Academic literature on the topic 'Recepteur nucleaire usp'

Abstract Ecdysteroids coordinate essential biological processes in Drosophila through a complex of two nuclear receptors, the ecdysteroid receptor (EcR) and the ultraspiracle protein (Usp). Biochemical experiments have shown that, in contrast to Usp, the EcR molecule is characterized by high intramolecular plasticity. To investigate whether this plasticity is sufficient to form EcR complexes with nuclear receptors other than Usp, we studied the interaction of EcR with the DHR38 nuclear receptor. Previous in vitro experiments suggested that DHR38 can form complexes with Usp and thus disrupt Usp-EcR interaction with the specific hsp27pal response element. This article provides the experimental evidence that EcR is able to form complexes with DHR38 as well. The recombinant DNA-binding domains (DBDs) of EcR and DHR38 interact specifically on hsp27pal. However, the interaction between the receptors is not restricted to their isolated DBDs. We pre\xadsent data that indicate that the full-length EcR and DHR38 can also form specific complexes within the nuclei of living cells. This interaction is mediated by the hinge region of EcR, which was recently classified as an intrinsically disordered region. Our results indicate that DHR38 might modulate the activity of the Usp-EcR heterodimer by forming complexes with both of its components.

ABSTRACT MHR3, a homolog of the retinoid orphan receptor (ROR), is a transcription factor in the nuclear hormone receptor family that is induced by 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) in the epidermis of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. Its 2.7-kb 5′ flanking region was found to contain four putative ecdysone receptor response elements (EcREs) and a monomeric (GGGTCA) nuclear receptor binding site. Activation of this promoter fused to a chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter by 2 μg of 20E per ml inManduca GV1 cells was similar to that of endogenous MHR3, with detectable CAT by 3 h. When the ecdysone receptor B1 (EcR-B1) and Ultraspiracle 1 (USP-1) were expressed at high levels under the control of a constitutive promoter, CAT levels after a 3-h exposure to 20E increased two- to sixfold. In contrast, high expression of EcR-B1 and USP-2 caused little increase in CAT levels in response to 20E. Moreover, expression of USP-2 prevented activation by EcR-B1–USP-1. Deletion experiments showed that the upstream region, including the three most proximal putative EcREs, was responsible for most of the 20E activation, with the EcRE3 at −671 and the adjacent GGGTCA being most critical. The EcRE1 at −342 was necessary but not sufficient for the activational response but was the only one of the three putative EcREs to bind the EcR-B1–USP-1 complex in gel mobility shift assays and was responsible for the silencing action of EcR-B1–USP-1 in the absence of hormone. EcRE2 and EcRE3 each specifically bound other protein(s) in the cell extract, but not EcR and USP, and so are not EcREs in this cellular context. When cell extracts were used, the EcR-B1–USP-2 heterodimer showed no binding to EcRE1, and the presence of excess USP-2 prevented the binding of EcR-B1–USP-1 to this element. In contrast, in vitro-transcribed-translated USP-1 and USP-2 both formed heterodimeric complexes with EcR-B1 that bound ponasterone A with the sameKd (7 × 10−10 M) and bound to both EcRE1 and heat shock protein 27 EcRE. Thus, factors present in the cell extract appear to modulate the differential actions of the two USP isoforms.

ABSTRACT The functional receptor for insect ecdysteroid hormones is a heterodimer consisting of two nuclear hormone receptors, ecdysteroid receptor (EcR) and the retinoid X receptor homologue Ultraspiracle (USP). Although ecdysone is commonly thought to be a hormone precursor and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), the physiologically active steroid, little is known about the relative activity of ecdysteroids in various arthropods. As a step toward characterization of potential differential ligand recognition, we have analyzed the activities of various ecdysteroids using gel mobility shift assays and transfection assays in Schneider-2 (S2) cells. Ecdysone showed little activation of the Drosophila melanogaster receptor complex (DmEcR-USP). In contrast, this steroid functioned as a potent ligand for the mosquito Aedes aegypti receptor complex (AaEcR-USP), significantly enhancing DNA binding and transactivating a reporter gene in S2 cells. The mosquito receptor also displayed higher hormone-independent DNA binding activity than theDrosophila receptor. Subunit-swapping experiments indicated that the EcR protein, not the USP protein, was responsible for ligand specificity. Using domain-swapping techniques, we made a series ofAedes and Drosophila EcR chimeric constructs. Differential ligand responsiveness was mapped near the C terminus of the ligand binding domain, within the identity box previously implicated in the dimerization specificity of nuclear receptors. This region includes helices 9 and 10, as determined by comparison with available crystal structures obtained from other nuclear receptors. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that Phe529 in AedesEcR, corresponding to Tyr611 in Drosophila EcR, was most critical for ligand specificity and hormone-independent DNA binding activity. These results demonstrated that ecdysone could function as a bona fide ligand in a species-specific manner.

