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Journal articles on the topic 'Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 6 February 2022

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1

Chitimira, Howard, and Elfas Torerai. "The Nexus between Mobile Money Regulation, Innovative Technology and the Promotion of Financial Inclusion in Zimbabwe." Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal 24 (June 29, 2021): 1–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2021/v24i0a10739.

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The advent of mobile money innovations has given people in rural areas, informal settlements and other poor communities an opportunity to participate in Zimbabwe's mainstream financial economy. However, the technology-driven money services have presented some challenges to the traditional banking sector in general and the regulation of financial services in particular. Firstly, most mobile money services are products of telecommunication corporations, which are not banks. Telecommunication companies use their network reach to provide mobile money services via mobile devices at a cheaper cost than banks across the country in Zimbabwe. As such, banks face unprecedented competition from telecommunications companies that are venturing into financial services. It also appears that prudential regulation of banks cannot keep up with the fast pace at which technological innovations are developing and this has created a disjuncture between the regulation and the use of technological innovations to promote financial inclusion in Zimbabwe. The Banking Act [Chapter 24:20] 9 of 1999, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe Act [Chapter 22:15] 5 of 1999 and the National Payment Systems Act [Chapter 24:23] 21 of 2001 have a limited scope in terms of the regulation of mobile money services in Zimbabwe. The Ministry of Finance and Economic Development launched the National Financial Inclusion Strategy (NFIS) 2016-2020 to provide impetus to the financial inclusion of the poor, unbanked and low-income earners in Zimbabwe. However, the NFIS appears to push more for bank-led financial inclusion than it does for innovation-driven initiatives such as mobile money services. This article highlights the positive influence of mobile money services in improving financial inclusion for the poor, unbanked and low-income earners in Zimbabwe. The article also seeks to point out gaps and flaws in the financial services regulatory framework that may limit the potential of mobile money services to reach more people so that they actively participate in the Zimbabwean economy. It is submitted that the Zimbabwean mobile money services regulations and the financial regulatory framework should be carefully amended in line with the recent innovations in mobile money to adequately regulate the use of mobile money services and innovative technology to address the financial exclusion of the poor, unbanked and low-income earners in Zimbabwe.

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2

Mpofu, Raphael Tabani. "Dollarization and economic development in Zimbabwe: An interrupted time-series analysis." Risk Governance and Control: Financial Markets and Institutions 5, no. 4 (2015): 38–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/rgcv5i4art4.

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This paper examines the impact of dollarization on the performance of the Zimbabwean economy from 2003 to 2014 using an interrupted time-series analysis. In Zimbabwe’s case, dollarization was the official replacement of the Zimbabwean dollar with the U.S. dollar. Rapid dollarization in the economy was accelerated by the exogenous shock caused by the injection of cash dollars into the Zimbabwean economy, mostly from international transfers. Since the official adoption of dollarization, Zimbabwe is largely a cash-based economy, with a huge amount of U.S. dollars that are in circulation outside the banking system. A hands-off approach to currency management has served Zimbabwe well since 2009, but a number of risks are beginning to emerge as the economy has slowly regenerated itself and the need for large capital injections has increased. Macroeconomic data obtained from the World Bank and from the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe’s Monthly Economic Review is analysed. According to the tests conducted, it was found that dollarization did introduce some macroeconomic stability in Zimbabwe although a few key macroeconomic variables showed a sustained improvement. Statistical analysis shows that increased dollarization had positively affected reversed the spiralling effects of hyperinflation that were prevalent prior to 2009, although inflationary pressures still continued, albeit at a slower pace. This research has implications not just for Zimbabwean policy makers as they grapple with decisions pertaining to re-adoption of a local currency and/or the continuation of the use of the US dollar and/or the adoption of a regional currency, for example, the South African rand. The African Union and specifically, the Southern Africa Development Community should look at these policy issues very closely in order to provide policy direction to its member states.

