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Journal articles on the topic 'Radioactive waste disposal in rivers'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 12 February 2022

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1

Devgun, J. S. "Suitability of unconsolidated sediments for hosting low-level radioactive waste disposal facilities." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 16, no. 4 (August 1, 1989): 560–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l89-086.

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Among the unconsolidated sediments, sand deposits are considered a rather unconventional geologic host medium for siting radioactive waste repositories, the clays being the preferred choice. A closer examination of the various geologic media, however, shows that in each case there are advantages and disadvantages. The key to safe and cost-effective disposal is to match the engineered design of the facility to the site's characteristics as well as the nature of the waste to be disposed of. In humid climates, free-draining sediments such as sand can provide the advantage of eliminating concern related to the “bathtub effect.”At Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories (CRNL), a sand dune has been proposed for hosting a low-level radioactive waste disposal facility. This paper discusses the suitability of unconsolidated sediments for radioactive waste disposal in general; in particular, it provides the rationalization for the selection of a sand dune as the host site at CRNL. Key words: radioactive waste, disposal facilities, unconsolidated sediments, site suitability, trench cover materials, sreismicity, soil liquefaction.

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2

Ewing, R. C., and W. Lutze. "Materials Science of Radioactive Waste Forms." MRS Bulletin 19, no. 12 (December 1994): 16–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400048636.

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The materials science of radioactive waste forms and containment materials has long been a subject of interest to the Materials Research Society. One of the earliest (and continuing) MRS symposia, the Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management, has been held 18 times since 1978. This symposium rotates abroad every third year: Berlin in 1982, Stockholm in 1985, Berlin in 1988, Strasbourg in 1991, and Kyoto this past October. Nearly 170 papers were presented at the Kyoto meeting.Materials science issues for nuclear waste disposal are unique in their scale and consequences. The wastes include an extremely wide variety of materials: spent nuclear fuel from commercial and research reactors; high-level liquid waste produced at West Valley, New York, during the reprocessing of commercial spent nuclear fuel; high-level waste (HLW) generated by the nuclear weapons program; nearly pure plutonium from the dismantling of nuclear weapons; highly enriched uranium from weapons; low-level, medium-level, and mixed waste from laboratories and medical facilities; and, finally, mill tailings from uranium mines and the residues from chemical processing, such as the radium-bearing filtrate presently in storage at Fernald, Ohio, and Niagara Falls, New York. Some material can be simply stabilized and monitored in situ, as is done for most uranium mill tailings and residues, but other materials require retrieval, processing, immobilization, and permanent disposal. The volumes of material that will require handling, immobilization, and disposal are enormous. In the United States, much of the weapons program waste is stored in tanks at Hanford, Washington and Savannah River, South Carolina.

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3

Hutchinson, Harry. "More Weight on the Job." Mechanical Engineering 132, no. 07 (July 1, 2010): 36–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2010-jul-4.

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This article discusses that new methods and heavier equipment are expected to hasten the nuclear waste transfer at the Hanford Site’s tank farms. The site includes old processing plants, groundwater that exceeds safe levels of radioactivity, and high-level radioactive waste held in 149 aging tanks—some more than 60 years old—that lie underground just 10 miles from the Columbia River. The objective is to remove the highly radioactive waste from the old tanks, which have a single shell construction, and transfer it to 28 newer, more-secure double-shell tanks nearby, where the waste will safely reside until it can be treated in facilities now under construction. There are approximately 53,000,000 gallons of nuclear and chemical waste stored in the tanks at the Hanford Site. Bechtel National Inc., another of the prime contractors for Office of River Protection, is building a treatment plant that will process the wastes being stored in the underground tanks into a stable glass form for permanent disposal in a federal geological repository.

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4

Vasilyev, A. V., G. P. Malinovsky, A. D. Onishchenko, and I. V. Yarmoshenko. "RESULTS OF RADON INSPECTION OF SETTLEMENTS COMPROMISED DUE TO DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE INTO THE TECHA RIVER." Hygiene and sanitation 96, no. 5 (March 27, 2019): 418–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.18821/0016-9900-2017-96-5-418-421.

