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1

Westwood, W. D. "Sputter Deposition Processes." MRS Bulletin 13, no. 12 (December 1988): 46–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400063697.

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Deposition of films by sputtering was observed first in 1852 by Grove. The technique was in general use through the 1920s for preparing reflective coatings and other thin film samples. Western Electric deposited gold on wax masters for phonograph recordings. The improvement in diffusion pump technology at that time caused thermal evaporation deposition to replace sputtering.Not till the 1950s did sputter deposition reappear… Bell Laboratories developed tantalum hybrid circuit technology using sputter deposition. Besides depositing Ta, they created a new material, Ta2N, by reactively sputtering tantalum in gas mixtures of argon and N2. Since then, these two methods, sputtering of metals and alloys and reactive sputtering of compounds, have been investigated for many applications of thin film materials.Although the general aspects of the methods have changed little in the past 30 years, the implementations have changed significantly, particularly since the introduction of magnetron systems in the 1970s. This review will concentrate mainly on these flexible, high rate magnetron deposition systems.The term sputtering actually applies to the physical processes by which atoms are removed from a material. Momentum is transferred from an incident, energetic particle, usually in the form of an ion, to atoms of the target material. A large number of these atoms are displaced from their normal sites in the crystal lattice, producing a disordered structure that also contains some of the incident particles, which are implanted. Some of the target atoms are displaced from the surface; if they have enough energy, they escape from the target as sputtered atoms.
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2

Dannenberg, Rand, and Phil Greene. "Reactive sputter deposition of titanium dioxide." Thin Solid Films 360, no. 1-2 (February 2000): 122–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0040-6090(99)00938-4.

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3

Gerdes, H., R. Bandorf, D. Loch, and G. Bräuer. "Reactive Sputter Deposition of Alumina Coatings." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 39 (September 11, 2012): 012009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/39/1/012009.

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4

Aita, Carolyn Rubin. "Reactive sputter deposition of metal oxide nanolaminates." Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 20, no. 26 (June 9, 2008): 264006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0953-8984/20/26/264006.

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5

Voevodin, A. A., P. Stevenson, C. Rebholz, J. M. Schneider, and A. Matthews. "Active process control of reactive sputter deposition." Vacuum 46, no. 7 (July 1995): 723–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0042-207x(94)00090-5.

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6

Pakala, Mahendra, and Ray Y. Lin. "Reactive sputter deposition of chromium nitride coatings." Surface and Coatings Technology 81, no. 2-3 (June 1996): 233–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0257-8972(95)02488-3.

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7

Jankowski, A. F., and J. P. Hayes. "Reactive sputter deposition of yttria-stabilized zirconia." Surface and Coatings Technology 76-77 (November 1995): 126–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0257-8972(95)02525-1.

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8

Guo, Q. X., Y. Okazaki, Y. Kume, T. Tanaka, M. Nishio, and H. Ogawa. "Reactive sputter deposition of AlInN thin films." Journal of Crystal Growth 300, no. 1 (March 2007): 151–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2006.11.007.

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9

Jones, Fletcher. "High‐rate reactive sputter deposition of zirconium dioxide." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 6, no. 6 (November 1988): 3088–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.575479.

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10

Jones, Fletcher, and Joseph Logan. "High‐rate reactive sputter deposition of aluminum oxide." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 7, no. 3 (May 1989): 1240–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.576262.

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11

Wong, M. S., W. D. Sproul, X. Chu, and S. A. Barnett. "Reactive magnetron sputter deposition of niobium nitride films." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 11, no. 4 (July 1993): 1528–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.578696.

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12

Hansen, S. D., and C. R. Aita. "Low temperature reactive sputter deposition of vanadium oxide." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 3, no. 3 (May 1985): 660–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.572974.

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13

Singh, K., A. K. Grover, and A. K. Suri. "Reactive Magnetron Sputter Deposition of Chromium Nitride Coatings." Transactions of the IMF 81, no. 4 (January 2003): 131–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00202967.2003.11871517.

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14

Baker, Colin C., and S. Ismat Shah. "Reactive sputter deposition of tungsten nitride thin films." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 20, no. 5 (September 2002): 1699–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1498278.

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15

Strijckmans, K., and D. Depla. "A time-dependent model for reactive sputter deposition." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 47, no. 23 (May 8, 2014): 235302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/47/23/235302.