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3

Barugahara, Florence. "Financial Inclusion in Zimbabwe: Determinants, Challenges, and Opportunities." International Journal of Financial Research 12, no. 3 (February 4, 2021): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/ijfr.v12n3p261.

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Financial inclusion is a highly topical issue for policymakers since inclusive finance is viewed as a channel of social and economic development. Therefore, this paper seeks to ascertain and examine the determinants, challenges, and opportunities for financial inclusion in Zimbabwe. The research is done by examining existing literature and estimating Logit and Probit models. This paper finds that, the major determinants of financial inclusion in Zimbabwe are; gender, age, education, income levels, employment status, the cost of financial services, account opening requirements, and level of trust in the financial system. Challenges to financial inclusion in Zimbabwe include; financial illiteracy, lack of formal identification documents, lack of trust in the financial system, fragile economy, rural poor and gender inequality, and high transaction costs of financial services. However, mobile money services such as Eco-cash, Tel-cash, and One-money have proved an opportunity for inclusive finance in Zimbabwe. Furthermore, the establishment of the women’s Bank of Zimbabwe is one of the strategies to enhance inclusive finance for women in Zimbabwe. The simplified KYC requirements for low-income groups and the financial inclusion strategy commissioned by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe are hoped to promote financial inclusion. This paper recommended that to make finance inclusive, the government should develop policies that target marginalized groups such as the elderly, rural population, low-income earners, females, and the unemployed. The government should also develop a strong consumer protection regulatory framework, promote financial literacy, reduce the transaction cost of financial services and encourage the use of accounts with simplified KYC requirements to ease documentation needs.

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4

Phiri, Maxwell A., and Pinigas Mbengo. "Governance of the impact of price satisfaction dimensions on mobile banking adoption." Risk Governance and Control: Financial Markets and Institutions 7, no. 4-2 (2018): 270–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/rgc7i4c2art9.

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The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe has encouraged the use of mobile banking services in a bid to promote financial inclusion and as an additive banking channel to compliment traditional banking model. The mobile phones have phenomenally changed the way the Zimbabwean banking industry is conducting business. The major purpose of this study is to critically examine the impact of influence of price satisfaction dimensions on behavioural intention to adopt mobile banking. The study used a descriptor-explanatory design whereby descriptive design was a precursor to explanation. Data was collected using a questionnaire and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Findings show that relative prices had the strongest positive influence on behavioural intention to adopt mobile banking. However, price confidence did not indicate any significant relationship with dependent behavioural intention and the hypothesis so associated was therefore not supported. Price fairness and price transparency had negative significant relationships with the dependent variable behavioural intention to adopt mobile banking. Given these findings, the researchers made recommendations to various stakeholders in the banking industry. This study is important because it highlights the dimensions that are powerful predictors in attracting new customers in the mobile baking industry.

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5

John Davison Nhavira. "An Independent Review of The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe's Monetary Policy Transparency." Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review 26, no. 1 (2010): 59–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/eas.0.0012.

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6

Tarugara, Allan, Bruce W. Clegg, Edson Gandiwa, Victor K. Muposhi, and Colin M. Wenham. "Measuring body dimensions of leopards (Panthera pardus) from camera trap photographs." PeerJ 7 (September 18, 2019): e7630. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7630.