Ecdysteroid signaling in insects is transduced by a heterodimer of the EcR and USP nuclear receptors. In order to monitor the temporal and spatial patterns of ecdysteroid signaling in vivo we established transgenic animals that express a fusion of the GAL4 DNA binding domain and the ligand binding domain (LBD) of EcR or USP, combined with a GAL4-dependent lacZ reporter gene. The patterns of β-galactosidase expression in these animals indicate where and when the GAL4-LBD fusion protein has been activated by its ligand in vivo. We show that the patterns of GAL4-EcR and GAL4-USP activation at the onset of metamorphosis reflect what would be predicted for ecdysteroid activation of the EcR/USP heterodimer. No activation is seen in mid-third instar larvae when the ecdysteroid titer is low, and strong widespread activation is observed at the end of the instar when the ecdysteroid titer is high. In addition, both GAL4-EcR and GAL4-USP are activated in larval organs cultured with 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), consistent with EcR/USP acting as a 20E receptor. We also show that GAL4-USP activation depends on EcR, suggesting that USP requires its heterodimer partner to function as an activator in vivo. Interestingly, we observe no GAL4-LBD activation in the imaginal discs and ring glands of late third instar larvae. Addition of 20E to cultured mid-third instar imaginal discs results in GAL4-USP activation, but this response is not seen in imaginal discs cultured from late third instar larvae, suggesting that EcR/USP loses its ability to function as an efficient activator in this tissue. We conclude that EcR/USP activation by the systemic ecdysteroid signal may be spatially restricted in vivo. Finally, we show that GAL4-EcR functions as a potent and specific dominant negative at the onset of metamorphosis, providing a new tool for characterizing ecdysteroid signaling pathways during development.

Seven-up (Svp), the Drosophila homolog of the chicken ovalbumin upstream transcription factor (COUP-TF); Ultraspiracle (Usp), the Drosophila homolog of the retinoid X receptor; and the ecdysone receptor are all members of the nuclear/steroid receptor superfamily. COUP-TF negatively regulates hormonal signaling involving retinoid X receptor in tissue culture systems. Here we demonstrate that Svp, like COUP-TF, can modulate Ultraspiracle-based hormonal signaling both in vitro and in vivo. Transfection assays in CV-1 cells demonstrate that Seven-up can inhibit ecdysone-dependent transactivation by the ecdysone receptor complex, a heterodimeric complex of Usp and ecdysone receptor. This repression depends on the dose of Svp and occurs with two different Drosophila ecdysone response elements. Ectopic expression of Svp in vivo induces lethality during early metamorphosis, the time of maximal ecdysone responsiveness. Concomitant overexpression of Usp rescues the larvae from the lethal effects of Svp. DNA binding studies show that Svp can bind to various direct repeats of the sequence AGGTCA but cannot bind to one of the ecdysone response elements used in the transient transfection assays. Our results suggest that Svp-mediated repression can occur by both DNA binding competition and protein-protein interactions.

