, ES = .409) and psychological well-being (p = .088, ES = .456). Correlation results indicated highly significant correlations between all the dependent variables. All correlations dropped post-intervention, although remained significant. The strongest relationship was found between shame and relapse risk at baseline: ALL (n = 43, r = .880), FR n = 19, r = .869), TAU n = 24, r = .908). This preliminary study establishes support for the new FR model as a beneficial treatment for significantly improving relapse risk, internalized shame, and psychological well-being in adults with SUD. It also provides important knowledge and insight regarding the critical nature of shame and its role relative to relapse risk and psychological well-being in those with SUD.

The purpose of this study was to explore the evolution of the self in the context of becoming a psychotherapist. The subjective experiences of neophyte psychotherapists in their development toward the establishment of an integrated therapist identity were examined. Furthermore, the participants’ unique experiences of transformative change during their initial clinical encounters were analyzed for the purpose of addressing how the trainee moves through the variously proposed models of therapist identity development. Interpretive phenomenological analysis provided the ability to analyze the detailed recall of 6 participants’ subjective experiences via an open-ended, semistructured interview. First encounters with new patients, learning to manage the emotional interplay with patients, gaining confidence and self-awareness, presenting authentically with patients, personal upbringing, and the experience of a shift in their identity as a psychotherapist remained the generalized areas of focus. The reported anxieties related to the need to be a savior paralleling familial roles with possible failure. The movement through this coincided with a shift in what it means to be a therapist along with an increased sense of self-awareness, giving way to the possibility of presenting authentically with patients. Personal virtues acting as insulators in the face of overwhelming anxiety were seen as contributors to moving toward an integration of personal and professional identities. Finally, the implications of the findings and the impact of the insights gained were examined in regard to optimizing training and supervision of neophyte psychotherapists in an effort to increase quality of services provided.

Self-forgiveness is an emotion focused coping mechanism that increases positive emotions and behaviors. Self-forgiveness has been found to be moderated by guilt and shame in support of Hall and Finchman’s theory on the emotional components of self-forgiveness. Men and women recovering from alcohol addiction have been found to struggle with shame and guilt, however, little is understood about this association. This quantitative correlational non-experimental research study investigated the relationship between self-forgiveness and risk of relapse in adults who were recovering from alcohol abuse, how shame and guilt moderated this relationship and how this relationship differed by gender. Anonymous surveys were conducted in two treatment centres and two Alcoholic Anonymous recovery meetings in the city of Calgary. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, The Heartland Forgiveness Scale, Alcohol Risk of Relapse Scale, and the Guilt and Shame Proneness Scale. Multiple regression and moderation analyses were conducted to test the study hypotheses. Self-forgiveness was found to have a non-significant relationship with risk of relapse (β = .040, p < .720) and the scores did not differ by gender [Male (β = –.061, p < .641), and Female (β = –.0.17, p < .937)]. Shame (F (3, 79) = .614, p = .608), and guilt (F (3, 79) = 7.244, p = .000) did not have a moderating effect on the relationship between self-forgiveness and the risk of relapse. When shame and guilt interacted with self-forgiveness in predicting risk of relapse, the results did not differ by gender [Male (F (4, 55) = 5.770, p = .001), and female (F (4, 18) = .580, p = .681)]. However, a result not hypothesized in the study was found among male participants that guilt was predictive of risk of relapse ( F (3, 56) = 7.595, p = .000). This study highlights the impact of maladaptive guilt that maintains the cycle of addiction. Clinicians can utilize this knowledge to employ strategies of eliminating maladaptive guilt in psychotherapy. Further research is needed to determine if these results could be replicated with other demographic groups to identify other plausible mechanisms between self-forgiveness at risk of relapse.

Adolescents who sexually offend are highly diverse both in risk factors as well as inner resources. Utilizing the BERS-2-YRS, the AAQ, and the J-SOAP-II, 38 adjudicated adolescents convicted of a sexual offense in secure care were assessed to determine which protective factors are correlated with reduced sexual re-offense risk. This study also explored how adolescents who have only committed a sexual offense (sex-only) differ from adolescents who have committed a sexual offense in addition to other delinquent behavior (sex-plus). Results indicated that sex-only adolescents demonstrate a significantly lower sexual recidivism risk and have greater affective strength compared to sex-plus adolescents. The sex-only sub-group also demonstrated large correlations for reduced sexual recidivism risk along five protective factors found on the BERS-2-YRS.

This hermeneutic and alchemical hermeneutic dissertation reviews Jungian literature related to body-based methods of practicing depth psychotherapy to address the problem of extremely limited body-based Jungian psychotherapeutic modalities. It goes on to offer explanations of the various psychological aspects of four of the five Elements within Chinese medicine. It then offers four sequences of Five Element Archetypal Qigong (FEAQ) related to the four Elements previously addressed: Wood, Fire, Metal and Water. It concludes with a discussion of findings and recommendations for future research and practice. Essentially, this dissertation uses the psychological concepts and insights contained in Chinese medicine to show how they can be applied to Jungian psychotherapy through the moving meditation of FEAQ. Body-based psychotherapies constitute a minuscule fraction of the literature and practice modalities within Jungian psychotherapy. This dissertation begins the process of increasing the validity and prevalence of body-based Jungian psychotherapy. It also implies the need for further research on the applicability of Chinese medical concepts to contemporary Western body oriented psychotherapies.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the supervisory alliance and trainee disclosure of clinically relevant events in supervision (events related to the supervisory functions of enhancing trainee competence and ensuring client welfare). Three hundred and six predoctoral psychology interns (N = 306; 79.1% female, 19.0% male; 79.7% white, 6.2% Asian/Pacific Islander, 3.9% African American/Black, 3.9% Hispanic/Latino, and 3.6% biracial/multiracial) completed a web-based self-report questionnaire assessing comfort with and likelihood of disclosure of clinically relevant events in supervision, supervisory alliance bond, and demographic items. A novel self-report questionnaire was created for the purposes of this investigation in order to assess the disclosure of clinical events related to functions of supervision. Analyses revealed statistically significant positive correlations between (a) the supervisory alliance and comfort with disclosure and (b) the supervisory alliance and likelihood of disclosure of clinically relevant events. These results build on past findings regarding the salience of the supervisory alliance and more explicitly connect disclosure in supervision to the dimension of bond. These results have implications for trainee competence and client care. Implications for clinical supervision practice and directions for future research are explored.