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Measurement of body dimensions of carnivores usually requires the chemical immobilization of subjects. This process can be dangerous, costly and potentially harmful to the target individuals. Development of an alternative, inexpensive, and non-invasive method therefore warrants attention. The objective of this study was to test whether it is possible to obtain accurate measurements of body dimensions of leopards from camera trap photographs. A total of 10 leopards (Panthera pardus) were captured and collared at Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve, Zimbabwe from May 7 to June 20, 2017 and four body measurements namely shoulder height, head-to-tail, body, and tail length were recorded. The same measurements were taken from 101 scaled photographs of the leopards recorded during a baited-camera trapping (BCT) survey conducted from July 1 to October 22, 2017 and differences from the actual measurements calculated. Generalized Linear Mixed Effects Models were used to determine the effect of type of body measurement, photographic scale, posture, and sex on the accuracy of the photograph-based measurements. Type of body measurement and posture had a significant influence on accuracy. Least squares means of absolute differences between actual and photographic measurements showed that body length in the level back-straight forelimb-parallel tail posture was measured most accurately from photographs (2.0 cm, 95% CI [1.5–2.7 cm]), while head-to-tail dimensions in the arched back-bent forelimb-parallel tail posture were least accurate (8.3 cm, 95% CI [6.1–11.2 cm]). Using the BCT design, we conclude that it is possible to collect accurate morphometric data of leopards from camera trap photographs. Repeat measurements over time can provide researchers with vital body size and growth rate information which may help improve the monitoring and management of species of conservation concern, such as leopards.

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7

Chakawa, Joshua, and V. Z. Nyawo-Shava. "Guerrilla warfare and the environment in Southern Africa: Impediments faced by ZIPRA and Umkhonto Wesizwe." Oral History Journal of South Africa 2, no. 2 (February 4, 2015): 36–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.25159/2309-5792/6.

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Zimbabwe Peoples’ Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) was the armed wing of Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) which waged the war to liberate Zimbabwe. It operated from its bases in Zambia between 1964 and 1980. Umkhonto Wesizwe (MK) was ANC’s armed wing which sought to liberate South Africa from minority rule. Both forces (MK and ZIPRA) worked side by side until the attainment of independence by Zimbabwe when ANC guerrillas were sent back to Zambia by the new Zimbabwean government. This paper argues that the failure of ZIPRA and Umkhonto Wesizwe to deploy larger numbers of guerrillas to the war front in Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) and South Africa was mainly caused by bio-physical challenges. ZAPU and ANC guerrillas faced the difficult task of crossing the Zambezi River and then walking through the sparsely vegetated areas, game reserves and parks until they reached villages deep in the country. Rhodesian and South African Defense Forces found it relatively easy to disrupt guerrilla movements along these routes. Even after entering into Rhodesia, ANC guerrillas had environmental challenges in crossing to South Africa. As such, they could not effectively launch protracted rural guerrilla warfare. Studies on ZIPRA and ANC guerrilla warfare have tended to ignore these environmental problems across inhospitable territories. For the ANC, surveillance along Limpopo River and in Kruger National Park acted more as impediments than conduits. ANC also had to cope with almost all challenges which confronted ZIPRA guerrillas such as the Zambezi, Lake Kariba and various parks which Rhodesians always used as a first line of defense but had a geographically difficult task in South Africa where the environment was not attractive for a guerrilla warfare.

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8

Hubbard, Stephen M. "The National Infrastructure Reserve Bank." Public Works Management & Policy 22, no. 1 (November 11, 2016): 38–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087724x16670644.

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This article examines the implementation of a novel national infrastructure bank (NIB) which coins or “makes” U.S. currency to provide capital for infrastructure loans. This approach eliminates bond expense while reducing long-term life cycle costs caused by deferred maintenance and construction inflation. It also addresses the three main issues that have blocked prior NIB proposals by providing a near zero-cost source of capital, reducing the total size of government employment, and isolating funding from national politics while reducing costs by US$75 to US$220 billion and creating up to three million or more jobs annually.

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9

Gopinath, Gita, and Jeremy C. Stein. "Trade Invoicing, Bank Funding, and Central Bank Reserve Holdings." AEA Papers and Proceedings 108 (May 1, 2018): 542–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20181065.

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We develop a model that shows how the currency denomination of a country's imports influences the funding structure of its banking system, and in turn, the currency composition of its central bank's reserve holdings. The link between the dollar's role in bank funding and its role as a central bank reserve currency is stronger when the country's fiscal capacity is limited, and when exchange rates are volatile. In the data, there is a pronounced cross-country relationship between the fraction of imports that are dollar invoiced, and the fraction of central-bank foreign-exchange reserves that are held in dollars.

