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Books on the topic 'Reformisme religieux'
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1
Yusuf, Saladin Hamat. Dr. Hamat Yusuf: Birokrat religius yang reformis. Pustaka Refleksi, 2006.
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2
Hyung-Jun, Kim. Reformist Muslim: The Islamic Transformation of Contemporary Socio-Religious Life. ANU E Press, 2007.
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3
State, society, and religious engineering: Towards a reformist Buddhism in Singapore. Eastern Universities Press, 2003.
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4
State, society, and religious engineering: Towards a reformist Buddhism in Singapore. 2nd ed. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009.
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5
Kim, Hyung-Jun. Reformist Muslims in a Yogyakarta Village: The Islamic Transformation of Contemporary Socio-Religious Life. ANU Press, 2007.
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6
Michel de L'Hôpital: The vision of a reformist chancellor during the French religious wars. Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1997.
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7
Gupta, O. P. Vedic inequality and Hinduism: A reformist agenda- dalit emancipation and return to Vedic brotherhood. New Age Books, 2006.
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8
Tan, Lee. Buddhist Revitalization and Chinese Religions in Malaysia. Amsterdam University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/9789463726436.
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Buddhist Revitalization and Chinese Religions in Malaysia tells the story of how a minority community comes to grips with the challenges of modernity, history, globalization, and cultural assertion in an ever-changing Malaysia. It captures the religious connection, transformation, and tension within a complex traditional belief system in a multi-religious society. In particular, the book revolves around a discussion on the religious revitalization of Chinese Buddhism in modern Malaysia. This Buddhist revitalization movement is intertwined with various forces, such as colonialism, religious transnationalism, and global capitalism. Reformist Buddhists have helped to remake Malaysia’s urban-dwelling Chinese community and have provided an exit option in the Malay and Muslim majority nation state. As Malaysia modernizes, there have been increasing efforts by certain segments of the country’s ethnic Chinese Buddhist population to separate Buddhism from popular Chinese religions. Nevertheless, these reformist groups face counterforces from traditional Chinese religionists within the context of the cultural complexity of the Chinese belief system.
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Tahtah, M. Entre Pragmatisme Reformisme Et Modernisme: Le Role Politico-Religieux De Khattabi Dans Le Rif. Peeters Bvba, 2000.
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10
Haddad, Mohamed. Muslim Reformism - A Critical History: Is Islamic Religious Reform Possible? Springer, 2020.
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11
Kadivar, Mohsen, and Mirjam Künkler. Human Rights and Reformist Islam. Translated by Niki Akhavan. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474449304.001.0001.
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Human Rights and Reformist Islam critiques traditional Islamic approaches to the question of compatibility between human rights and Islam and argues instead for their reconciliation from the perspective of a reformist Islam. The book focuses on six controversial case studies: religious discrimination; gender discrimination; slavery; freedom of religion; punishment of apostasy; and arbitrary or harsh punishments. Explaining the strengths of structural ijtihad, Mohsen Kadivar’s approach is based on the rational classification of Islamic teachings as temporal or permanent on the one hand, and four criteria of being Islamic on the other: reasonableness, justice, morality and efficiency. In the book, all of the verses of the Qur’an and the Hadith that are problematic in relation to human rights are abrogated rationally according to these criteria. The result is a powerful, solutions-based argument based on reformist Islam – providing a scholarly bridge between modernity and Islamic tradition in relation to human rights. The book’s fourteen chapters are organized in five sections, including freedoms of belief, religion and politics, women’s rights, and slavery in contemporary Islam. Adding an extensive new introduction and annotations throughout the text from Kadivar bring the work up-to-date and place it in its academic and public contexts. In the introduction, the author critically compares his approach to Islam and human rights with those of five leading contemporary scholars: Mahmoud M. Taha, Abdullahi A. an-Na’im, Ann E. Mayer, Mohammad M. Shabestari and Abdulaziz A. Sachedina.
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Eng, Kuah-Pearce Khun. State, Society and Religious Engineering: Towards a Reformist Buddhism in Singapore. Eastern University, 2003.
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13
Shireen, Hunter, ed. Reformist voices of Islam: Mediating Islam and modernity. M.E. Sharpe, 2008.
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14
Merad, Ali. Le reformisme musulman en Algerie de 1925 a 1940: Essai d'histoire religieuse et sociale (Collection du monde musulman). 2nd ed. Editions el hikma, 1999.