ABSTRACT The EcR/USP nuclear receptor controls Drosophilametamorphosis by activating complex cascades of gene transcription in response to pulses of the steroid hormone ecdysone at the end of larval development. Ecdysone release provides a ubiquitous signal for the activation of the receptor, but a number of its target genes are induced in a tissue- and stage-specific manner. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in this developmental modulation of the EcR/USP-mediated pathway. Fbp1 is a good model of primary ecdysone response gene expressed in the fat body for addressing this question. We show here that the dGATAb factor binds to three target sites flanking an EcR/USP binding site in a 70-bp enhancer that controls the tissue and stage specificity of Fbp1transcription. We demonstrate that one of these sites and proper expression of dGATAb are required for specific activation of the enhancer in the fat body. In addition, we provide further evidence that EcR/USP plays an essential role as a hormonal timer. Our study provides a striking example of the integration of molecular pathways at the level of a tissue-specific hormone response unit.

Two members of the nuclear receptor superfamily, EcR and Ultraspiracle (Usp) heterodimerize to form a functional receptor for 20-hydroxyecdysone-the key ecdysteroid controlling induction and modulation of morphogenetic events through Drosophila development. In order to study aspects of receptor function and ultimately the structural basis of the ecdysteroid receptor-DNA interaction, it is necessary to produce large quantities of purified EcR and Usp DNA-binding domains. Toward this end, we have expressed the EcR DNA-binding domain and the Usp DNA-binding domain as proteins with an affinity tag consisting of six histidine residues (6xHis-EcRDBD and 6xHis-UspDBD, respectively) using the expression vector pQE-30. Under optimal conditions, elaborated in this study, bacteria can express the recombinant 6xHis-EcRDBD to the levels of 11% of total soluble proteins and the 6xHis-UspDBD to the levels of 16%. Both proteins were purified to homogeneity from the soluble protein fraction using combination of ammonium sulphate fractionation and affinity chromatography on Ni-NTA agarose. The gel mobility shift experiments demonstrated that the purified 6xHis-EcRDBD and the 6xHis-UspDBD interact specifically with an 20-hydroxyecdysone response element from the promoter region of the hsp 27 Drosophila gene.

The heterodimeric ligand-binding region of theBovicola ovisecdysone receptor has been crystallized either in the presence of an ecdysteroid or a synthetic methylene lactam insecticide. Two X-ray crystallographic structures, determined at 2.7 Å resolution, show that the ligand-binding domains of both subunits of this receptor, like those of other nuclear receptors, can display significant conformational flexibility. Thermal melt experiments show that while ponasterone A stabilizes the higher order structure of the heterodimer in solution, the methylene lactam destabilizes it. The conformations of the EcR and USP subunits observed in the structure crystallized in the presence of the methylene lactam have not been seen previously in any ecdysone receptor structure and represent a new level of conformational flexibility for these important receptors. Interestingly, the new USP conformation presents an open, unoccupied ligand-binding pocket.

The steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone plays a key role in the induction and modulation of morphogenetic events throughout Drosophila development. Previous studies have shown that a heterodimeric nuclear receptor composed of the EcR and USP proteins mediates the action of the hormone at the transcriptional through binding to palindromic ecdysteroid mediates the action of the hormone at the transcriptional level through binding to palindromic ecdysteroid response elements (EcREs) such as those present in the promoter of the hsp27 gene or the fat body-specific enhancer of the Fbp1 gene. We show that in addition to palindromic EcREs, the EcR/USP heterodimer can bind in vitro with various affinities to direct repetitions of the motif AGGTCA separated by 1 to 5 nucleotides (DR1 to DR5), which are known to be target sites for vertebrate nuclear receptors. At variance with the receptors, EcR/USP was also found to bind to a DR0 direct repeat with no intervening nucleotide. In cell transformation assays, direct repeats DR0 to DR5 alone can render the minimum viral tk or Drosophila Fbp1 promoter responsive to 20-hydroxyecdysone, as does the palindromic hsp27 EcRE. In a transgenic assay, however, neither the palindromic hsp27 element nor direct repeat DR3 alone can make the Fbp1 minimal promoter responsive to premetamorphic ecdysteroid peaks. In contrast, DR0 and DR3 elements, when substituted for the natural palindromic EcRE in the context of the Fbp1 enhancer, can drive a strong fat body-specific ecdysteroid response in transgenic animals. These results demonstrate that directly repeated EcR/USP binding sites are as effective as palindromic EcREs in vivo. They also provide evidence that additional flanking regulatory sequences are crucially required to potentiate the hormonal response mediated by both types of elements and specify its spatial and temporal pattern.