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10

GANGOPADHYAY, PARTHA. "RESERVE BANK INDEPENDENCE: SOME CRITICAL INSIGHTS." Economic Papers: A journal of applied economics and policy 15, no. 1 (March 1996): 20–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-3441.1996.tb00921.x.

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11

Gray, Simon. "Central Bank Balances and Reserve Requirements." IMF Working Papers 11, no. 36 (2011): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5089/9781455217908.001.

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12

Makoni, Patricia Lindelwa, and Lindiwe Ngcobo. "Finance and firm characteristics in Zimbabwe." Corporate Ownership and Control 11, no. 2 (2014): 465–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cocv11i2c5p3.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of firm-specific characteristics on the accessibility of firm financing in Zimbabwe using 2011 data from World Bank enterprise surveys. The results of the study show that firm characteristics in Zimbabwe determine the type of financing that is used for investment and working capital purposes. Small firms seem to rely more on internal financing as opposed to using bank funds, probably due to their small operations and lack of assets to put up as collateral. The larger firms however find it easier to access bank finance as they are much older in terms of age, have developed good relations with their financial services’ providers and are also able to provide the required collateral to back their lines of credit. Both domestic and foreign-owned firms highlighted financial constraints as a major obstacle to their businesses. However foreign firms seemed to access bank loans easier than domestic firms. Also, gender seems to play a minor role in the financing decisions of the firm. It is therefore recommended that the Government engages the financial market intermediaries to find feasible business financing solutions for all sized firms, especially those owned by locals. This would lead to the much-needed economic growth through investment attraction and employment creation.

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13

Clegg, BW, and TG O'Connor. "The vegetation of Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve, south-eastern Zimbabwe." African Journal of Range & Forage Science 29, no. 3 (December 2012): 109–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/10220119.2012.744352.

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14

Kwashirai, Vimbai Chaumba. "Poverty in the Gwai Forest Reserve, Zimbabwe: 1880-1953." Global Environment 1, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 146–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.3197/ge.2008.010106.

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15

Dube, Cinderella, and Victor Gumbo. "Technology Acceptance Model for Zimbabwe: The Case of the Retail Industry in Zimbabwe." Applied Economics and Finance 4, no. 3 (March 22, 2017): 56. http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/aef.v4i3.2208.

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The retail industry in Zimbabwe has embraced the use of a variety of technologies in order to survive in this ever changing technological era. However, little research has been done on the adoption and use of these technologies and no model has been developed to date. The aim of this paper was to develop a model best suited to the Zimbabwean retail industry in order to enhance the successful adoption and use of online transaction platforms. The online transaction platforms used to develop the model were Internet banking, Automated Teller Machines, Mobile banking and Point of Sale. A three-sample dataset comprising of 268 bank and supermarket customers, 56 bank managers and 31 supermarket managers was used. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to determine the relationship between the given factors influencing adoption and use of online transaction platforms and the constructs perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. The resultant TAMZIM model borrowed ideas from the Technology Acceptance Models proposed by Fred Davis in the mid-80s.

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16

Sircar, Subhalakshmi, and Sandeep Goel. "Monetary Policy of Reserve Bank of India: Role of Bank Lending." Arthshastra : Indian Journal of Economics & Research 4, no. 3 (June 1, 2015): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.17010/aijer/2015/v4i3/71378.

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17

Osborne, Dale K., and Tarek S. Zaher. "Reserve requirements, bank share prices, and the uniqueeness of bank loans." Journal of Banking & Finance 16, no. 4 (August 1992): 799–812. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4266(92)90009-o.

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18

Vogt, Michael G. "Bank reserve adjustment process and the use of reserve carryover as a reserve management tool." Journal of Banking & Finance 13, no. 1 (March 1989): 31–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4266(89)90017-4.

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19

Spindt, Paul A., and Vefa Tarhan. "Bank reserve adjustment process and the use of reserve carryover as a reserve management tool." Journal of Banking & Finance 13, no. 1 (March 1989): 37–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4266(89)90018-6.