From a positive psychology perspective, humor can be viewed as an adaptive strength, an important aspect of holistic health, and a potentially beneficial coping mechanism in the face of stressful or traumatic events. Existing research generally supports the idea that individuals can manage threatening situations by turning them into something that can be laughed at, although the effectiveness of such humor use is dependent on contextual factors and the specific forms of humor that are used (e.g., aggressive versus benign humor). However, there is minimal research on how trauma survivors actually express humor in therapy, particularly in the context of difficult or traumatic subject matter.

Accordingly, the purpose of the current study was to qualitatively explore expressions of humor in therapy with trauma survivors. A sample of 5 client-participants from community counseling centers was selected, and videotaped therapy sessions involving trauma discussions for each client-participant were analyzed. A qualitative and deductive content analysis was employed, using a coding system that was created based on existing literature on humor and psychology, to examine verbal expressions of humor and laughter in psychotherapy sessions with trauma survivors. The results indicated that client-participants deliberately used and responded to humor both verbally and in the form of laughter in psychotherapy sessions, and most frequently in the context of serious, difficult, or traumatic topics. Client verbal expressions of humor (VEH) frequently consisted of different combinations of Dark, Aggressive, and/or Self-Deprecatory Humor. Client-participants were also found to laugh almost twice as often as they produced a VEH, and their therapists laughed along with them about half the time. Last, therapists often laughed inappropriately and outside the context of any identifiable humor (VEH or laughter) in their work with trauma survivors.

It is hoped that this study will raise awareness around the issue of client humor use in therapy, humor use in coping with stressful or traumatic events, and cultural variations in humor use. The findings have implications for clinical training and shed light on the use of potentially maladaptive forms of humor in therapy, an area of study that has been almost entirely neglected.

This qualitative phenomenological study explored the experiences of people with relational trauma in NeuroAffective Relational Model (NARM), a somatically based psychotherapy. Utilizing an interdisciplinary approach of depth psychotherapy, neuroscience, attachment, and somatic therapy, the literature review examined the multifaceted impact of relational trauma and the mechanisms of implicit memory and somatic psychotherapy. The literature review also presented verbal and nonverbal therapeutic actions that theoretically support processes of change for the psychotherapy patient. Although much has been written theoretically about the psychotherapy patient’s experience, there has been scant qualitative research from the perspective of the psychotherapy patient.

The researcher conducted interviews with six individuals who had been in NARM therapy to contribute to our understanding of the experience of the somatic, cognitive, emotional, and relational processes in the clinical dyad. The research participants included four females and two males, ranging in age from 30 to 63 years old. Using Giorgi’s phenomenological method, interview transcripts were analyzed. Essential constituents were made explicit, and a refined structural description synthesizing the NARM patients’ common experience was developed.

The research identified 11 constituents that comprise the essential structure of the lived embodied experience of being in NARM therapy. They include (a) the patient connects to his inner experience of emotions, thoughts, and sensations; (b) the therapist finely attunes to the patient; (c) the therapy experience is present focused; (d) the body and its expressions and sensations are tracked and incorporated; (e) images facilitate the patient’s process; (f) the patient’s movements are enacted and processed; (g) the patient experiences a new embodied authentic sense of self; (h) the patient’s personal resources are highlighted; (i) metaphor supports the patient’s process; (j) the therapy experience is titrated; (k) relational patterns are explored.

The study suggests the value and efficacy of a resource oriented, integrative, psychobiological therapeutic approach which supports affect regulation for patients exploring implicit and explicit processes of self that were shaped by relational trauma. The research indicates that a holistic divergent discourse supports organization, integration and individuation

Key words: relational trauma, somatic psychotherapy, implicit memory, depth psychology

Clinical terminology and definitions regarding trauma, retraumatization, and their residual symptoms are numerous and sometimes conflictual. This thesis uses a heuristic and hermeneutic methodology to explore the author’s experiences of what he has termed traumatic reactivation, due to the inconsistency and inaccuracy of the available clinical terminology. These traumatic reactivations are examined through various psychological lenses. The techniques of association and amplification are used regarding the experiences to identify archetypal dynamics that may have been present. The experience of traumatic reactivation is also explored with C. G. Jung’s theory of psychological types, as well as with specific connections between psyche and soma. The thesis eventually posits that these experiences, although initially shocking and overwhelming, have a purposive function and are in the service of healing, rather than a destructive reexperiencing of traumatic material.

Research has shown that providing therapy clients with a treatment consistent with their preferences can increase the effectiveness of the therapy, possibly by reducing the dropout rate or by increasing the level of therapeutic alliance. Client preference and spirituality/religion were identified as two of four areas that can be responsibly adapted to the client while still maintaining evidence based practice. The purpose of this study is to examine if an individual who reports as highly spiritual will prefer a mindfulness based therapy (Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy) over a traditional evidence based treatment (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy).