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During past decades, specialists perform an epidemiological observation of the population exposed to the impact of radioactive discharges into the Techa River. The Techa River cohort studies have identified excess cases of leukemia and solid cancers associated with radiation exposure. At the same time natural sources of radiation, such as radon and its decay products, known to be significant human radiation exposure factor, are not sufficiently studied on this territory. The purpose of the study is to assess the mean value and the distribution indices of radon concentration in 14 settlements affected by radioactive contamination. Radon inspection in settlements located on the Techa River (Chelyabinsk and Kurgan regions) was executed. The measurements were performed in 511 dwellings. For radon inspection there were applied detectors based on LR-115 Kodak Track. The analysis shows the sample both to be representative and allow to estimate radon exposure for inhabitants. The average radon concentration in dwellings is 150 Bq/m3, which results in an annual effective dose of 11 mSv. The estimated number of dwellings with radon concentrations above ECC radon action level 200 Bq/m3 is 19. The factors affecting indoor radon accumulation were established. The radiation dose due to the inhalation of radon, accumulated over a long period of time, seems to be generally comparable to doses associated with the radioactive discharges into the Techa River during the 1949-1956.

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5

Le, V. T., N. V. Beamer, and L. P. Buckley. "Experience with radioactive waste incineration at chalk river nuclear laboratories." Waste Management 9, no. 2 (January 1989): 67–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0956-053x(89)90392-9.

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6

Dewanto, Pandu, Setyo Sarwanto Moersidik, and Sucipta Sucipta. "Radionuclide Release Prediction in Water and Soil at Demonstration Plant of Near Surface Disposal for Radioactive Waste." Indonesian Journal of Physics and Nuclear Applications 1, no. 2 (June 30, 2016): 116. http://dx.doi.org/10.24246/ijpna.v1i2.116-122.

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Near Surface Disposal (NSD) for Radioactive Waste that should be developed due to increment of the low level radioactive waste, need to be analyzed and evaluated related to the radiological impact of the environment. A research method applied is done by modeling the distribution of radionuclide releases process. Analysis related with the releases of radionuclide in water and soil is using PRESTO (Prediction of Radiological Effects Due to Shallow Trench Operations). The application scenarios selected in this safety assessment is the migrations of Co-60 and Cs-137 scenario through the shallow groundwater flow pattern in the NSD site. The SigmaPlot software is also used to determine the concentration equation in well water and river water. The final results showed the concentration of radionuclide in wells and streams below the provision. Radionuclide activity concentrations in well ranged from 10<sup>-10</sup>Bq/m<sup>3</sup> to 10<sup>0</sup>Bq/m<sup>3</sup> and in the river ranged from 10<sup>-15</sup>Bq / m<sup>3</sup> to 10<sup>-1</sup>Bq / m3. The impact of radioactive waste of radionuclide Co-60 and Cs-137 will decrease to the background radiation level at a distance less than 10m and penetrate into the saturated layer up to 4m. In this study, an equation have been obtained that can predict radionuclide concentration patterns based on the distance and the depth of the ground surface against to the facility operation time.

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7

Valstar, J. R., and N. Goorden. "Far-field transport modelling for a repository in the Boom Clay in the Netherlands." Netherlands Journal of Geosciences 95, no. 3 (May 25, 2016): 337–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/njg.2016.13.

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AbstractA groundwater model was set up to study far-field transport for the potential of a radioactive waste repository the Boom Clay in the Netherlands. The existing national groundwater model, the Netherlands Hydrological Instrument, was extended in the vertical direction to include geological formation up to and beyond the Boom Clay. As the amount of hydrogeological data in the deeper subsurface is limited, simplifications in the model schematisation were necessary. Moreover, nationwide data about the tops and bottoms of many of the deeper geological formations and their members are lacking and required interpolation. Finally, values for hydrogeological parameters, such as porosity and hydraulic conductivity, are also lacking for the deeper formations. These values were estimated using relationships with depth and lithology. Moreover, no quantitative data about heterogeneity within the deeper geological formations or its members were available.In the Dutch research programme on the geological disposal of radioactive waste (OPERA), the post-closure safety of a generic repository is assessed in either Boom Clay or rock salt. Disposal of Dutch radioactive waste is not foreseen in the next decades and a choice of host rock has not been made. In the early, conceptual phase of the radioactive waste disposal process in the Netherlands no potential repository locations were selected and a groundwater flow model for the entire Netherlands was build. As a starting point a geological disposal facility is assumed to be present at a depth of at least 500 m within a Boom Clay formation of 100 m in order to be able to make an assessment of post-closure safety with this geological formation in a disposal concept. With these assumptions, a general idea of potential flow patterns has been obtained and broken down into pathline trajectories. These trajectories were calculated to achieve input for the potential transport of radioactive isotopes (radionuclides) from this waste in the Netherlands after the closure of a disposal facility in Boom Clay.The groundwater flow patterns in the deeper subsurface strongly resemble the larger scale flow patterns in the shallow subsurface, with flow from infiltration areas in the east and the south of the Netherlands towards to seepage areas of the polders in the west and the northern part of the country or towards the river valleys of the Rhine and IJssel. Groundwater flow velocities, however, are much lower in the deeper part of the model and consequently travel times are much larger. The conservative travel times from the pathlines range from a few 1000 years to more than 10,000,000 years depending on the location for the repository. Longer travel times are obtained for locations with a downward groundwater flow in the Boom Clay.Because of the simplifications in the model schematisation and the uncertainty in the model parameters, the present results should only be considered as a first indication. Moreover, the model could not be validated due to a lack of validation data. However, the insight gained with the model may help to design a data collection strategy for dedicated model validation, such as measuring the hydraulic gradient over the Boom Clay to validate downward flow in the Boom Clay to obtain the necessary data for a post-closure safety assessment.