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Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.
A regulação deficiente da resposta inflamatória do indivíduo aos produtos microbianos é crucial para a mortalidade de paciente com SIRS (síndrome da resposta inflamatória sistêmica) e sepse. Vários mediadores inflamatórios são liberados e a regulação da expressão destes mediadores é crítica para a defesa do hospedeiro, mas também pode resultar em dano tecidual, disfunção orgânica múltipla e morte. Estratégias anti-inflamatórias são investigadas no tratamento da sepse. Estudos têm focado em fatores transcricionais que possuem um interesse terapêutico, como receptor nuclear PPAR (receptor ativado por proliferador de peroxissomo do tipo gama). Nosso objetivo principal foi caracterizar o papel do PPARγ na sepse experimental. Foram feitas análises de sobrevida e parâmetros inflamatórios, como eliminação bacteriana, produção de mediadores inflamatórios e migração celular, além da avaliação da microcirculação cerebral 24 horas após a ligadura e punção cecal (CLP) em animais tratados com agonista de PPARγ (Rosiglitazona) 15 min após a indução de sepse. Observamos um aumento da sobrevida de camundongos submetidos à CLP e tratados com Rosiglitazona. Em animais submetidos à sepse grave, a Rosiglitazona foi igualmente eficaz em aumentar a sobrevida dos animais e induzir uma melhora no quadro clínico. Nos animais tratados com Rosiglitazona houve um aumento nos níveis plsmáticos de mediadores anti-inflamatórios como a IL-10 e CCL2 e decréscimo de mediadores pró-inflamatórios como TNF-α, IL-6 e de corpúsculos lipídicos, sem alteração da glicemia. Houve uma diminuição plasmática da quimiocina CXCL1 nos animais tratados com Rosiglitazona quando comparados ao grupo controle. Além disso, observamos um aumento na migração de neutrófilos peritoneaisl de animais submetidos à CLP e o pós-tratamento com Rosiglitazona foi capaz de reverter este efeito. Observamos que a Rosiglitazona diminuiu o número de unidades formadoras de colônias (UFC) do lavado peritoneal, que se correlacionou com o aumento no metabolismo oxidativo de células fagocíticas com a diminuição da taxa de mortalidade. Em um estudo in vitro com E.coli incubadas com ligantes de PPARγ observamos que não houve alteração do crescimento bacteriano, mostrando que a Rosiglitazona não parece ter um efeito direto sobre o patógeno. Em outro experimento in vitro com neutrófilos humanos incubados com LPS ou E. coli,a Rosiglitazona aumentou a eliminação bacteriana por estas células e levou a um aumento na formação de redes extracelulares de neutrófilos (NETs) por estas células. O antagonista do PPARγ, o GW9662 foi capaz de reverter este efeito. A Rosiglitazona também foi capaz de aumentar a liberação da proteína histona em polimorfonucleares (PMNs), um importante marcador na formação de NETs e o GW9662 reverteu este efeito. Nos experimentos de microcirculação cerebral, a Rosiglitazona diminuiu o rolamento, a aderência dos leucócitos no endotélio vascular, assim como a rarefação capilar, aumentando a perfusão tecidual cerebral. Estes efeitos foram independentes de alterações na pressão arterial média e frequência cardíaca. Nossos estudos indicam que a Rosiglitazona atuou em diversos parâmetros da fisiopatologia da sepse, modulando a resposta inflamatória, aumentando a eliminação bacteriana, melhorando o quadro clínico e diminuindo a mortalidade em camundongos sépticos. É de extrema importância o entendimento dos mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na sepse, para que possa servir de potencial manobra ou intervenção terapêutica no futuro.