Although one-third of partners in couple therapy have experienced childhood abuse, our field has developed few specific interventions that address the lingering effects of child abuse on current couple dynamics. A common impact on adult survivors is the struggle to trust their intimate partner. Furthermore, asymmetrical gendered power processes often erode trust. Given the propensity for adult-survivor couples to experience a distrusting emotional culture, this dissertation studied the effect of gendered power dynamics on trust in partner interactions, as well as identified clinical processes of Socio-Emotional Relationship Therapy (SERT) that helped adult-survivor couples change power disparities to a mutually supportive and trusting emotional culture.

This dissertation includes two publishable papers. The first article articulates relational trust theory, which integrates feminist, social constructionist views with relational ethics. This theoretical conceptualization describes how the intermingling of gendered power interactions and adult-survivor power responses negatively impact emotional connection. The second article presents the results of a longitudinal grounded theory study of video and transcripts of 40 SERT sessions with four heterosexual adult-survivor couples. The findings from the research were applied to an additional four couples to refine the final grounded theory on how to work with the intersection of trust, gender, and power issues of adult-survivor couples. Three key themes on gendered power processes emerged: 1) gendered fear of being vulnerable, 2) unique gendered power approaches, and 3) distrustful reactions. The analysis identifies five key clinical processes to enhance trust: 1) recognize gendered power’s effects on relational safety, 2) comprehend the socio-emotional experience of partners, 3) accentuate relational needs, 4) initiate partners sharing power, and 5) identify trustworthiness of partners. The study also delineates components of relational vulnerability that augment trust.

The final dissertation chapter compares the findings from the grounded theory analysis to current CFT models with adult-survivor couples and discusses clinical implications for addressing the complex interplay of gender, power, and trust in partner interactions. A significant contribution of this dissertation is a better understanding of the link of trust with gender and power dynamics in adult-survivor intimate relationships and how to sensitively address relational processes interfering with trust.

Factors that affect alliance and outcome in couple therapy are crucial to the therapeutic process, yet currently research on this is scarce. The current study sought to expand the knowledge of alliance and outcome in couple therapy by analyzing the effect motivation has on alliance and outcome. Results of this study found that there was a significant correlation between motivation and alliance and that baseline motivation has a significant effect on outcomes. Other variables such as level of client distress were also explored and found to be related to motivation, alliance and outcome. Altogether, the findings of this study indicate that partners' levels of motivation have important implications for the therapeutic alliance and outcome in couple therapy.

There is significant anecdotal evidence of a growing number of psychoanalytically trained practitioners adapting aspects of the internal family systems (IFS) model into their clinical practice. The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of how these therapists make sense of their approach. Data were collected in the form of semi-structured interviews with practitioners and analyzed using constructivist grounded theory. Eleven participants revealed a wide array of experiences that were theoretically conceptualized within a unified framework. Three themes emerged from the data analysis process: (a) therapists' relationships with experiential IFS practice, (b) the therapist-client relationship, and (c) IFS/psychoanalytic hybrid theory. Therapists' relationships with experiential IFS work were found to be diverse and complex, but related to their own experiences in the role of client. Therapists' feelings about the perceived lack of theory underpinning the IFS model were related to their stated relationships with intellectual protector parts. Therapists' feelings about the clinical utility of the therapist-client relationship were complex and tended to deviate from the canonical IFS model in ways that are consistent with the psychodynamic use of the relationship in treatment. Specifically, participants described using the therapist-client relationship to facilitate parts work, many viewed part-to-part relating between therapist and client as providing significant clinical information, and they cited a belief in the importance of using IFS-based psychoeducation and interpretations to help clients gain insight into their internal dynamics. Finally, the ways in which therapists combine the IFS model and psychoanalytical theory into a new, hybrid theory is described, including a view of the unconscious as populated by IFS phenomena, viewing clinical stuckness as related to early psychological trauma that requires experiential work to abate, and the view of the Self-to-part healing relationship in the IFS model through an attachment theory lens. It is proposed that the IFS model traverses divides across the major psychoanalytic models. This may reduce feelings of foreignness among psychodynamic practitioners and create a fertile ground in which hybrid theory can grow. The limitations of this study and implications for practice, training, and further research are discussed.

Over the centuries, the meaning of wonder has decayed substantially. An immense distance and complex history lie between Socrates' declaration that wisdom begins in wonder and the commercialism of today's Wonder Bread, Wonderbra and Wonderful World of Disney. Since few have considered wonder to be a psychologically significant experience, scholarship in this area has been negligible. Yet, amidst the travails of living, experiences of wonder can constitute transformational epiphanies and unlatch the flow of life through deepening subjectivity; magnifying perceptions; amplifying sensitivity to beauty; expanding horizons; recognizing the extraordinary in the ordinary; intuiting the sacred in the secular; and promoting possibility, delight, reverence, and gratefulness for the gift of life.

This dissertation contemplates the dimensions of the experience of wonder; wonder's connection to soul; and how we might attune to wonder. Since wonder is both the condition and the primary principle of the phenomenological reduction (van Manen, 1990, p. 185), several scholars concur that no adequate method exists for researching wonder, for it entails a recursive paradox of wondering about the wonderment of wonder, with wonder having the first and last word. Therefore, this work adopts a mixed method, combining depth psychological and phenomenological approaches with hermeneutically amplified heuristic inquiry. The researcher's experience of wonder provides the primary data, and multi-disciplinary texts serve to unfold this data.