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20

Lown, Cara S., and John H. Wood. "The determination of commercial bank reserve requirements." Review of Financial Economics 12, no. 1 (January 2003): 83–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1058-3300(03)00008-9.

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21

HENDY, PETER, and GREG EVANS. "RESERVE BANK INDEPENDENCE: STILL ON THE AGENDA." Economic Papers: A journal of applied economics and policy 14, no. 1 (March 1995): 50–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-3441.1995.tb01109.x.

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22

Jackson, MKC. "RESERVE BANK INDEPENDENCE : A POST KEYNESIAN PERSPECTIVE." South African Journal of Economics 70, no. 1 (March 2002): 29–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.2002.tb00037.x.

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23

McGregor, R. R., and W. Young. "Federal Reserve Bank Presidents as Public Intellectuals." History of Political Economy 45, Supplement 1 (January 1, 2013): 166–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00182702-2310989.

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24

Liu, Yu, Shuting Dong, Mingming Lu, and Jianxin Wang. "LSTM based reserve prediction for bank outlets." Tsinghua Science and Technology 24, no. 1 (February 2019): 77–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.26599/tst.2018.9010007.

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25

HAVRILESKY, THOMAS, and JOHN GILDEA. "THE BIASES OF FEDERAL RESERVE BANK PRESIDENTS." Economic Inquiry 33, no. 2 (April 1995): 274–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.1995.tb01862.x.

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26

Tindall, Michael, and Roger W. Spencer. "A monthly model of bank reserve aggregates." Atlantic Economic Journal 15, no. 3 (September 1987): 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02316885.

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27

Rabson, Magweva, and Marime Norman. "Bank specific factors and bank performance in the multi-currency era in Zimbabwe." African Journal of Business Management 10, no. 15 (August 14, 2016): 373–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.5897/ajbm2016.8076.

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28

Geng, Zhongyuan, and Xue Zhai. "Effects of the Interest Rate and Reserve Requirement Ratio on Bank Risk in China: A Panel Smooth Transition Regression Approach." Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society 2015 (2015): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/571384.

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This paper applies the Panel Smooth Transition Regression (PSTR) model to simulate the effects of the interest rate and reserve requirement ratio on bank risk in China. The results reveal the nonlinearity embedded in the interest rate, reserve requirement ratio, and bank risk nexus. Both the interest rate and reserve requirement ratio exert a positive impact on bank risk for the low regime and a negative impact for the high regime. The interest rate performs a significant effect while the reserve requirement ratio shows an insignificant effect on bank risk on a statistical basis for both the high and low regimes.

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29

Yimer, Mitku Malede. "Lending and Cash Required Reserve: Empirical Evidence from Ethiopian Commercial Bank." European Scientific Journal, ESJ 14, no. 13 (May 31, 2018): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.19044/esj.2018.v14n13p179.

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The study was mainly intended to determine the effect of cash required reserve on commercial bank lending in Ethiopia using panel data of eight purposively chosen commercial banks over the period of eleven years (2005 to 2015). The investigation tested the relationship between commercial bank lending and cash required reserve. Eleven years financial data of eight purposively chosen commercial banks were used for analysis purpose. Ordinary least square model was applied to test the impact of predictor variable on commercial bank lending. The result suggests that, there is no significant relationship between commercial bank lending and cash required reserve in Ethiopian commercial. This study suggests that commercial bank have to give less emphasis to cash required reserve because it doesn’t weakens banks credit creation ability and does not leads a bank to be insolvent.

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Abel, Sanderson, Alex Bara, and Pierre Le Roux. "Evaluating Bank Cost Efficiency Using Stochastic Frontier Analysis." Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies 11, no. 3(J) (July 18, 2019): 48–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v11i3(j).2868.