The defective regulation of the inflammatory response to microbial products is crucial in mortality rate of patients with SIRS (systemic inflammatory response syndrome) and sepsis. Several inflammatory mediators are released and the regulation in expression of these mediators is critical for host defense, but can also result in tissue damage, multiple organ failure, and death. Antiinflammatory strategies are investigated for sepsis treatment. Studies have been focusing on transcription factors with a therapeutic interest, such as the nuclear receptor PPAR γ (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors γ). Our main objective was to characterize the role of PPAR γ in experimental sepsis. Survival analyzes were performed, as well as the inflammatory parameters, such as bacterial clearance, inflammatory mediators productions and cellular migration. We assessed the brain microcirculation 24 hours after CLP in animals treated with Rosiglitazone. Our results have shown an increase in survival rate with Rosiglitazone treatment. In a model of severe sepsis Rosiglitazone was equally effective in increasing the survival rate accompanied by an improvement in clinical status. The Rosiglitazone treatment increased the inflammatory mediators levels, such as IL-10 and CCL2 with a decrease of pro-inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL-6, as well as a decrease in lipid bodies formation. A reduction in chemokine CXCL1 was also observed in animals treated with Rosiglitazone compared to control groups. An increase of neutrophils migration was seen in the peritoneal cavity 24 hours after CLP and the Rosiglitazone post-treatment was effective into reversing this parameter. A reduced number of colony forming units (CFU) of peritoneal fluid was also observed in rosiglitazone treatment which was directly correlated with an increase in oxidative stress and survival rate. However, in our experiments we did not observed any alteration of animals blood glucose levels. In an in vitro study with E. coli incubated only with PPARγ ligands, no changes on bacterial growth was seen, demonstrating that Rosiglitazone by itself does not have an effect on the pathogen. In another experiment with human neutrophils incubated with LPS or E. coli in the presence of Rosiglitazone, we observed an increase in the extracellular bacterial clearance mediated by netosis. The PPAR γ antagonist, GW9662, was able to reverse this effect. Rosiglitazone also enhanced the release of histone protein in PMNs, an important marker of NETs formation, and this effect was abolished by GW9662. During the assessement of cerebral microcirculation, Rosiglitazone decreased leukocyte rolling and adhesion to the vascular endothelium, as well as the capillary rarefaction, resulting with an improvement of brain perfusion. It was supposed that these effects were independent of haemodynamic changes. Finally, our studies suggested that Rosiglitazone acts on several parameters in the pathophysiology of sepsis by modulating the inflammatory response, increasing the bacterial clearance, improving clinical score, and reducing mortality rate in septic mice. In addition, it is extremely important in the understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in sepsis syndrome, thus it might serve as a potential therapeutic intervention or maneuver in the future.

Der Fettsäurestoffwechsel unterliegt vielfältigen Kontrollmechanismen. So wird der Fettsäureabbau über die Induktion und Aktivität spezifischer Enzyme reguliert. Ein zentraler Regulator ist dabei der nukleäre Rezeptor Peroxisomenproliferator-aktivierter-Rezeptor-α (PPARα). PPARα wird durch freie Fettsäuren in der Zelle aktiviert und fördert über die Induktion von Zielgenen den Fettsäuretransport und -abbau sowie die Gluconeogenese und Ketogenese. Der Anstieg an freien Fettsäuren beim Fasten, aber auch im Diabetes aktiviert PPARα. Unabhängig davon wurde in beiden Stoffwechsellagen auch eine erhöhte Expression des nukleären Rezeptors Constitutiver-Androstan-Rezeptor (CAR) und einiger CAR-Zielgene, vorrangig Enzyme des Fremdstoffmetabolismus wie Cytochrom P450 2B (CYP2B), festgestellt. Bei der Adaption an eine Fastensituation scheinen PPARα- und CAR-Signalwege über einen bisher unbekannten Mechanismus miteinander verschaltet zu sein. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte der der Verschaltung zugrunde liegende Mechanismus anhand eines Modelsystems, der PPARα-Agonisten-vermittelten Verstärkung der Phenobarbital (PB)-abhängigen Induktion des CAR-Zielgens CYP2B, in vitro untersucht werden. Zudem sollte die physiologische Relevanz einer durch PPARα-Agonisten vermittelten Modulierung der CYP2B-Aktivität in einer Ganztierstudie in vivo belegt werden. Die verwendeten synthetischen PPARα-Agonisten steigerten in primären Hepatozyten der Ratte signifikant die Phenobarbital (PB)-abhängige mRNA- und Protein-Expression sowie die Aktivität von CYP2B. Ohne vorherige PB-Behandlung induzierten PPARα-Agonisten CYP2B nicht. In Gegenwart von PB war die Steigerung der CYP2B-Aktivität durch PPARα-Agonisten dosisabhängig. In einem Luciferase-Reportergenassay wurde gezeigt, dass die Induktion durch PB unter der Kontrolle des CYP2B1-Promotors von einem distalen PBREM (PB-responsive-enhancer-module), an welches CAR binden kann, abhängig war. PPARα-Agonisten steigerten diese PB- und PBREM-abhängige Reportergentranskription und induzierten die CAR-mRNA und CAR-Proteinexpression. Sie aktivierten die Transkription eines Reportergens unter der Kontrolle eines Promotorfragments von bis zu 4,4 kb oberhalb des mutmaßlichen CAR-Transkriptionsstarts. Mit Hilfe von Deletionskonstrukten konnte ein potentielles Peroxisomenproliferator-aktivierter-Rezeptor-responsives Element (PPRE) im CAR-Promotorbereich von -942 bp bis -930 bp identifiziert werden, welches essentiell für die Initiation der Transkription durch PPARα-Agonisten ist. In band shift Experimenten akkumulierte verstärkt Kernprotein mit diesem PPRE. Ein Überschuss an unmarkiertem Wildtyp-CAR-Reportergenvektor, nicht aber an CAR-Reportergenvektor mit PPRE-Deletion, konnte mit dem markierten PPRE um die Bindung von Kernprotein konkurrieren. Nach Chromatin-Immunpräzipitation mit einem PPARα-Antikörper wiederum wurde das betreffende PPRE amplifiziert. Bei in vivo Experimenten an männlichen Ratten resultierte die Behandlung mit PPARα-Agonisten in einer signifikanten Induktion der CAR-mRNA-Expression und signifikant erhöhter PB-abhängiger CYP2B-Aktivität. Die physiologisch Relevanz wurde durch weiterführenden Experimente unterstrichen, in denen gezeigt wurde, dass die Fasten-abhängige Induktion von CAR in PPARα-defizienten Mäusen unterdrückt war. Diese Experimente legen nahe, dass durch PPARα-Agonisten aktiviertes PPARα an das PPRE im CAR-Promotorbereich von -942 bp bis -930 bp bindet und dadurch die CAR-Transkription induziert. Somit kann CAR als PPARα-Zielgen betrachtet werden, was die Schlussfolgerung zulässt, dass die PPARα- und CAR-Signalwege über die direkte Bindung von PPARα an den CAR-Promotor unmittelbar miteinander verknüpft sind. Allerdings ist davon unabhängig eine Aktivierung von CAR, etwa durch PB, für die vermehrte Induktion von CAR-Zielgenen notwendig . Die physiologische Relevanz der PPARα-abhängige CAR-Expression zeigt sich in den Ganztierexperimenten, bei denen die Wirksamkeit der PPARα-Agonisten bestätigt werden konnte. CAR-abhängig induzierte Enzyme sind nicht nur in großem Umfang am Fremdstoffmetabolismus beteiligt, sondern auch am Abbau von Schilddrüsenhormonen und Glucocorticoiden. Sie können damit direkt Einfluss auf den Kohlenhydrat- und Energiestoffwechsel sowie die Regulation der Nahrungsaufnahme nehmen. Über eine PPARα-abhängige Induktion von CAR im Rahmen der Fastenadaption könnten die CAR-Zielgene UDP-Glucuronyltransferase 1A1 und Sulfotransferase N beispielsweise verstärkt Schilddrüsenhormone abbauen und in der Folge den Grundumsatz senken. Der in dieser Arbeit erstmals beschriebene Mechanismus ist dafür von zentraler Bedeutung.