The findings identify wonder's key themes, characteristics, valences, and nuances, and ways to attune and attend to wonder's presence, both inside and outside the consulting room. Ultimately, the study personifies wonder as a feminine voice of soul, and advocates her inclusion in depth psychotherapy as integral to its honoring of tending the soul, the etymological root of psychotherapy itself. Wonder reveals herself as an ineffable encounter with existence and the world, an epiphany of embodied, archetypal resonance between the individual's soul and the soul of the world, when "the universe shivers in the depths of the human" (Swimme, 1985, p. 32). This study, embracing knowledge as beginning and ending in wonder, grants her the final word.

Key words: Wonder, soul, resonance, epiphany, ineffability, attunement, attentiveness, unknowing, aesthesis, intuition.

Unemployment has been shown to have detrimental effects on the physical, psychological, and emotional health of unemployed men and women living in the United States. The purpose of this study was study the impact of long-term unemployment on a specific population of unemployed individuals, namely middle-aged, managerial-level U.S. males who had been involuntarily terminated from their employment.

This study found four main themes and subthemes related to the phenomenon. First, it was uncovered that the men had a shared Premonition of their eventual job loss. The second theme, Effects of Separation, detailed shared emotional, psychological, and physical effects the experience of being involuntarily separated and living through long-term unemployment had on the men. The symptoms presented in this study were categorized in subthemes of Initial Distress, Long-Term Distress, Duration of Distress, the Impact of Loss of Structure/Routine, Identity Changes, and at times some of the participants Switched to a Second-Person Narration.

The third theme, Coping with Unemployment, discussed shared strategies the men utilized to cope with their long-term unemployment experience including Retrospective Coping, Talking about the Experience Helps, Helping Others, Building Hope, and Understanding the Context of Unemployment: Age Discrimination, a subtheme that includes some participants' fears of age discrimination in their job search. The fourth and final main theme, Not Ready to Retire, noted how each of these men felt that he was not ready to retire—all five participants wanted an opportunity to work again for a variety of different reasons beyond just earning an income.

Additionally, this study explores how midlife can present itself as an opportunity for one to become more generative in the world. Unemployment can signify the beginning of a midlife crisis that ultimately may result in a re-imagining of self and re-orientation in the world. Finally, the study details ways in which this research was a result of an inspiration: an imaginal figure, Pirate, who introduced this area of research and continued to guide and inform the work throughout its completion.

Over the last several decades lawmaking in the United States has mostly been punitive in nature with respect to crime that is linked to addiction. As a result of the enormous cost to society in punishing individuals with an addiction, the criminal justice system has increasingly collaborated with the mental health establishment to treat the individual’s core addiction associated with crime. The programs of probation and parole having increasingly been used help people with addiction the opportunity to succeed within their community. The role of internal motivation for substance abuse treatment has predicted treatment retention, decreased relapse rates, and more positive outcomes. However, the literature is minimal in regards to the relationship between external motivation and internal motivation in these highly coerced environments. This study examined how external motivation may influence internal motivation within the parole and probation populations.

Objective: Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS) and Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder associated with Streptococcal infections (PANDAS) are relatively new diagnoses steeped in interest and debate. While much of the research has been conducted in the medical – particularly neurological – field, little has been researched through the psychology field. Despite the fact that symptoms consist of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), tic and movement disorders, Autism Spectrum features, and more, the psychology field appears to be lacking in educating psychologists of PANS/PANDAS. This lack of knowledge puts children at risk as the presentation of symptoms look similar to purely psychiatric disorders. Having this knowledge is important as the treatment for PANS/PANDAS differs significantly from the psychiatric treatments for the symptoms. A wrong diagnosis can lead to delays in treatment, putting children at risk for further possible neurological damage.

Psychological trauma causes distress to the mind and body. The human body is designed to move, and thus, the use of movement can be beneficial in many forms of therapy. This thesis utilizes a hermeneutic and heuristic methodology to investigate how dance movement therapy can be an effective modality for treating the impact of trauma. The literature review presents research on the effect of trauma on the body and the methods of dance movement therapy that may apply in treatment. Current research is discussed in examining the mind?body connection related to trauma. From a depth psychological perspective, the use of movement is explored as a therapeutic way of accessing and releasing repressed or unconscious emotions and memories associated with trauma. The author?s personal experience contributes to the findings of the research, which present clear evidence of the benefits that dance movement provides in the psychotherapeutic treatment of trauma.

This thesis examines the topic of the psychological function of loneliness. An alchemical hermeneutic research methodology is utilized to compare established theories on the topic to the researcher’s experience. From a contemporary cognitive behavioral perspective, the distress of loneliness has no psychological function. Insecure attachment patterns, schizoid personality structures, introverted personality typologies, subjectivity, and projection appear to influence susceptibility to intense or prolonged loneliness. Analytical psychology describes isolation as a necessary condition of the individuation process, and archetypal psychology identifies loneliness as an immanent psychological phenomenon. This thesis explores the depth psychological observation that the modern, rational psyche’s alienation from its irrational, autonomous animating images contributes to experiences of loneliness. Loneliness as a functional symptom of the ego’s unconscious need to form symbolic relationships to collective and archetypal psychological dynamics is considered. The standard clinical treatment for loneliness of socialization is critically examined.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand how siblings of individuals with schizophrenia understand the symptoms and problems that an individual diagnosed with schizophrenia experiences. Although there is, as of yet, no consensual model of normalcy or of psychopathology, models are important because they have implications for clinical practice. In regards to schizophrenia specifically, clinicians and researchers have asserted the importance of the family in the development and course of the disorder. Siblings may offer a unique viewpoint as they may experience or have experienced sub-clinical schizophrenia-related symptoms themselves.