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8

Konshina, Lydia G. "RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF CANCER MORTALITY RATE IN THE POPULATION EXPOSED TO ACCIDENTS AT MAYAK PRODUCTION." Hygiene and sanitation 97, no. 2 (February 15, 2018): 138–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.18821/0016-9900-2017-96-6-138-143.

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Radioactive pollution of the territory of the Chelyabinsk district is significantly determined by accidents happened at the largest nuclear industry enterprise - Mayak Production Association related to the waste disposal of radioactive fluids into the Techa River due to the accident of 1957 and the spread of the dusty radioactive clay from the Karachay lake with the wind. We executed a selective retrospective epidemiologic study of the mortality rate in the population residing in five districts (Argayashsky, Kaslinsky, Krasnoarmeysky, Kunashaksky, Sosnovsky), and two cities - Kasli and Kyshtym (all of them are located in the Chelyabinsk region), exposed to atmospheric and liquid radioactive wastes. In the administrative districts, those were inhabited only in settlements located within the zone of the intensive radioactive pollution were studied. The source of information about the cases of death was the official death records provided by the Office of Vital Records of the Chelyabinsk region for the time period of 1947-1996. As a whole about 135 thousand death records were considered. The gain in the cancer mortality rate was noted for both males and females in cities of Kyshtym and Kasli. In 1950-60s the highest mortality rate indices were typical for the population of Kasli, and in 1960-70-s - for Kyshtym. A two-fold gain in the cancer mortality rate was noted in districts of Chelyabinsk region suffered from the accidents. Practically the permanent excess of estimated benchmarks was noted in Argayashsky and Kaslinski districts and during some periods in Krasnoarmeisky and Sosnovsky districts. In the city of Kasli, Kaslinsky, Argayashsky and Krasnoarmeisky districts the rise in the mortality rate was noted already from the beginning of 1950s and was twice or more as much. The increase in the cancer mortality rate among the population of both genders is sufficiently determined by the growth of age coefficients (in ages of 60-69 and 70 years and older). The coefficient of the cancer mortality rate decreases progressively to the distance from Mayak Production Association.

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9

Wyatt, Douglas E., Frank H. Syms, and Randolph Cumbest. "High-resolution stratigraphic modeling of the vadose zone at the Savannah River Site low-level radioactive waste trenches disposal facility." Environmental Geosciences 12, no. 4 (December 2005): 267–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1306/eg.02090504047.

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10

Yin, Wenjie, Litang Hu, Shin-Chan Han, Menglin Zhang, and Yanguo Teng. "Reconstructing Terrestrial Water Storage Variations from 1980 to 2015 in the Beishan Area of China." Geofluids 2019 (January 14, 2019): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/3874742.