Fatty acid metabolism is tightly regulated. Thus the activity and expression level of specific enzymes involved in fatty acid turnover are controlling fatty acid catabolism. The nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α (PPARα) acts as the key regulator of these pathways. PPARα is activated by intracellular free fatty acids and promotes the fatty acid transport and break down, as well as gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis, via induction of target genes. An increase in free fatty acids as seen in fasting and diabetes activates PPARα. Under these conditions, an elevated expression of another nuclear receptor, the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) and its target genes, mainly enzymes catalysing biotransformation such as cytochrome P450 2B (CYP2B1), was also observed. It is therefore likely that as yet unidentified modes of interaction between PPARα and CAR signalling exist. The object of the present work was to discover these underlying mechanisms utilising an in vitro model, the PPARα-agonist induced increase of the phenobarbital (PB)-dependent induction of the CAR target gene CYP2B1. Furthermore, an in vivo study would serve to demonstrate the physiological relevance of a PPARα-agonist induced modulation of the CYP2B activity. The synthetic PPARα agonists under investigation significantly enhanced the PB-dependent mRNA and protein expression as well as activity of CYP2B in primary rat hepatocytes. Without prior treatment with PB, PPARα agonists did not induce CYP2B activity. In the presence of PB, PPARα agonists increased the CYP2B activity dose-dependently. Luciferase reporter gene assays showed that the PB-dependent induction of the CY2B1 promoter relied on a distal PBREM (PB-responsive enhancer module), a well-known CAR binding site. PPARα agonists enhanced this PB- and PBREM-dependent reporter gene transcription and induced the upregulation of CAR mRNA and CAR protein expression. The PPARα agonists also activated the transcription of a reporter gene controlled by up to 4.4 kb upstream of the putative CAR-transcription start site. A potential peroxisome proliferator activated receptor responsive element (PPRE), essential for the initiation of transcription by PPARα agonists, could be identified between -942 bp to -930 bp upstream of the transcription start site using CAR promoter deletion constructs. In subsequent band shift experiments, enhanced nuclear protein accumulation with this specific promoter region was observed. In contrast to unlabelled wild-type CAR reporter gene vector, an excess of unlabelled CAR reporter gene vector with PPRE deletion did not compete with the binding of nuclear protein. Furthermore, this PPRE could be amplified with specific primers after chromatin immunoprecipitation with a PPARα antibody. Treatment of rats with a PPARα agonist resulted in a significant induction of CAR mRNA expression and significantly increased PB-dependent CYP2B activity. A physiological relevance of this newly-discovered mechanism is confirmed by the observation that PPARα-deficient mice, unlike wild-type mice, do not respond to fasting with an increase of CAR mRNA expression. The results of these experiments suggest that activated PPARα binds to the PPRE of the CAR promoter to initiate transcription of the CAR gene. CAR therefore could be regarded as a PPARα target gene, which implicates that PPARα- and CAR-signalling are directly linked through binding of PPARα to the CAR promoter. For subsequent enhanced induction of CAR target genes, activation of CAR, for instance using PB, is required. In vivo studies with PPARα agonists in rats support the relevance of the PPARα-dependent CAR expression. CAR target genes code for enzymes that metabolise not only a wide range of xenobiotics, but also thyroid hormones and glucocorticoids. CAR target genes could therefore directly interfere with carbohydrate and energy metabolism, as well as with food intake. PPARα-dependent induction of CAR upon fasting could lead to an increased expression of the CAR target genes UDP-glucuronyl transferase 1A1 and sulfotransferase N, resulting in an enhanced degradation of thyroid hormones, and decreased resting energy expenditure. The findings of this present study are of primary importance since it is the first time that this mechanism has been described.