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16

Yasuda, Yoji, Yoichi Hoshi, Shin-ichi Kobayashi, Takayuki Uchida, Yutaka Sawada, Meihan Wang, and Hao Lei. "Reactive sputter deposition of WO3 films by using two deposition methods." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A 37, no. 3 (May 2019): 031514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.5092863.

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17

Fuchs, K., P. Rödhammer, E. Bertel, F. P. Netzer, and E. Gornik. "Reactive and non-reactive high rate sputter deposition of Tungsten carbide." Thin Solid Films 151, no. 3 (August 1987): 383–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-6090(87)90137-4.

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18

Ashida, Toru, Hideo Omoto, Takao Tomioka, and Atsushi Takamatsu. "Reactive Sputter Deposition of SiOxNyFilms under Ar–CO2–N2Atmosphere." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 50, no. 8S2 (August 1, 2011): 08KE03. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.50.08ke03.

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19

Dedoncker, R., G. Radnóczi, G. Abadias, and D. Depla. "Reactive sputter deposition of CoCrCuFeNi in oxygen/argon mixtures." Surface and Coatings Technology 378 (November 2019): 124362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2019.02.045.

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20

Bosseboeuf, A., A. Fourrier, F. Meyer, A. Benhocine, and G. Gautherin. "WNx films prepared by reactive ion-beam sputter deposition." Applied Surface Science 53 (November 1991): 353–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-4332(91)90285-r.

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21

Riekkinen, T., J. Molarius, T. Laurila, A. Nurmela, I. Suni, and J. K. Kivilahti. "Reactive sputter deposition and properties of TaxN thin films." Microelectronic Engineering 64, no. 1-4 (October 2002): 289–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0167-9317(02)00801-8.

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22

Ji, Zhiqiang, and J. M. Rigsbee. "Growth of Tetragonal Zirconia Coatings by Reactive Sputter Deposition." Journal of the American Ceramic Society 84, no. 12 (December 2001): 2841–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.2001.tb01102.x.

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23

Pauleau, Y., and E. Harry. "Reactive sputter‐deposition and characterization of lead oxide films." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 14, no. 4 (July 1996): 2207–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.580048.

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24

Chu, X., S. A. Barnett, M. S. Wong, and W. D. Sproul. "Reactive magnetron sputter deposition of polycrystalline vanadium nitride films." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 14, no. 6 (November 1996): 3124–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.580180.

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25

Chen, Ching-Hsiu, Assamen Ayalew Ejigu, and Liang-Chiun Chao. "Stable Cu2O Photoelectrodes by Reactive Ion Beam Sputter Deposition." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2018 (September 24, 2018): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/3792672.

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Cu2O has been deposited on quartz substrates by reactive ion beam sputter deposition. Experimental results show that by controlling argon/oxygen flow rates, both n-type and p-type Cu2O samples can be achieved. The bandgap of n-type and p-type Cu2O were found to be 2.3 and 2.5 eV, respectively. The variable temperature photoluminescence study shows that the n-type conductivity is due to the presence of oxygen vacancy defects. Both samples show stable photocurrent response that photocurrent change of both samples after 1,000 seconds of operation is less than 5%. Carrier densities were found to be 1.90 × 1018 and 2.24 × 1016 cm−3 for n-type and p-type Cu2O, respectively. Fermi energies have been calculated, and simplified band structures are constructed. Our results show that Cu2O is a plausible candidate for both photoanodic and photocathodic electrode materials in photoelectrochemical application.
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26

Kubart, T., D. Depla, D. M. Martin, T. Nyberg, and S. Berg. "High rate reactive magnetron sputter deposition of titanium oxide." Applied Physics Letters 92, no. 22 (June 2, 2008): 221501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2938054.

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27

Hoskins, Brian D., and Dmitri B. Strukov. "Maximizing stoichiometry control in reactive sputter deposition of TiO2." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 35, no. 2 (March 2017): 020606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.4974140.

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28

Dedoncker, R., Ph Djemia, G. Radnóczi, F. Tétard, L. Belliard, G. Abadias, N. Martin, and D. Depla. "Reactive sputter deposition of CoCrCuFeNi in nitrogen/argon mixtures." Journal of Alloys and Compounds 769 (November 2018): 881–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.08.044.

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29

Thompson, Forest C., Frank M. Kustas, Kent E. Coulter, and Grant A. Crawford. "Filament-assisted reactive magnetron sputter deposition of VSiN films." Thin Solid Films 730 (July 2021): 138720. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2021.138720.