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15
Hanretta, Sean. New Religious Movements. Edited by John Parker and Richard Reid. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199572472.013.0016.
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The late twentieth century saw the rise of new forms of religiosity and a growing consensus about the utility of the concept of ‘religion’ to describe a wide range of beliefs and practices. The idea that Africa was perpetually in need of modernization and socio-economic ‘development’ influenced the theological and practical evolution of Christianity, Islam, and various ‘indigenous’ spiritual traditions. Pentecostalism and reformist Islam shared a turn towards the personalization of spiritual quests and a sense of rupture with the recent past. New movements attacked existing institutions, paths to religious knowledge and authority, and the perceived routinization of spiritual guidance. New patterns of connection between Africa and the rest of the world produced complex mixings and inventions separate from the movement of peoples or the territorial expansion of empires. Further research is needed into the links between the political and financial institutions shaping recent forms of globalization and the intellectual and social content of new religious movements.
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Spannaus, Nathan. Preserving Islamic Tradition. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190251789.001.0001.
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Abu Nasr Qursawi (1776–1812) was a major figure in the history of the Muslim communities of the Russian Empire. An important religious scholar, he wrote works calling for the reform of the Islamic scholarly tradition that shaped the religious discourse of these communities into the 20th century. Qursawi focused on the construction of Islamic scholarship in the postclassical period (14th–19th centuries), criticizing scholars’ overreliance on taqlid, which had led them to hold incorrect theological views and prevented them from engaging with scripture in legal interpretation (through ijtihad). He argued that all scholarly positions must be verified (tahqiq) to ensure their correctness, and ijtihad was an obligation upon all Muslims to determine their own actions. Though critical, his reformism was grounded within the existing scholarly tradition, and its content was not subject to European influence. Nevertheless, it can be seen as a response to the incorporation of Islamic institutions into the bureaucracy of the Russian imperial state in the late 18th century, which remade the exercise of Islamic law and religious authority in the empire. This book analyzes his reformism in reference to its antecedents and sources and in light of these historical shifts. It also addresses the issue of modernity, arguing that although his reformism is grounded in the postclassical tradition, it is also an early example of Islamic modernism. It is, however, distinct from Jadidism, the 20th-century reform movement, despite frequent claims to contrary, as Jadidism instead grew out of transformations in the Volga-Ural religious environment postdating Qursawi.
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Schlieter, Jens. The Imperative of “Individual Experience”. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190888848.003.0016.
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It was especially in radical reformist, to a lesser extent in modernist, and only occasionally in conservative religious circles, that near-death experiences were held to harbor significant religious meaning. This chapter identifies some major trends of the “religious crisis” (McLeod) of the 1960s, such as the deinstitutionalization of church religiosity, the rise of alternative spiritualities, and the imperative of resorting to the privileged, first-person experience, that contributed to the growing importance of near-death experiences.
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Gallo, Ester. Some Moments in History. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199469307.003.0002.
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Chapter one sets the historical context in which both nationalist and middle-class reformist movements developed in colonial Kerala and India across caste, class, gender, and religious diversity. It focuses on the reformist movements known as the Yoga Kshema Sabha (henceforth YKS) and Nambudiri Yuva Jana Sangham (YJS) which developed at the beginning of the twentieth century to voice the class ambitions of young Nambudiri Brahmins. The YKS and YJS ethos will be discussed in relation to the colonial de-legitimation of indigenous kinship and to the broader history of gender reform that has marked the middle classes in Kerala. An analysis of YKS documents will highlight how the debate on kinship expressed the aim of drawing a ‘divine elite’ into the arena of inter-community competition and the place of reformed domesticity in this process.
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Clark, Nicola. ‘The healthe of my soule’. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198784814.003.0007.
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Throughout the sixteenth century and beyond, the Howards are usually described as religiously ‘conservative’, resisting the reformist impulse of the Reformation while conforming to the royal supremacy over the Church. The women of the family have played little part in this characterization, yet they too lived through the earliest stages of the Reformation. This chapter shows that what we see is not a family following the lead of its patriarch in religious matters at this early stage of the Reformation, but that this did not stop them maintaining strong kinship relations across the shifting religious spectrum.
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Kelly, Stephen. The Pre-Reformation Landscape. Edited by Andrew Hiscock and Helen Wilcox. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199672806.013.2.