Five individuals who have a sibling diagnosed with schizophrenia were interviewed about how they conceptualize their siblings’ experiences and problems. The interviews were analyzed with Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. A total of sixteen emergent themes from the interviews are discussed, some of which include very different, still the same; struggle to understand; “that thing;” “vigilant, careful, cautious;” still love and care; and alienation from self and others. Several components of the themes indicate that participants had both a categorical and a dimensional model of their siblings’ problems. Future research regarding gaining a greater understanding of how people conceptualize the problems and experiences of those diagnosed with schizophrenia and clinical applications are also discussed.

Literature extolling the psychological benefits of self-forgiveness is robust, yet there are no evidence-based models for facilitating self-forgiveness in individual psychotherapy. Further, there is no consensus in the literature on the definition of self-forgiveness. This quantitative, survey-based study examined licensed clinicians’ (N=57) perceptions of the efficacy of self-forgiveness treatment interventions, their preferred definitions of self-forgiveness, and how frequently treatment methodologies were utilized. Correlational analyses examined the relationship between clinicians’ definitions, perceptions of efficacy, and frequencies of use of self-forgiveness methods and the clinicians’ demographic factors (theoretical orientation, type of licensure, age, years of clinical experience, and type of training). Hong and Jacinto’s (2012) definition was the most frequently chosen (36.8%), followed by Hulnick and Hulnick’s (2011) definition (35.1%). Most clinicians (57.9%) were not familiar with any of the various treatment methods. Among clinicians familiar enough to rate the methods, Hulnick and Hulnick’s (2011) method received the highest efficacy rating (M = 4.11, SD = 1.17), followed by Enright et al. (1996) method (M = 3.67, SD = 0.71). The most frequently used were Jacinto and Edwards’ (2011) method ( M = 2.09, SD = 1.35) and Hulnick and Hulnick’s (2011) method (M = 2.04, SD = 1.58). Correlations were significant for theoretical orientation and source of training; theoretical orientation provided the largest explanation for variance. Implications for future research, clinical training, and development of evidence-based treatment modalities are discussed. Linkage between self-forgiveness and remediating shame, recidivism, spiritual psychology, and Jungian psychology are reviewed. Keywords: self-forgiveness, psychotherapy, counseling psychology, spiritual psychology, quantitative study

Many forms of distance clinical supervision (DCS) have been used in the last decade, but a sparse amount of research addressing (DCS) in counselor education exists to date. The author used random and snowball sampling to survey American Counseling Association members, with a analytic sample total of 96 participants. In the sample, 54.2% of participants were licensed counseling professionals and 39.6% were student or post-masters level interns. The average participant age was 43, ranging from 23 to 74 years. Participants had a mean of 8.1 years of experience. A total of 37.5% of participants had used DCS at some point for supervision sessions. Overall, participants have a positive attitude toward DCS, agreeing most that DCS is a valid form of supervision and that they are interested in learning about DCS. Overall, participants are being minimally exposed to DCS (x¯ = 1.61). A moderate, negative relationship (r = -.39, p < .001) exists between individuals whom have used DCS and attitudes toward DCS (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003, p. 52). Also, a weak, negative relationship (r = -.23, p < .05) was found between individuals who have used DCS and their level of exposure to DCS. There is a limited amount of literature related to DCS and counseling professionals are being minimally exposed to distance clinical supervision. Despite limited exposure and literature, professionals are still using DCS to conduct supervision sessions. Therefore, it would seem important to increase research focused on DCS and develop relevant practices in order for DCS to be an effective form of supervision.

This study examined the effect of clinical supervision on job satisfaction and burnout among school psychologists in large urban school districts in Florida. The theory of work adjustment, Maslach and Jackson’s three-dimensional model of burnout, and Atkinson and Woods’s triadic model of supervision were the theoretical foundations and/or conceptual frameworks used in this study. The two research questions that guided this study addressed the effect of the receipt of clinical supervision on job satisfaction and burnout among school psychologists in large urban school districts. The study was conducted with a convenient sample of 75 school psychologists from a target population of 330 who were primarily working as practitioners within the school districts. An online survey was created with demographic questions, the short-form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ-sf), and the Maslach Burnout Inventory–Educators Survey (MBI-ES). The MSQ-sf has an overall scale of job satisfaction that was computed. The MBI-ES is comprised of three subscales: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. The subscale total scores were calculated for each MBI-ES dimension. The Mann-Whitney U test revealed no statistically significant difference in job satisfaction between the two groups (U = 736, z = 1.783, p = .075). The MANOVA did not reflect a significant difference in burnout between the two groups, F(3,71) = .657, p = .581; Pillai’s Trace = .027; partial η² = .027.