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Terrestrial water storage (TWS) is a key element in the global and continental water cycle. Since 2002, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) has provided a highly valuable dataset, which allows the study of TWS over larger river basins worldwide. However, the lifetime of GRACE is too short to demonstrate long-term variability in TWS. In the Beishan area of northwestern China, which is selected as the most prospective site for high-level radioactive waste (HLRW) disposal, the assessment of long-term TWS changes is crucial to understand disposal safety. Monthly and annual TWS changes during the past 35 years are reconstructed using GRACE data, other remote sensing products, and the water balance method. Hydrological flux outputs from multisource remote sensing products are analyzed and compared to select appropriate data sources. The results show that a decreasing trend is found for GRACE-filtered and Center for Space Research (CSR) mascon solutions from 2003 to 2015, with slopes of −2.30 ± 0.52 and −1.52 ± 0.24 mm/year, respectively. TWS variations independently computed from the water balance method also show a similar decreasing trend with the GRACE observations, with a slope of −0.94 mm/year over the same period. Overall, the TWS anomalies in the Beishan area change seasonally within 10 mm and have been decreasing since 1980, keeping a desirable dry condition as a HLRW disposal site.

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11

Lepicard, S. "Impact assessments of radioactive discharges into rivers: Application to the appraisal of the Chernobyl dyke project on the Pripyat river." Radioprotection 37, no. C1 (February 2002): C1–1121—C1–1126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/radiopro/2002135.

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12

Scott, J. S., and R. A. Gibb. "Results of geoscience research in the Canadian Nuclear Fuel Waste Management Program: Introduction." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 26, no. 2 (February 1, 1989): 341–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e89-032.

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Canada, along with other countries that are considering the permanent disposal of high-level radioactive wastes from nuclear power generation, is undertaking a program of research into deep geological disposal. This program, led by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) with support from Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, other federal government departments, universities, and industrial consultants, has been in progress since early in 1973. Geoscience research, the subject of this symposium, complements research on fuel waste immobilization to provide the data and information essential to the design and assessment of a complete disposal concept involving both natural and engineered barriers to the migration of radioactive material from the waste vault.During the early phases of the program, prior to 1975, an evaluation of the potential of Canadian salt deposits for nuclear waste disposal, as well as a preliminary assessment of the suitability of other geological formations, was made. Because the Province of Ontario was, and remains, the principal region in Canada for nuclear power development and because resources available for geoscience research would not permit simultaneous, intensive research on a number of rock types, the decision was taken to direct the main thrust of the geoscience research toward plutonic igneous rocks of the Canadian Shield in Ontario (Scott 1979). Lesser studies of salt and other sedimentary formations, including seabed, are continuing within the Geological Survey of Canada.Because the rock mass surrounding the vault will provide the principal barrier to the migration of radionuclides, should these be released from the emplaced wastes, knowledge and understanding of potential pathways through the rock mass and of the mechanisms of radionuclide transport and retention within the rock mass over the functional lifetime of the vault are fundamental requirements.Accordingly, the objectives of the geoscience research program (Dormuth and Scott 1984) are the following:(1) Develop and apply techniques to define the physical and chemical properties of large rock masses and of fluids within these rock masses.(2) Use these techniques in selected field research areas to calibrate and evaluate models developed to calculate fluid flow and mass transport through a large rock mass containing a hypothetical underground nuclear fuel waste-disposal vault.(3) Establish procedures to evaluate quantitatively rock bodies for their potential as disposal sites and thereby acquire the capability to compare different rock bodies.(4) Determine the long-term stability of plutonic rock masses by assessing the potential disturbance by seismic activity, glaciation, meteorite impact, and other disruptive events and processes.To achieve these objectives it has been necessary to undertake simultaneously a large number of research tasks involving the disciplines of geology, geophysics, hydrogeology, geomechanics, geochemistry, and mathematics. Some of these tasks are concerned primarily with regional aspects of the Canadian Shield, such as stress distribution, glaciation, and tectonic history; others with details of the surface and subsurface geology and hydrogeology of specific field research areas; and still others with the development and application of exploration technology to detect and evaluate the structural characteristics of igneous rock masses of relatively high integrity and uniformity. Field and office studies are supported by laboratory investigations of the physical and chemical properties of plutonic rocks, with specific reference to origin, history, and ability to retard or transmit radionuclides.Deep exploratory drilling and detailed surface mapping are carried out at designated field research areas in the Canadian Shield. Geoscience work at research areas has the two-fold purpose of (i) testing new and existing exploration techniques for the evaluation of rock masses; and (ii) through application of these airborne, surface, and subsurface techniques, providing the field data necessary for the development of concepts and models that form the basis for establishing site-selection criteria and performing safety analyses.The latest research areas have been established at Atikokan, Ontario, an area underlain by granitic rocks, and at East Bull Lake north of Massey, Ontario, where gabbroic rocks are the dominant type. These research areas complement previously established research areas developed on granitic rocks at AECL properties at Chalk River, Ontario, and Pinawa, Manitoba, and at a research area, also on granitic terrane, near White Lake, Ontario, where work was done early in the program to test geophysical exploration and borehole-logging equipment.The ability to predict subsurface geological and hydrogeological conditions at future waste-disposal sites is one of the primary goals of geoscience research in the Canadian Nuclear Fuel Waste Management Program (CNFWMP). One of the most important program elements designed to test this predictive capability was the construction of the Underground Research Laboratory (URL) in the Lac du Bonnet Batholith near the site of the Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment. Airborne, surface, and borehole methods were used to develop a geological model on the site, and hydrogeological investigations were carried out to establish preconstruction groundwater characteristics. As the excavation of the URL facilities proceeded, the geological features encountered and the changes in the hydrogeological systems were carefully monitored. These data are being used to assess and improve the geological and hydrogeological models being developed for the rock mass surrounding the URL.The URL provides an excellent opportunity to (i) study the effect of excavation techniques, heat, and stress on a rock mass; (ii) simulate and study the complex systems that may exist in a disposal vault environment; and (iii) develop and test shaft- and drift-sealing techniques. Recently, a bilateral agreement between AECL and the United States Department of Energy was signed for co-operative research on nuclear fuel waste disposal. A substantial part of this co-operative effort will be directed toward extension of the URL shaft beyond its present depth of 240 m and conducting a variety of nonnuclear experiments within the shaft and excavated chambers of the URL.From the time of formalization of CNFWMP over 10 years ago, a concerted effort has been made by AECL and other program participants to ensure both peer review of and widespread accessibility to results of research arising from CNFWMP. This symposium is the third to be sponsored by the Geological Association of Canada (GAC)—the two previous symposiums were held at GAC annual meetings in Winnipeg in 1982 and Toronto in 1978. In addition to these major symposia, general information meetings sponsored by AECL have been held annually at various centres across Canada, and research elements of CNFWMP formed a significant part of the technical program for an international meeting held by the Canadian Nuclear Society in Winnipeg in September 1986.Since 1979 the CNFWMP review process has been further enhanced by the Technical Advisory Committee chaired by L. W. Shemilt, McMaster University. This committee, comprising members nominated by major Canadian scientific and technical societies including the Canadian Geoscience Council, has annually provided a publicly available report of constructive criticism and recommendations for improvement in the research content of CNFWMP.During the second half of 1988 it is expecte