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This chapter surveys the rich and vibrant devotional culture of late medieval England, expressed in liturgy and collective religious practices, and in the development of a wide-ranging lay literature of spiritual and theological ambition, from writers such as Walter Hilton, Nicholas Love to energetic promoters of orthodox theology such as Margaret Beaufort. While acknowledging the emergence of Wycliffism, the heresy associated with Oxford theologian John Wyclif, the chapter argues that Wycliffism and its perceived off-shoot, ‘Lollardy’, should be read as part of a spectrum of reformist thinking that characterized the late medieval Church’s conception of its evangelical mission. The chapter problematizes notions of medieval religious culture as either atrophied or homogeneous, arguing instead that the variety and vitality of medieval English religious culture should complicate any quest for origins in accounts of the English Reformation.
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Lim, Timothy H. 8. Jewish sectarianism in the Second Temple period. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198779520.003.0008.
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‘Jewish sectarianism in the Second Temple period’ contextualizes the Dead Sea Scrolls within the history of Second Temple Judaism and discusses the origins and history of the Qumran community of the Essenes. The period began under Persian rule, when Cyrus adopted a policy of religious tolerance. Alexander’s conquest of Judaea led to Hellenistic rule, until the Maccabaean revolt gained Jewish freedom. The Qumran–Essenes did not view Maccabaeans as legitimate rulers, so left the group before the Hasamonaean dynasty began. Judaism at this time comprised many sects. Some, such as the Qumran–Essenes, were introversionist and isolated, whereas others were reformist and remained in wider society.
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Mir, Mustansir. Muḥammad Iqbāl (d. 1938). Редактори Khaled El-Rouayheb та Sabine Schmidtke. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199917389.013.39.
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Muhammad Iqbal’s The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam belongs in the category of modern Muslim reformist works, which address, issues of a practical nature faced by Muslims in the social, political, and legal spheres. Iqbal’s Reconstruction analyzes these issues at a deeper, philosophical level, seeking to transform minds and outlook before proposing specific solutions to specific problems. The primary aim of the Reconstruction is to rejuvenate Muslim thought in the modern context. To this end, it enters into a critical engagement with the intellectual, religious, spiritual, and scientific thought of the Muslim and Western traditions, inquiring into the prospects of bringing into harmony, from an Islamic standpoint and in an Islamic setting, tradition and modernity, religion and science. The legacy of the Reconstruction is its invitation to Muslims to reassess the entire Islamic tradition, being fully cognizant of modern developments in thought without breaking with their own past.
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Trencsényi, Balázs, Michal Kopeček, Luka Lisjak Gabrijelčič, Maria Falina, Mónika Baár, and Maciej Janowski. Toward Socialism with a Human Face? Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198737155.003.0010.
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Marxist revisionism, providing a powerful political language of intra-systemic opposition, was characterized by an effort to restore the relative autonomy of the personality in the face of both society and history, to provide new ethics, a new way of life, and envision “socialism with a human face.” The 1960s witnessed an unprecedented boom of Marxist and non-Marxist intellectual and cultural production, ranging from the rediscovery of the inconvenient past to critical analyses of existing socialist societies and an artistic blossoming reconnecting East Central Europe to broader European intellectual and aesthetic currents. Another venue of dialogue was between unorthodox Marxists and religious thinkers struggling to find their way in secular state socialist regimes. The climax and eventually also the anti-climax of this revival was 1968, with the rise of reform communist movements, linking technocratic and democratic reformism with revolutionary radicalism coming mainly from the student movements.
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al-Azmeh, Aziz. Secularism in the Arab World. Translated by David Bond. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474447461.001.0001.
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This book provides a study of secularisation and secularism in the Arab World, between middle of the nineteenth century and the end of the twentieth. It approaches the its subject in the modern history of the Arab World as a set of historical changes which affected the regulation of social, political, religious and cultural order which permeated the concrete workings of society, rather than as an ideological discussion framed from the outset by the presumed opposition between Islam and secularism. The book traces social, institutional and cultural changes of a secularising character, the emergence and consolidation of a secular political and legal system, the rise of a new type of educational and political arrangements with their complement of a modern intelligentsia, the social and institutional attrition of the Muslim religious institution and the strong reformist current in Islam, the rise of modern cognitive regimes, ideologies and secular culture, and the balances of secular and religious elements in nationalism. The book traces the rise of secularist and anti-religious culture in the variety of its manifestations, and of anti-modernism as well, and the emergence of associated religious and anti-modernist currents in the wake of the 1967 war, the associated strengthening of Islamist politics and its move from the margins to the centre in the last quarter of the twentieth century.