Extra-marital affairs are common in the US and frequently result in difficulties for individuals, families, and society as a whole. Empirical research on the topic is problematic. There is no universally accepted psychological definition of what behaviors or experiences constitute an affair; there are value-laden assumptions about marriage and affairs that are not usually questioned as part of the design or discussion of studies; and, there are non-trivial non-response biases in sampling on the topic. As a result there is a lack of meaningful psychological understanding of affairs and a dearth of evidence to support clear treatment directions for those who seek psychotherapy for this common issue. In an attempt to understand the essential psychological structure of the beginning of affairs, a descriptive phenomenological psychological study of the experiences from three adults who have had affairs (as they define them) and who had promised monogamy was undertaken. These interviews were transcribed, transformed and analyzed using Giorgi’s (2009) descriptive phenomenological method for psychology. The resulting structure of the experience includes the following constituents: dissatisfaction with the marriage and hopelessness about it improving; a sense of the self and the spouse having a fixed character that does not change; a lack of curiosity for the spouse; a preference for passion and novelty; a sense of deserving sexual satisfaction; the experience of passion overriding judgment; and, a lack of real consideration of divorce as a solution to the dilemma prior to the affair. In addition, passive intentionality, (Husserl, 2001), is offered to explain how a series of interactions with another outside the marriage develops into an affair before it is grasped as such. This structure is potentially clinically meaningful as thus far it has not been articulated in a descriptive and complete manner. It offers direction for the future development of clinical interventions and provides entry points into: discussions of ethics, values, intimacy, passion and subjectivity; marriage reform; and, the socio-historical contexts in which the meaning of affairs is located. Keywords: Extra-marital affair, monogamy, non-monogamy, marriage, infidelity, couples’ counseling, Giorgi, phenomenological research methods, intentionality.

This thesis utilizes hermeneutic methodology and a depth perspective to explore how women’s connection with their bodies impacts their growth during the individuation process. Western culture is discussed in terms of its emphasis on rational thought and progress—the realm of Yang and Logos. Although the phenomenon of the dominating masculine principle has enabled rapid technological and scientific development, repercussions may exist as a result of the suppressed Yin and Eros energies. Such ramifications are examined in relevance to Jung’s theory of individuation and the body. Separation from the body is researched through studies on objectification theory, dissociation, disordered eating, and cosmetic surgery. Alternatively, practices including yoga, Vipassana meditation, Watsu, Authentic Movement, and image-based bodywork are reviewed to illuminate the benefit of somatic connection. Results indicate that integrating the body, mind, and soul through conscious awareness can facilitate Weetern women’s journey toward wholeness.

Supervision research has demonstrated the importance of a strong supervisory working alliance in the context of clinical training. However, little is known about what specifically occurs in clinical supervision that contributes to a strong supervisory working alliance. The present study of counselor trainees was designed to investigate relations among their avoidant attachment style, perceptions of relational behaviors used by their supervisors in the most recent supervision session, and the supervisory working alliance. Competing hypotheses stated that greater use of relational behavior on the part of supervisors would either mediate or moderate the inverse relationship between trainees' avoidant attachment style and their perceptions of the supervisory working alliance.

Master's and doctoral trainees in the mental health professions were contacted through listservs, training directors, and social media with a link to the web-based study. The measures were the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Revised ( ECR-R; Fraley, Waller & Brennan, 2000), the Relational Behavior Scale (RBS), which was developed based on Ladany, Friedlander, and Nelson's (2005) Critical Events model of supervision and assesses perceptions of supervisors' use of 5 specific interpersonal behaviors in supervision (exploration of feelings, focus on therapeutic process, attend to parallel process, focus on countertransference, and focus on supervisory alliance), and the Working Alliance Inventory—Trainee version (WAI-T; Bahrick, 1989).

Based on the present sample (N = 141) and a similar earlier sample (total N = 262), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on the Relational Behavior Scale, which confirmed that a 5-item, one factor solution best fit the data and accounted for 53.38% of the total variance. Results indicated that neither the mediation nor moderation hypotheses was supported. Specifically, trainees' avoidant attachment style was not significantly related to the supervisory working alliance or to the perceived relational behavior of supervisors. However, a significant positive association (r = .62, p = .0001) emerged between scores on the RBS and the WAI-T, providing evidence that supervisors' use of specific in-session relational strategies are strongly associated with trainees' more favorable perceptions of the working alliance. Continued study of relational behavior may enhance theories of interpersonal supervision, provide training guidelines for new supervisors, and suggest strategies for purposeful intervention to build strong alliances with trainees, who in turn may use these modeled behaviors to build strong alliances with their clients.

The purpose of this dissertation is to examine licensed mental health professionals' attitudes towards rape survivors. Research indicates that the attitudes of police officers, mental health professionals, and the general public may influence the psychological adjustment of rape survivors and, consequently, whether or not that person seeks mental health treatment after the assault (Vincent, 2009). The negative impacts of rape on a person may not be specific only to the act of violence, but may also include secondary victimization from the survivors' negative experiences with authorities such as legal and mental health professionals (Campbell & Raja, 1999) who may hold negative beliefs about sexual assault and rape survivors (Nagel, Matsuo, McIntyre, & Morrison, 2005). Exposure to these negative beliefs held by others may be associated with negative secondary emotions in the survivor, such as guilt; guilt associated with actions taken or not taken in the context of rape has been observed to be positively correlated with posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, low self-esteem, social anxiety, and suicidal ideation (Kubany, Abueg, Owens, Brennan, Kaplan, & Watson, 1995). It is therefore important to examine the attitudes licensed mental health workers hold towards rape survivors, as these rape survivors may seek services from mental health professionals, and the clinicians' attitudes towards these clients' experiences may significantly impact survivors' recovery from a sexual assault. In addition to measuring the acceptance of rape myths in licensed mental health providers, this study aims to explore how demographic variables in mental health professionals, such as gender, type of graduate degree, or participant rape survivor status, are related to the attitudes participants report about sexual assault. It was hypothesized that male study participants would attribute greater responsibility to survivors than female study participants would, based on the results of the updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, and congruent with published research highlighting this gender difference (Grubb & Harrower, 2009). It was hypothesized that mental health providers who have had more years of training in their graduate degree program would report lower levels of rape myth acceptance compared with those who had a shorter degree program. It was also hypothesized that participants who themselves identified as a rape survivor or who had a close friend or family member who is a survivor would attribute less responsibility to rape survivors, as research supports the observation that those who identify as survivors or friends of survivors may reject negative biases towards sexual assault survivors.