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13

Bolsunovsky, Alexander, Dmitry Dementyev, and Elena Trofimova. "Biomonitoring of radioactive contamination of the Yenisei River using aquatic plants." Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 211 (January 2020): 106100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2019.106100.

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14

Trapeznikov, A., A. Aarkrog, V. Pozolotina, S. P. Nielsen, G. Polikarpov, I. Molchanova, E. Karavaeva, P. Yushkov, V. Trapeznikova, and N. Kulikov. "Radioactive pollution of the Ob river system from urals nuclear enterprise ‘MAJAK’." Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 25, no. 1-2 (January 1994): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0265-931x(94)90009-4.

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15

Poston, T. M., R. E. Peterson, and A. T. Cooper. "Past radioactive particle contamination in the Columbia river at the Hanford site, USA." Journal of Radiological Protection 27, no. 3A (August 24, 2007): A45—A50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0952-4746/27/3a/s06.

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16

Müller-Vonmoos, M., G. Kahr, and F. T. Madsen. "Intracrystalline Swelling of Mixed-Layer Illite-Smectite in K-Bentonites." Clay Minerals 29, no. 2 (June 1994): 205–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/claymin.1994.029.2.06.

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AbstractTo investigate the long-term stability of bentonite under final disposal conditions of highly radioactive waste, K-bentonites from Kinnekulle (Sweden) and from the Marias River Formation in the Montana disturbed belt (USA) were studied. After separating the mixed-layer illite-smectite (I-S) from the K-bentonite samples, the interlayer charge was calculated from the cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the amount of fixed interlayer K+ ions (Kfix). The interlayer charge was also determined by the alkylammonium method. According to both methods the interlayer charge was in the range for smectite. The results show that the amount of exchangeable cations increased linearly with decreasing Kfix. A small increase in the interlayer charge with increasing Kfix was observed as was a linear correlation between the intracrystalline swelling up to the second water layer, the CEC and the content of Kfix. Divalent exchangeable cations were then found to be surrounded by approximately 24 water molecules per cation. Fixed interlayer K+ ions were unhydrated. Forming the third and fourth water layer, swelling was presumably limited by free silica formed by the vitrification of the volcanic ash.