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Schröter, Susanne. Islamic Feminism. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198788553.003.0006.
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The aims of Islamic feminism are at once theological and socially reformist. Its proponents are often activists, as well as authors and scholars. It is linked to democratic reform movements within the Islamic world as well as to civil rights movements in Europe and the USA, and is supported by actors who resist the advances of patriarchal religious positions as well as Western secular definitions of modernity. Unlike secular feminists, proponents of Islamic feminism see the justification for their fight for women’s rights and gender equality in their own interpretation of Islam’s sacred text, the statements attributed to the Prophet, and his supposed life circumstances. In addition, they draw on approaches taken from new Islamic historiography. This chapter deals with the foundations of Islamic feminism and its transnational political dimension, and asks in what national and local transformation processes its proponents were able to have an impact.
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Kadivar, Mohsen, and Gianluca Parolin. Blasphemy and Apostasy in Islam. Translated by Hamid Mavani. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474457576.001.0001.
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Is it lawful to shed the blood of a man or a woman who insults the Prophet Muhammad? Does the Qur’an stipulate a worldly punishment for apostates? Beginning with a genealogy of religious freedom in contemporary Islam, this book tells the gripping story of Rafiq Taqi, an Azerbaijani journalist and writer, who was condemned to death by an Iranian cleric for a blasphemous news article in 2006. Delving into the most sacred sources for all Muslims – the Qur’an and Hadith – Mohsen Kadivar explores the subject of blasphemy and apostasy from the perspective of Shi’a jurisprudence to articulate a polarisation between secularism and extremist religious orthodoxy. In a series of online exchanges, he debates the case with Muhammad Jawad Fazel, the son of Grand Ayatollah Fazel Lankarani who issued the fatwa pronouncing death penalty on Taqi. While disapproving of the journalist’s writings, Kadivar takes a defensive stance against vigilante murders and asks whether death for apostasy reflects the true spirit of Islam. This book presents a back-and-forth debate between modern two Shi’a jurists (one conservative, one reformist) that locates the exact points of controversy surrounding apostasy and blasphemy. It engages with the broader subjects of religious freedom and human rights, addressing both secular and religious interests. The author’s extensive new introduction and annotations throughout the text brings the work up-to-date and place it in its academic and public contexts. Finally, the book takes a front-row seat to the debate on blasphemy and apostasy in Islam.
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Dallal, Ahmad S. Islam without Europe. University of North Carolina Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5149/northcarolina/9781469641409.001.0001.
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Replete with a cast of giants in Islamic thought and philosophy, Ahmad S. Dallal’s pathbreaking intellectual history of the eighteenth-century Muslim world challenges stale views of this period as one of decline, stagnation, and the engendering of a widespread fundamentalism. Far from being moribund, Dallal argues, the eighteenth century--prior to systematic European encounters--was one of the most fertile eras in Islamic thought. Across vast Islamic territories, Dallal charts in rich detail not only how intellectuals rethought and reorganized religious knowledge but also the reception and impact of their ideas. From the banks of the Ganges to the shores of the Atlantic, commoners and elites alike embraced the appeals of Muslim thinkers who, while preserving classical styles of learning, advocated for general participation by Muslims in the definition of Islam. Dallal also uncovers the regional origins of most reform projects, showing how ideologies were forged in particular sociopolitical contexts. Reformists’ ventures were in large part successful--up until the beginnings of European colonization of the Muslim world. By the nineteenth century, the encounter with Europe changed Islamic discursive culture in significant ways into one that was largely articulated in reaction to the radical challenges of colonialism.
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Dudoignon, Stéphane A. Since 1993. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190655914.003.0006.