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30

Klein, J. D., S. L. Clauson, and S. F. Cogan. "Reactive IrO2 sputtering in reducing/oxidizing atmospheres." Journal of Materials Research 10, no. 2 (February 1995): 328–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1995.0328.

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An Ir metal target was reactively rf sputtered in a planar magnetron source to develop iridium oxide deposition conditions. Gas blends of hydrogen, oxygen, and argon were used to provide competitive control over the reduction/oxidation characteristics of the sputter plasma. Optical emission spectroscopy allowed direct observation of hydrogen, oxygen, and iridium atomic peaks and OH molecular bands. Each of the twelve gas flow conditions could be clearly defined as either reducing or oxidizing by plasma emission spectroscopy. A given plasma reduction/oxidation state can be maintained over a wide range of gas flow conditions by coordinated adjustment of hydrogen and oxygen flows. The electrochemical properties of the iridium oxide films change dramatically in the vicinity of the reduction/oxidation plasma transition.
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31

Krause, Bärbel, Dmitry S. Kuznetsov, Andrey E. Yakshin, Shyjumon Ibrahimkutty, Tilo Baumbach, and Fred Bijkerk. "In situ and real-time monitoring of structure formation during non-reactive sputter deposition of lanthanum and reactive sputter deposition of lanthanum nitride." Journal of Applied Crystallography 51, no. 4 (June 28, 2018): 1013–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600576718007367.

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Lanthanum and lanthanum nitride thin films were deposited by magnetron sputtering onto silicon wafers covered by natural oxide. In situ and real-time synchrotron radiation experiments during deposition reveal that lanthanum crystallizes in the face-centred cubic bulk phase. Lanthanum nitride, however, does not form the expected NaCl structure but crystallizes in the theoretically predicted metastable wurtzite and zincblende phases, whereas post-growth nitridation results in zincblende LaN. During deposition of the initial 2–3 nm, amorphous or disordered films with very small crystallites form, while the surface becomes smoother. At larger thicknesses, the La and LaN crystallites are preferentially oriented with the close-packed lattice planes parallel to the substrate surface. For LaN, the onset of texture formation coincides with a sudden increase in roughness. For La, the smoothing process continues even during crystal formation, up to a thickness of about 6 nm. This different growth behaviour is probably related to the lower mobility of the nitride compared with the metal. It is likely that the characteristic void structure of nitride thin films, and the similarity between the crystal structures of wurtzite LaN and La2O3, evoke the different degradation behaviours of La/B and LaN/B multilayer mirrors for off-normal incidence at 6.x nm wavelength.
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32

YASUI, Toshiaki, Takeshi NISHIDOI, Kiyotaka NAKASE, Hirokazu TAHARA, and Takao YOSHIKAWA. "Production of Sheet Shaped ECR Plasma for Reactive Sputter Deposition." SHINKU 40, no. 3 (1997): 224–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3131/jvsj.40.224.

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33

Sproul, William D. "Reactive sputter deposition of polycrystalline nitride and oxide superlattice coatings." Surface and Coatings Technology 86-87 (December 1996): 170–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0257-8972(96)02977-5.

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34

Miyake, S., Y. Setsuhara, J. Q. Zhang, M. Kamai, and B. Kyoh. "Inductively coupled reactive high-density plasmas designed for sputter deposition." Surface and Coatings Technology 97, no. 1-3 (December 1997): 768–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0257-8972(97)00325-3.

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35

Wang, Yimin, and Ray Y. Lin. "Amorphous molybdenum nitride thin films prepared by reactive sputter deposition." Materials Science and Engineering: B 112, no. 1 (September 2004): 42–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2004.05.010.

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36

Depla, D., K. Strijckmans, and R. De Gryse. "The role of the erosion groove during reactive sputter deposition." Surface and Coatings Technology 258 (November 2014): 1011–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2014.07.038.

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37

Radhakrishnan, K., Ng Geok Ing, and R. Gopalakrishnan. "Reactive sputter deposition and characterization of tantalum nitride thin films." Materials Science and Engineering: B 57, no. 3 (January 1999): 224–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0921-5107(98)00417-6.

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38

Henry, Michael D., Travis R. Young, Erica A. Douglas, and Benjamin A. Griffin. "Reactive sputter deposition of piezoelectric Sc0.12Al0.88N for contour mode resonators." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B 36, no. 3 (May 2018): 03E104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.5023918.