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17

Linnik, V. G., J. E. Brown, M. Dowdall, V. N. Potapov, A. V. Nosov, V. V. Surkov, A. V. Sokolov, S. M. Wright, and S. Borghuis. "Patterns and inventories of radioactive contamination of island sites of the Yenisey River, Russia." Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 87, no. 2 (January 2006): 188–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2005.11.011.

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18

Bolsunovsky, Alexander, and Mikhail Melgunov. "Radioactive particles in the Yenisei River floodplain (Russia): Characterization, leaching and potential effects in the environment." Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 208-209 (November 2019): 105991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2019.105991.

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19

Kryshev, I. I., P. Boyer, L. Monte, J. E. Brittain, N. N. Dzyuba, A. L. Krylov, A. I. Kryshev, A. V. Nosov, K. D. Sanina, and M. I. Zheleznyak. "Model testing of radioactive contamination by 90Sr, 137Cs and 239,240Pu of water and bottom sediments in the Techa River (Southern Urals, Russia)." Science of The Total Environment 407, no. 7 (March 2009): 2349–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.12.012.

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20

Glanvill, Terry. "Radioactive Waste Disposal." Medicine and War 4, no. 2 (April 1988): 129–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07488008808408810.

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21

Roedder, E. "Radioactive waste disposal." Academic Medicine 69, no. 7 (July 1994): 565. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001888-199407000-00011.

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Dyer, Alan, D. Damidot, F. P. Glasser, P. Warwick, A. Hall, G. M. N. Baston, J. A. Berry, C. M. Linklater, P. D. Grimwood, and S. G. Higson. "Radioactive waste disposal." Analytical Proceedings 30, no. 4 (1993): 190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/ap9933000190.

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23

Dusseault, Maurice B. "Radioactive waste disposal." Nature 375, no. 6533 (June 1995): 625. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/375625a0.

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24

Carlsson, H. S. "Radioactive waste disposal." Physics in Technology 16, no. 6 (November 1985): 257–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0305-4624/16/6/i01.

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25

Folger, M. "Radioactive Waste Disposal." Radiation Protection Dosimetry 68, no. 1 (November 1, 1996): 77–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a031855.

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26

MURAOKA, Susumu, Seichi SATO, and Toshiaki OHE. "Radioactive Waste Disposal―(1) Introduction to Radioactive Waste." Journal of the Atomic Energy Society of Japan / Atomic Energy Society of Japan 45, no. 10 (2003): 634–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3327/jaesj.45.634.

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27

Fumoto, Hiromichi. "Radioactive Waste Disposal —Uranium as Natural Radioactive Substances in Waste Disposal—." RADIOISOTOPES 66, no. 12 (2017): 641–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3769/radioisotopes.66.641.

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28

Christen, Kris. "Streamlining radioactive waste disposal." Environmental Science & Technology 38, no. 3 (February 2004): 51A—52A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es040362x.

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Van Dorp, Frits, Helen Grogan, and Charles McCombie. "Disposal of radioactive waste." International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Part C. Radiation Physics and Chemistry 34, no. 2 (January 1989): 337–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1359-0197(89)90241-5.

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30

Boyer, P., and K. Beaugelin-Seiller. "CASTEAUR: A tool for operational assessments of radioactive nuclides transfers in river ecosystems." Radioprotection 37, no. C1 (February 2002): C1–1127—C1–1131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/radiopro/2002136.

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Mundschenk, H. "Study of the long-range effects of radioactive effluents from nuclear power plants in the Rhine river using 58Co and 60Co as tracers." Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 15, no. 1 (January 1992): 51–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0265-931x(92)90042-r.

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32

Delage, P., Y. J. Cui, and A. M. Tang. "Clays in radioactive waste disposal." Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 2, no. 2 (May 2010): 111–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1235.2010.00111.

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33

Glasser, F. P., and M. Atkins. "Cements in Radioactive Waste Disposal." MRS Bulletin 19, no. 12 (December 1994): 33–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400048673.