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In the decades after Khomeini’s death, the oases world’s middlemen class of Iran’s Baluch society has produced political figures able to wield nationwide influence. While maintaining pressure on Tehran from within, the Iranisation of Deobandi religious schools (and of the Kurdish-born Muslim-Brother militant networks) helped reinforce Iran’s national cohesion despite periods of sharp tension. This permitted Deobandi leaders and their Muslim-Brother allies to obtain, under Reformist presidents Muhammad Khatami (1997-2005) and Hasan Ruhani (since 2013), concessions in terms of local government and representation of the minorities. At the same time, the underdevelopment of Iran’s Sunni-peopled marches, the continuous degradation of their ecological situation, the confiscation of the revenues of cross-border smuggling by the Islamic Republic’s paramilitary bodies, the limited reforms implemented since 2013 by the Ruhani administration, the June 2017 ISIS/Daesh-claimed attacks in Tehran and the anti-Sunni repression that followed have fuelled new waves of ‘tribal feud’. This growing violence highlights the contrast between the ability shown by the Sarbaz nexus of Deobandi Sunni ulama to develop nationwide influence, on the first hand, and, on the other hand, the limits of these middlemen’s leadership on Baluch society.
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Bailey, Heather L. The Public Image of Eastern Orthodoxy. Cornell University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501749513.001.0001.
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Focusing on the period between the revolutions of 1848 to 1849 and the First Vatican Council (1869–1870), this book explores the circumstances under which westerners, concerned about the fate of the papacy, the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Russian imperial power, began to conflate the Russian Orthodox Church with the state and to portray the Church as the political tool of despotic tsars. As the book demonstrates, in response to this reductionist view, Russian Orthodox publicists launched a public relations campaign in the West, especially in France, in the 1850s and 1860s. The linchpin of their campaign was the building of the impressive Saint Alexander Nevsky Church in Paris, consecrated in 1861. The book posits that, as the embodiment of the belief that Russia had a great historical purpose inextricably tied to Orthodoxy, the Paris church both reflected and contributed to the rise of religious nationalism in Russia that followed the Crimean War. At the same time, the confrontation with westerners' negative ideas about the Eastern Church fueled a reformist spirit in Russia while contributing to a better understanding of Eastern Orthodoxy in the West.
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Atwood, Blake. Reform Cinema in Iran. Columbia University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7312/columbia/9780231178174.001.0001.
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It’s nearly impossible to separate contemporary Iranian cinema from the Islamic revolution that transformed film production in the country in the late 1970s. As the aims of the revolution shifted and hardened once Khomeini took power and as an eight-year war with Iraq dragged on, Iranian filmmakers confronted new restrictions. In the 1990s, however, the Reformist Movement, led by Mohammad Khatami, and the film industry, developed an unlikely partnership that moved audiences away from revolutionary ideas and toward a discourse of reform. In Reform Cinema in Iran, Blake Atwood examines how new industrial and aesthetic practices created a distinct cultural and political style in Iranian film between 1989 and 2007. Atwood analyzes a range of popular, art, and documentary films. He provides new readings of internationally recognized films such as Abbas Kiarostami’s Taste of Cherry (1997) and Mohsen Makhmalbaf’s Time for Love (1990), as well as those by Rakhshan Bani, Masud Kiami, and other key Iranian directors. At the same time, he also considers how filmmakers and the film industry were affected by larger political and religious trends that took shape during Mohammad Khatami’s presidency (1997-2005). Atwood analyzes political speeches, religious sermons, and newspaper editorials and pays close attention to technological developments, particularly the rise of video, to determine their role in democratizing filmmaking and realizing the goals of political reform. He concludes with a look at the legacy of reform cinema, including films produced under Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, whose neoconservative discourse rejected the policies of reform that preceded him.
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Dandekar, Deepra. The Subhedar's Son. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190914042.001.0001.
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The book The Subhedar’s Son: A Narrative of Brahmin-Christian Conversion from Nineteenth-Century Maharashtra is based on an annotated translation of the Marathi book Subhedārāchā Putra written in 1895 by Rev. Dinkar Shankar Sawarkar. This book explores the experience of Christian conversion among Brahmins from the earliest Anglican missions of the Bombay Presidency (Church Missionary Society) established in the nineteenth century. Investigating how Brahmin converts counterbalanced social and family ostracism and accusations of procolonialism by retaining upper-caste and Marathi identity, this book demonstrates how retaining multiple identities facilitated Christian participation in the early nationalist and reformist intellectual movements of Maharashtra. Further, Brahmin Christians contributed to the burgeoning vernacular literary market as authentic rationalists and modernists, who countered atheism and challenged Hindu social-religious reform as inadequate. Not only did early vernacular Christian literature contribute to the precipitation of knowledge on ‘religion’ in colonial Maharashtra, as sets of dichotomized ideas and identities, but converts also transcended these dichotomized binaries by staging ‘conversion’ as a discursive activity straddling emergent religious, ethnic, and caste differences. Discussing whether nineteenth-century Marathi upper-caste converts constituted an ethnic community, the book explores how interstitial identity between multiple and ascribed ethnicities in colonial Maharashtra produced Brahmin Christians as a political minority whose demographic strength dwindled with the independence of India. Their presence today, elicited only within the history of vernacular literature from nineteenth-century Maharashtra, reveals how converts sought to integrate themselves with both Marathi and Christian society by rearticulating Christian devotion within Indic frameworks of Bhakti.