[Truncated abstract] Breast cancer is the cause of significant suffering and death in our community. It is now estimated that the risk of developing breast cancer for an Australian woman before the age of 85 is 1 in 8, with this risk rising for unknown reasons. While mortality rates from breast cancer are falling due to increased awareness and early detection, few new treatments have been developed from an advanced understanding of the molecular basis of the disease. From decades of scientific research it is clear that estrogen (E2) has a large role to play in breast cancer. However, the basic mechanism behind E2 action in breast cancer remains unclear. E2 plays a fundamental role in breast cancer cell proliferation and is highly expressed in breast cancers, thus, it is important to understand both E2 and its receptor, the estrogen receptor (ER). The ER is a member of the nuclear receptor (NR) superfamily. The NR superfamily consists of a large group of proteins which regulate a large number of homeostatic proteins together with regulator proteins termed coregulators and corepressors. SRA (steroid receptor RNA activator) is the only known RNA coactivator and augments transactivation by NRs. SRA has been demonstrated to play an important role in mediating E2 action (Lanz et al., 1999; Lanz et al., 2003) and its expression is aberrant in many human breast tumors, suggesting a potential role in breast tumorigenesis (Murphy et al., 2000). Despite evidence that an alternative splice variant of SRA exists as a protein (Chooniedass-Kothari et al., 2004), it has been conclusively shown that SRA can function as an RNA transcript to coactivate NR transcription (Lanz et al., 1999; Lanz et al., 2002; Lanz et al., 2003). The precise mechanism by which SRA augments ER activity remains unknown. However, it is currently hypothesized that SRA acts as an RNA scaffold for other coregulators at the transcription initiation site. Several SRA stem loops have been identified as important for SRA function, including structure (STR) 1, 5 and 7 (Lanz et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2007). Previously, I sought to identify SRA-binding proteins using a specific stem-loop structure of SRA (STR7) that was identified as both important for its coactivator function (Lanz et al., 2002) and also as a target for proteins from breast cancer cell extracts (Hatchell, 2002). From a yeast E. Hatchell Abstract iii III hybrid screen using STR7 as bait, I identified a novel protein which was named SLIRP (Patent Number: WO/2007/009194): SRA stem-Loop Interacting RNA-binding Protein (Hatchell, 2002; Hatchell et al., 2006). '...' This thesis demonstrates that SLIRP modulates NR transactivation, provides mechanistic insight into interactions between SRA, SRC-1, HSP-60 and NCoR and suggests that SLIRP may regulate mitochondrial function. These studies contribute significantly to the growing field of NR biology, and contribute more specifically to the elucidation of estrogen action in breast cancer. Furthermore, it lays a strong and exciting foundation for further studies to evaluate SLIRP as a biomarker and potential therapeutic target in hormone dependent cancers.

DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that consists of the addition of a methyl, or of a hydroxyl and a methyl group, to the cytosine of CpG dinucleotides. Some gene promoters are rich in CpGs that are predominantly not modified; other promoters and most enhancers are poor in CpGs. These elements, as well as most exons, introns and intergenic regions, tend to be methylated. CpG methylation plays an important role in maintaining transposable elements and tandem arrays of repetitive sequences in a repressed state. CpG methylation is also responsible for the uniparental silencing of imprinted alleles, allowing the monoallelic expression of some genes, and for the silencing and clonal transmission of the inactive X chromosome in mammals. The use of this modification as a means of dynamically turning individual genes on or off, illustrated by the activation of individual odorant receptor genes, is less common.

In the past few decades, various novel actions of vitamin D have been discovered. The mechanism of action of calcitriol or vitamin D is mediated by the Vitamin D receptor (VDR), a subfamily of nuclear receptors, which acts as a transcription factor in the target cells after formation of a heterodimer with the retinoid X receptor (RXR). As the VDR has been found in virtually all cell types, vitamin D exerts multiple actions on different tissues. Vitamin D has important immunomodulatory actions, which includes enhancement of the innate immune system and inhibition of the adaptative immune responses. These actions are associated with an increase in production of interleukin (IL)-4 by T helper (Th)-2 lymphocytes and the up-regulation of regulatory T lymphocytes. Vitamin D can regulate the immune responses in secondary lymphoid organs as well as in target organs through a number of mechanisms. Vitamin D inhibits the expression of APC cytokines, such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, IL-12, and tissue necrosis factor- α (TNF-α) and decreases the expression of a set of major histocompatibility complex (MCH) class II cell surface proteins in macrophages. Vitamin D also inhibits B cell differentiation and antibody production. These actions reflect an important role of Vitamin D in balancing the immune system.