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The study seeks to assess the cost efficiency of the commercial banks in Zimbabwe using the stochastic frontier analysis. The cost efficiency of the Zimbabwean banks is estimated using the trans-log stochastic frontier approach. The Stochastic Frontier Analysis methodology is among the host of methods that has been used to measure banking sector efficiency. The analysis of cost efficiency of commercial banks has important implications for the economy since an efficient banking system has potential to reduce interest rates which can lead to increased investment and growth for the economy. The cost of doing business in Zimbabwe is perceived to be high hence improved bank efficiency has the potential to reduce the cost of doing business. The average cost efficiency scores for the Zimbabwean banks over the study period show that the banking sector in Zimbabwe experiencing 17 percent inefficiency. The efficiency levels have been declining over the years reflecting increased resource wastage in the system. The study recommends that the banking institutions should continue to innovate so as to reduce their inefficiencies.

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31

Pantelić, Svetlana. "Reserve 100-Dinar banknote." Bankarstvo 49, no. 4 (2020): 88–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/bankarstvo2004088p.

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The 100-dinar banknote dated 15 July 1934 is a reserve banknote produced as a result of the worsened economic and international relations in Europe, which had motivated the competent state bodies and the National Bank of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia to start amassing war reserves. Out of the total 24,565,000 banknotes, the National Bank had released a smaller part into circulation between 6-15 April 1941, to pay the military units. A larger part of the banknotes was destroyed, while another smaller part was stolen by the occupying forces and used for payments in the occupied country. The banknote was produced at the Institute for Manufacturing Banknotes and Coins, according to the drawing of Vasa Pomorišac, an academic painter, in cooperation with a print-maker, Panta Stojićević, and an engraver, Veljko Kun.

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Judson, Ruth A., and Elizabeth Klee. "Big bank, small bank: Monetary policy implementation and banks’ reserve management strategies." Journal of Economics and Business 63, no. 4 (July 2011): 306–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconbus.2011.01.005.

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33

Ropafadzo, Chigunhah Blessing, Svotwa Ezekia, Munyoro Gerald, Mabvure Tendai Joseph, and Govere Ignatius. "Characterization of Bank Lending Requirements for Farmers in Zimbabwe." Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development 10, no. 2 (September 1, 2020): 628–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.18488/journal.ajard.2020.102.628.644.

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Bank credit availability is vital for enhancing farm productivity, income, and farmer livelihoods. This study sought to characterize the lending requirements considered by commercial banks when lending to farmers in Zimbabwe. Primary data were collected from a cross-section of 12 registered commercial banks. Relative Importance Index (RII) and Thematic analysis analysed data. High importance lending requirements that were always considered by all commercial banks when lending to farmers included credit history, productive farm assets, business registration, loan purpose, amount, and repayment source. Agricultural production skills, age, business plans, financial statements, social reputation, and project insurance were also mandatory in the majority of the commercial banks. High to medium importance lending requirements included extension support, business management skills, bank account ownership, own contribution, and personal savings. Medium importance requirements included formal basic education, alternative income, and freehold land ownership. Therefore, besides the widely documented collateral, local commercial banks also considered several other requirements when lending to farmers. Government policy should go beyond solving the collateral issue but benchmark its policies to other bank lending requirements. Farmers should also pursue personal development programs in agricultural production, business, and financial management. They should also invest in off-farm assets to ensure collateral availability.

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Shubbar, Haidar Diphil, and Andrey Vladimirovich Girinsky. "Reserve assets as sources of replenishing resource base of banking sector and improving its stability." Vestnik of Astrakhan State Technical University. Series: Economics 2019, no. 4 (December 16, 2019): 130–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.24143/2073-5537-2019-4-130-136.