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Depending on their radioactive content and abundance of long-lived radionuclides, radioactive wastes are often described as low, intermediate or high-level. Cements play a major role in the engineered structures, existing and planned, of most national programs for low- and intermediate-level (ILW) radioactive wastes. Final disposal of ILW is usually by burial at considerable depth (>250 meters), e.g., in planned repositories in clay at Mol (Belgium), in salt at Gorleben (Germany), and in volcanic tuffs at Sellafield (United Kingdom). A sample disposal concept is shown in Figure 1. Shallow land burial is also employed, mostly for low-level wastes (LLW) and often in concrete-lined vaults, e.g., at Drigg (UK) and Center de la Manche (France). Cements are likely to be used in a waste repository as structural elements in the engineered structure and for encapsulation of the actual waste itself (see Figure 1). In the UK, cements are also the favored material for infilling of the vault space (backfilling), and sealing.LLW and ILW are characterized by considerable heterogeneity, and comprise liquids, solids, floes, sludges, exchange resins, and contaminated laboratory equipment. Cements are capable of converting most of these waste streams into solid and stable monoliths that can be further encapsulated in a steel or concrete container. Such a product is ideal for interim storage, transportation, and final emplacement in a repository. The technology of cementation is well-established, and suited to automation and remote handling (thereby reducing the radiation dose to workers).

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34

Cromer, Donna E., and Dena Rae Thomas. "Radioactive Waste Management and Disposal." Science & Technology Libraries 11, no. 3 (May 14, 1991): 119–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j122v11n03_12.

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Freiesleben, H. "Final disposal of radioactive waste." EPJ Web of Conferences 54 (2013): 01006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/20135401006.

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Murray, R. L. "Radioactive waste storage and disposal." Proceedings of the IEEE 74, no. 4 (1986): 552–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/proc.1986.13505.

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Kemp, Ray, and Timothy O'Riordan. "Planning for radioactive waste disposal." Land Use Policy 5, no. 1 (January 1988): 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0264-8377(88)90005-1.

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NAKAYAMA, Shinichi, Satoru TANAKA, and Seichi SATO. "Radioactive Waste Disposal―(5) A Sustainable Approach to Radioactive Waste Management." Journal of the Atomic Energy Society of Japan / Atomic Energy Society of Japan 46, no. 4 (2004): 253–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.3327/jaesj.46.253.

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Fumoto, Hiromichi. "Radioactive Waste Disposal (II): —Trans-Uranium Element in Waste Disposal—." RADIOISOTOPES 68, no. 9 (September 15, 2019): 631–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3769/radioisotopes.68.631.

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Fumoto, Hiromichi. "Radioactive Waste Disposal (III)—Exemption and Clearance in Waste Disposal—." RADIOISOTOPES 68, no. 11 (November 15, 2019): 773–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.3769/radioisotopes.68.773.

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Mantooth, Daniel S. "Radioactive waste management." Waste Management 10, no. 4 (January 1990): 309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0956-053x(90)90105-t.

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KOIDE, Hitoshi. "Geologic Problems of Radioactive Waste Disposal." Journal of the Japan Society of Engineering Geology 32, no. 6 (1992): 281–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5110/jjseg.32.281.

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WADACHI, Yoshiki. "International Consensus for Radioactive Waste Disposal." Japanese Journal of Health Physics 33, no. 3 (1998): 341–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5453/jhps.33.341.

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Tanabe, Hiromi. "Towards implementation of radioactive waste disposal." Journal of the Atomic Energy Society of Japan 61, no. 4 (2019): 265–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.3327/jaesjb.61.4_265.

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BRILL, DAVID R. "Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste." Investigative Radiology 26, no. 1 (January 1991): 94–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004424-199101000-00022.

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Nagle, C. E. "Disposal of low-level radioactive waste." JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 270, no. 12 (September 22, 1993): 1423b—1424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.270.12.1423b.

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Soderstrom, R. M. "Disposal of low-level radioactive waste." JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 270, no. 12 (September 22, 1993): 1424a—1424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.270.12.1424a.

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Brill, David R. "Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste." JAMA 254, no. 17 (November 1, 1985): 2449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1985.03360170089036.

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Hendee, William R. "Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste." JAMA 269, no. 18 (May 12, 1993): 2403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1993.03500180095041.

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Nagle, Conrad E. "Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste." JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 270, no. 12 (September 22, 1993): 1423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1993.03510120045019.

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