After completing both independent t-tests and Mann-Whitney U statistical analyses, gender identity was the only demographic for which statistically significant mean differences were seen in total rape myth acceptance scores (p = .012). This finding is not surprising, as much of the current literature supports that men, in general, attribute more blame to rape survivors than women. Prior to the current study there was no published research using licensed mental health providers as participants in a study using the updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Data gathered from the current study will therefore offer a valuable contribution to the literature on this topic. Further, it is hoped that this data can be used in the development of graduate programs, continuing education courses, and didactic seminars that debunk rape myths and promote competency around rape survivor issues.

Play therapy is a growing form of counseling that allows children to express themselves in the most natural way possible. Virginia Axline (1969) applied Roger's person centered theory and core conditions (empathic, genuineness and honesty, unconditional positive regard) to working with children in a therapeutic setting calling it Child Centered Play Therapy. Landreth (2002) further explored and developed child-centered play therapy concepts and techniques and emphasized the art of the relationship between the child and the counselor. Extant research on the effects of CCPT with children with different diagnoses, age groups, and settings is well-documented. However, there is a dearth of information concerning using CCPT in a school setting with children of ages 3-6 who were identified by the teachers as experiencing behavioral difficulties. Thus, the purpose of the study was to see if CCPT would help change behaviors with students that were identified as having behavior difficulties in the classroom. Three teachers observed and identified 12 students in grades pre-kinder 3, 4, and Kindergarten with behavioral difficulties in the classroom. Each of the 12 students was selected to receive an intervention using CCPT. For each of the 12 students, one parent/guardian completed the Child Behavior Check List forms each week, and the respective classroom teacher completed the Caregiver-Teacher Report form each week for the 12-week duration of the study. A single case research design was used, which included three weeks of baseline observation, followed by six weeks of CCPT with treatment twice per week, and three weeks of post baseline observation. Findings revealed that play therapy was a highly effective treatment for reducing negative behaviors in most students. Parents' ratings of behaviors indicated an 88.30% improvement in behaviors, and 50% of teachers' ratings indicated improved behavior change after receiving CCPT. In summary, 71% of all scores indicated change in behavior. Under further evaluation during the post baseline stage of the study, 90% of parents and 80% of teachers rated the student's behavior as improved. The results are indicative of CCPT being a very efficacious treatment intervention for students in grades pre-kinder 3, 4, and Kindergarten.

This production thesis examines home and homelessness through various psychological lenses including depth psychology, trauma theory, and art therapy. It explores how creating a personal shrine can help an individual process emotional homelessness. It offers an example of how one might experience a psychological transformation using the creation of a shrine as a safe container and transitional object to connect with unconscious aspects of one’s personal story and examine some of the psychological elements therein. The author’s investigation of emotional homelessness and its resolution includes his own experiences of engagement with the imaginal realm and he provides an example of a three-dimensional imaginal visual tool to advance understanding of home.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a clinical term that refers to childhood pervasive developmental disorders which impair several areas of functioning, including social skills, communication abilities, and also include dysfunctional repetitive behaviors and interests. Associated behavior problems are commonly present in ASD. The maternal responsibilities of raising a child with ASD often lead to significant stress which is often associated with clinical depression. However, some mothers appear to possess protective factors or resilience that makes them less likely to develop depression. This study examined the relationship between core autistic symptoms, child behavioral problems, previous depression diagnoses before mothering the child with ASD, and maternal Sense of Coherence to learn if Sense of Coherence was a protective factor against maternal depression in mothers of children with ASD. A quantitative research design was used with three independent variables, including child autistic severity, child behavior problems, maternal Sense of Coherence, and maternal depression as the dependent variable. Bivariate correlational analysis and ANOVA were used to test for the significance of demographic variables. Previous depression diagnosis was statistically significant and controlled for. Two hypotheses were tested in the current study:

Hypothesis 1: (H1) Sense of Coherence will predict lower levels of depression, after controlling for potentially confounding demographic variables, the severity of autistic symptoms, and the intensity of child behavior problems.

Hypothesis 2: (H2) The Comprehensibility subscale in Sense of Coherence will predict lower levels of depression than the Manageability and Meaningfulness subscales, after controlling for potentially confounding demographic variables, the severity of autistic symptoms, and the intensity of child behavior problems.

Multiple hierarchical regressions were used to analyze these data. Hypothesis 1 was supported by the statistical analysis. Previous depression diagnosis was statistically significant (B = .41***), and it accounted for 17% of the variance in the hierarchical regression. Sense of Coherence statistically significantly predicted lower maternal depression (B = -.75***), and accounted for 45.1% of the variance in maternal depression. Hypothesis 2 was not supported by the statistical analysis. Previous depression diagnosis was statistically significant (B = .41***), and it accounted for 17% of the variance in the hierarchical regression. The Comprehensibility subscale of Sense of Coherence was not more significantly related to maternal depression than the Manageability or Meaningfulness subscales (B =-.11). However, the Meaningfulness subscale was statistically significantly related to maternal depression (B=-.41**). Sense of Coherence served as a protective factor against maternal depression in mothers of children with ASD; future research is needed in order to learn if these results generalize to the larger population of mothers of children with ASD.