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The paper focuses on the importance of using reserve assets in order to increase the bank financial stability and the banking system as a whole. The essential requirements for reserving commercial banks have been presented. The methods of regulating the required reserves have been studied. The specific features of applying the required reserves in banking activities (reserve requirements and liquidity, monetary policy, reserve requirements as a monetary tool, reserve requirements as a fiscal tool) have been revealed. The schedule of averaging periods of required reserves for 2019 is being considered. The general principles which credit organizations are guided by when creating reserves are the following: obligatory availability of reserves for all credit organizations throughout their existence; forming reserves in relation to liabilities to legal entities and individuals; possibility of removing from the list obligations for which reserves have been created. It has been mentioned that the main objectives of the reserve requirement system are to provide banks with sufficient liquidity and to regulate the money supply. Particular attention is paid to the Central Bank as a reserve requirements regulator. In accordance with the changes of the Central Bank of July 1, 2019, the established standards on reserve requirements for deposits in national currency are set at 4%, in foreign currency at 14%. Manipulating the required reserve rate will provide the Central Bank with the opportunity to adjust the liquidity and solvency both of an individual bank and the entire banking system. The method of averaging required reserves includes the possibility for a commercial bank not to transfer reserves to the Central Bank based on a certain sum of money. The averaging coefficient is set at 0.25 to the standard volume of required reserves

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35

Hoque, Md Ariful, Afzal Ahmad, Mustafa Manir Chowdhury, and Mohammad Shahidullah. "Impact of Monetary Policy on Bank’s Profitability: A Study on Listed Commercial Banks in Bangladesh." International Journal of Accounting & Finance Review 5, no. 2 (October 11, 2020): 72–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.46281/ijafr.v5i2.796.

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Monetary policy is the policy by which the government of a country control supplies of money in an economy which is announced by the central bank for every six months. Central Bank carries out monetary policy by the banking system of a country. Central Bank uses Bank rate; Cash reserve ratio and open market operation to control the availability of funds in an economy. Within these three instruments, the cash reserve ratio is directly linked to the commercial bank's profitability. Every commercial bank maintains a cash reserve ratio against their demand & time deposits. Being changes in the cash reserve ratio banks profit level may increase or decrease. The prime intention here is to show the impact of monetary policy, especially Cash Reserve Ratio on the commercial bank's profitability. This study covers only listed commercial banks in Bangladesh. As sample researcher purposively selected 15 listed commercial banks that have available information. Results revealed that CRR negatively related to Return On Assets (-0.1133), Return On Equity (-0.0577) as well as Return On Investment (-0.0504). This means the bank's profitability declined due to the increase in cash reserve ratio (CRR). Again regression analysis outlined that the cash reserve ratio negatively impacts on the profitability of studied commercial banks in Bangladesh, which is statistically significant at the 10% level. Researchers proposed that Bangladeshi commercial banks will design their profitability plan by considering monetary policy tools, particularly the Cash reserve ratio.

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36

Gildea, John A. "The Regional Representation of Federal Reserve Bank Presidents." Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 24, no. 2 (May 1992): 215. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1992737.

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37

ALPER, KORAY, MAHIR BINICI, SELVA DEMIRALP, HAKAN KARA, and PINAR ÖZLÜ. "Reserve Requirements, Liquidity Risk, and Bank Lending Behavior." Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 50, no. 4 (May 3, 2018): 817–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jmcb.12475.

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Cecchetti, S. G. "The European Central Bank and the Federal Reserve." Oxford Review of Economic Policy 19, no. 1 (March 1, 2003): 30–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/19.1.30.

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Padayachee, Vishnu. "South African Reserve Bank independence: the debate revisited." Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa 89, no. 1 (2015): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/trn.2015.0029.

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GREENBAUM, STUART I., and ANJAN V. THAKOR. "BANK RESERVE REQUIREMENTS AS AN IMPEDIMENT TO SIGNALING." Economic Inquiry 27, no. 1 (January 1989): 75–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.1989.tb01164.x.

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McAvoy, Michael R. "How were the Federal Reserve Bank locations selected?" Explorations in Economic History 43, no. 3 (July 2006): 505–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2005.06.004.

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Cañón, Carlos, and Paula Margaretic. "Correlated bank runs, interbank markets and reserve requirements." Journal of Banking & Finance 49 (December 2014): 515–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2014.03.040.