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39

Ting, Jyh-Ming, and B. S. Tsai. "DC reactive sputter deposition of ZnO:Al thin film on glass." Materials Chemistry and Physics 72, no. 2 (November 2001): 273–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0254-0584(01)00451-5.

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40

Patel, M., K. Kim, M. Ivill, J. D. Budai, and D. P. Norton. "Reactive sputter deposition of epitaxial (001) CeO2 on (001) Ge." Thin Solid Films 468, no. 1-2 (December 2004): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2004.02.105.

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41

Jäger, Timo, Yaroslav E. Romanyuk, Ayodhya N. Tiwari, and André Anders. "Controlling ion fluxes during reactive sputter-deposition of SnO2:F." Journal of Applied Physics 116, no. 3 (July 21, 2014): 033301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4887119.

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42

Kharrazi Olsson, M., K. Macák, U. Helmersson, and B. Hjörvarsson. "High rate reactive dc magnetron sputter deposition of Al2O3 films." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 16, no. 2 (March 1998): 639–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.581081.

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43

Jones, F., and J. S. Logan. "A simple finite element model for reactive sputter-deposition systems." IBM Journal of Research and Development 34, no. 5 (September 1990): 680–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1147/rd.345.0680.

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44

Sadiq, Mehboob, S. Ahmad, M. Shafiq, M. Zakaullah, R. Ahmad, and A. Waheed. "Reactive sputter-deposition of AlN films by dense plasma focus." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 24, no. 6 (November 2006): 2122–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.2357743.

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45

Fu, G. H., A. Polity, W. Kriegseis, D. Hasselkamp, B. K. Meyer, B. Mogwitz, and J. Janek. "Reactive sputter deposition and metal–semiconductor transition of FeS films." Applied Physics A 84, no. 3 (June 2, 2006): 309–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00339-006-3624-y.

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46

O'Keefe, M. J., and J. M. Rigsbee. "Reactive sputter deposition of crystalline Cr/C/F thin films." Materials Letters 18, no. 5-6 (February 1994): 251–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-577x(94)90003-5.

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47

Goranchev, B., K. Reichelt, J. Chevallier, P. Hornshoj, H. Dimigen, and H. Hübsch. "R.F. reactive sputter deposition of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide films." Thin Solid Films 139, no. 3 (June 1986): 275–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-6090(86)90057-x.

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48

Ross, Jennifer, Mike Rubin, and T. K. Gustafson. "Single crystal wurtzite GaN on (111) GaAs with AlN buffer layers grown by reactive magnetron sputter deposition." Journal of Materials Research 8, no. 10 (October 1993): 2613–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1993.2613.

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We report the growth conditions necessary for highly oriented wurtzite GaN films on (111) GaAs, and single crystal GaN films on (111) GaAs using AlN buffer layers. The GaN films and AlN buffers are grown using rf reactive magnetron sputter deposition. Oriented basal plane wurtzite GaN is obtained on (111) GaAs at temperatures between 550 and 620 °C. However, using a high temperature 200 Å AlN buffer layer epitaxial GaN is produced. Crystal structure and quality are measured using x-ray diffraction (XRD), reflection electron diffraction (RED), and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). This is the first report of single crystal wurtzite GaN on (111) GaAs using AlN buffer layers by any growth technique. Simple AlN/GaN heterostructures grown by rf reactive sputter deposition on (111) GaAs are also demonstrated.
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49

Chiou, Wen-Ting, Wan-Yu Wu, and Jyh-Ming Ting. "Effect of Electroless Copper on the Growth of ZnO Nanowires." Journal of Materials Research 20, no. 9 (September 2005): 2348–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2005.0286.

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ZnO nanowires along with ZnO thin films were obtained on copper-metallized silicon substrates using an radio frequency-reactive sputter-deposition technique. Residual tensile stresses were found in both the copper layer and the ZnO layer. The ZnO nanowires were observed exclusively at the grain boundaries of the ZnO thin films. The average diameter of ZnO nanowires varies only slightly with the ZnO deposition time, while the average length increases linearly with the ZnO deposition time. Based on the observations a growth model involving stress-assisted diffusion of copper and reaction-controlled catalytic growth of ZnO nanowires is suggested.
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50

Takenaka, Kosuke, Yuichi Setsuhara, Jeon Geon Han, Giichiro Uchida, and Akinori Ebe. "High-rate deposition of silicon nitride thin films using plasma-assisted reactive sputter deposition." Thin Solid Films 685 (September 2019): 306–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2019.06.049.

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