This study was designed to investigate the difficulties and challenges facing counseling practitioners that result in secondary traumatic stress, compassion satisfaction and burnout. Secondary traumatic stress, compassion satisfaction and burnout in Licensed Professional Counselors may have a relationship to their quality of life ratings. The risks of working directly with traumatized individuals on a regular basis are well documented. These three variables (Secondary Traumatic Stress, Compassion Satisfaction and Burnout) are prominent in the human services field with counselors being in the top five affected (in helping professions). A total of 77 participants completed a demographic questionnaire and the Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL). This quantitative research design is classified as descriptive research/correlational study (non-experimental) between variables. A multiple regression analysis was utilized to collect the data. The findings were not as expected by the researcher. It appeared that counselors become satisfied from working with traumatized victims. Recommendations and future research directions are explained.

This liberation-psychology study included several years’ immersion in the Tibetan refugee community in Dharamsala, India, where I offered Somatic Experiencing-informed (SE) sessions to exprisoner refugees. During the course of conversations with refugees, this study shifted from an investigation of SE as a trauma-healing intervention to a cross-cultural dialogical approach to the healing of the psychological and physical sequelae of forced displacement, imprisonment, and torture of Tibetan expolitical prisoners. Tibetan refugee expolitical prisoners living in Dharamsala, India, were asked to describe their emotional and somatic sequelae, as well as the alleviated factors and conditions of these sequelae, which stemmed from experiences of political incarceration, loss of homeland, torture, and escape. Purposeful sampling was employed, and 17 participants were observed in a 2-day Freirean-inspired dialogic workshop participant observations in which sequelae and processes of amelioration and responses to the Western SE therapy were identified and recorded. Also, 12 participants were interviewed on their experiences and perceptions of the workshop; 9 of whom volunteered for SE sessions. Data were analyzed by thematic content analysis.

Major findings on emotional distress included loneliness due to separation from friends and families, helplessness to assist other Tibetans, and distress of “non-being” brought on by occupation, displacement, and unofficial refugee status. Physical sequelae were digestive problems, difficulty breathing, pain and tightness, dizziness, weakness, and fatigue. A Buddhist approach was distinguished as a dependable route to mental health and Tibetan Buddhist methods were highlighted as unique in achieving lasting well-being. Community interdependence and preservation of Tibetan Buddhist culture were preferred over individualized approaches to trauma healing. Implications include a potential shift in international trauma fieldwork to a cross-cultural psychological approach.

Considering the profound levels of trauma exposure among the growing refugee population worldwide, there is an urgent need to better understand the complex interactions of factors associated with resilience as a key protective factor against adversity. This study used a mixed-methods approach to investigate the relationship between demographic factors, environmental stressors, trauma coping self-efficacy, cultural factors, resilience, and PTSD among Syrian refugees in Germany. Quantitative findings showed that nearly half of all survey participants (n = 127) met the criteria for a probable PTSD diagnosis (n = 59, 46.5%). Environmental stressors were significant predictors of PTSD, explaining 45.7% of the variance after accounting for significant demographic factors (β = –.683, t = –9.842, p = 0.000). Participants who had food concerns were 42.8 times more likely to have probable PTSD than participants who reported having enough food (OR = 42.8, 95% CI = 5.6 to 330.1, p < 0.000). Not being content with one’s housing situation increased the odds of having probable PTSD 14.7 times compared to individuals who had no housing concerns (OR = 14.7, 95% CI –5.7 to 36.6, p < 0.000). Qualitative findings indicated five main themes that represent threats to positive adaptation to life in Germany: 1) communication difficulties, 2) socioeconomic living conditions, 3) family related issues, 4) cultural differences, discrimination, and social isolation, and 5) asylum procedure. Implications for treatment and future research are discussed.

Cybervictimization is related to negative psychological adjustment (e.g., Tokunaga, 2010); however, not all cybervictims report negative outcomes, and it is not clear what factors may influence vulnerability. One possibility is that cybervictims' attributions regarding technology-based communication impact their emotional adjustment. Those who make hostile intent attributions in ambiguous situations are more likely to experience negative outcomes (e.g., Crick & Dodge, 1994), and the inherent ambiguity of electronic communication may be particularly susceptible to misinterpretation. In addition, how individuals respond to cyber experiences may serve to either protect or damage their emotional well-being. Furthermore, those who are high in rejection sensitivity (Feldman & Downey, 1994) may be especially likely to perceive ambiguous electronic communications negatively. Also, friendship quality may buffer negative outcomes for those that are cybervictimized (Parker & Asher, 1993). This study examined whether college students' level of rejection sensitivity and friendship quality, as well as attributions and behavioral responses, help explain the relation between cybervictimization experiences and emotional adjustment.

Participants included 454 undergraduates (235 females) ages 18-24 years (M= 18.79) who completed an online survey assessing cybervictimization, cognitive attributions and responses to ambiguous cyber situations, depression, rejection sensitivity, friendship quality, social anxiety, loneliness, self-perception, and peer victimization.

Results indicated that cybervictimization was associated with increased social anxiety and loneliness and decreased self-worth, but not with depressive symptoms. Moderated mediation results indicated that rejection sensitive college students who experience low levels of cybervictimization and blame ambiguous peer provocation on their own inability to be socially effective are at increased risk for experiencing depressive symptoms, especially if they are female. It was hypothesized that rumination would further explain increased depressive symptoms but this assertion was not supported. It was also believed that friendship quality would mitigate poor adjustment for those who are cybervictimized. Interestingly, this was true only for those who experienced greater cybervictimization and who blamed the ambiguous peer provocation on something they could not change about themselves. Findings highlight the importance of investigating the role of cognitive attributions in the development of negative adjustment outcomes for those who experience cybervictimization.