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Al-Rasheed, Madawi. The Son King. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197558140.001.0001.
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The murder of journalist Jamal Khashoggi at the Saudi consulate in Istanbul by regime operatives shocked the international community and tarnished the reputation of the young, reformist Crown Prince Muhammad bin Salman. This book situates the murder in the context of the duality of reform and repression and challenges common wisdom about the inevitability of the latter. The author dismisses defunct views about the inescapable ‘Oriental Despotism’ as the only pathway to genuine reform in the country. Focusing on the prince’s divisive domestic, social and economic reforms, the author argues that the current wave of unprecedented repression is a function of the prince consolidating his power outside of the traditional consensus of royal family members and influential Saudi groups. But the divisive populist nationalism bin Salman has adopted, together with repressing the diverse critical voices of religious scholars, feminists and professionals, has failed to silence a vibrant young Saudi society and an articulate and connected youth cohort. Due to its repression, Saudi Arabia is now producing asylum seekers and refugees who seek safe havens abroad to pursue their quest for freedom, equality and dignity. While the regime continues to pursue them abroad and punish their families at home, exiled activists are determined to continue the struggle against one of the most repressive monarchies in the Arab world.
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Ledger-Lomas, Michael. Unitarians and Presbyterians. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199683710.003.0005.
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Methodism was originally a loosely connected network of religious clubs, each devoted to promoting holy living among its members. It was part of the Evangelical Revival, a movement of religious ideas which swept across the North Atlantic world in the eighteenth century. This chapter charts the growth and development, character and nature, and consolidation and decline of British Methodism in the nineteenth century from five distinct perspectives. First, Methodism grew rapidly in the early nineteenth century but struggled to channel that enthusiasm in an effective way. As a result, it was beset by repeated secessions, and the emergence of rival Methodist groups, each with their own distinctive characteristics, of which Wesleyan Methodism was the largest and most influential. Second, while Methodism grew rapidly in England, it struggled to find a successful footing in the Celtic fringes of Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. Here, local preoccupations, sectarian tensions, and linguistic differences required a degree of flexibility which the Methodist leadership was often not prepared to concede. Third, the composition of the Methodist membership is considered. While it is acknowledged that most Methodists came from working-class backgrounds, it is also suggested that Methodists became more middle class as the century progressed. People were attracted to Methodism because of its potential to transform lives and support people in the process. It encouraged the laity to take leadership roles, including women. It provided a whole network of support services which, taken together, created a self-sufficient religious culture. Fourth, Methodism had a distinctive position within the British polity. In the early nineteenth century the Wesleyan leadership was deeply conservative, and even aligned itself with the Tory interest. Wesleyan members and almost all of Free Methodism were reformist in their politics and aligned themselves with the Whig, later Liberal interest. This early conservatism was the result of Methodism’s origins within the Church of England. As the nineteenth century progressed, this relationship came under strain. By the end of the century, Methodists had distanced themselves from Anglicans and were becoming vocal supporters of Dissenting campaigns for political equality. Fifth, in the late nineteenth century, Methodism’s spectacular growth of earlier decades had slowed and decline began to set in. From the 1880s, Methodism sought to tackle this challenge in a number of ways. It sought to broaden its evangelical message, and one of its core theological precepts, that of holiness. It embarked on an ambitious programme of social reform. And it attempted to modernize its denominational practices. In an attempt to strengthen its presence in the face of growing apathy, several branches of Methodism reunited, forming, in 1932, the Methodist Church in Britain. However, this institutional reorganization could not stop the steady decline of British members into the twentieth century. Instead, Methodism expanded globally, into previously non-Christian areas. It is now a denomination with a significant world presence. British Methodism, however, continues to struggle, increasingly of interest only as a heritage site for the origins of a much wider and increasingly diverse movement.