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Evanoff, Douglas D. "An empirical examination of bank reserve management behavior." Journal of Banking & Finance 14, no. 1 (March 1990): 131–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-4266(90)90040-9.

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Yun, Youngjin. "Reserve accumulation and bank lending: Evidence from Korea." Journal of International Money and Finance 105 (July 2020): 102158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2020.102158.

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Sephton, Peter S. "On exchange intervention, sterilization, and bank reserve accounting." Journal of International Money and Finance 8, no. 3 (September 1989): 445–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0261-5606(89)90008-9.

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Udin N.F., M. Rofi, and Rully Trihantana. "KEMUNGKINAN PENERAPAN PROFIT EQUALIZATION RESERVE (PER) PERBANKAN SYARIAH DALAM TINJAUAN FIQIH DI INDONESIA." NISBAH: JURNAL PERBANKAN SYARIAH 1, no. 1 (June 1, 2015): 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.30997/jn.v1i1.234.

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ABSTRAKSehubungan dengan upaya Bank Syariah mengatasi terjadinya “fund flight”, maka saat ini telah beredar isu mengenai sebuah instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengatasi kerugian tersebut yaitu Profit Equalization Reserve (PER).Tujuan yang ingin dicapai adalah Mengetahui penerapan PER (Profit Equalization Reserve) pada perbankan syariah dalam tinjauan fiqih. Mengetahui kemungkinan penerapan PER (Profit Equalization Reserve) pada perbankan syariah di Indonesia.Metode yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah penelitian deskriptif kualitatif, data yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah data primer dan data sekunder. Data primer adalah data yang berhubungan dengan penerapan PER (Profit Equalization Reserve) di perbankan syariah. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, bahwa instrumen PER (Profit Equalization Reserve) ini termasuk pada mashlahah mursalah karena belum ada dalil yang memerintahkan dan melarangnya namun bermanfaat dan tidak bertentangan dengan dalil syar’i. sehingga instrumen PER (Profit Equalization Reserve) ini dapat dimungkinkan untuk diterapkan namun bank syariah harus mendapat persetujuan nasabah terlebih dahulu sebelum menciptakan PER (Profit Equalization Reserve) dan diakhir periode bank syariah harus mendistribusikan dana tersebut kepada nasabah dengan adil.Kata Kunci : Profit Equalization Reserve, kontrak Mudharabah

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Walsh, Carl E. "Is New Zealand's Reserve Bank Act of 1989 an Optimal Central Bank Contract?" Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 27, no. 4 (November 1995): 1179. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2077796.

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Dang, Van Dan, and Japan Huynh. "Bank lending in an emerging economy: How does central bank reserve accumulation matter?" Economic Journal of Emerging Markets 13, no. 1 (April 2021): 53–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.20885/ejem.vol13.iss1.art5.

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Makanyeza, Charles, and Lovemore Chikazhe. "Mediators of the relationship between service quality and customer loyalty." International Journal of Bank Marketing 35, no. 3 (May 15, 2017): 540–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijbm-11-2016-0164.

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Purpose There is a dearth of studies that have investigated mediators of the effect of service quality on customer loyalty under the conditions prevailing in Zimbabwe; where bank customers’ confidence in the banking system has been dented by bank failures. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the mediators of the effect of service quality on loyalty among bank customers in Zimbabwe. Design/methodology/approach A cross-sectional survey of 310 bank customers was conducted in Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe. A questionnaire with Likert type questions was used to collect data. Customers were randomly intercepted as they walked out of five major banks. Structural equation modelling was used to test the proposed relationships. Findings The study found that service quality, satisfaction and corporate image all have positive direct effects on loyalty. It was also found that satisfaction and corporate image all mediate the effect of service quality on loyalty. Research limitations/implications The study was conducted in Chinhoyi, one of the emerging towns in Zimbabwe. There is a need to conduct more similar studies in other parts of the world in future in order to have a better understanding of this subject. Practical implications Banks are advised to address issues to do with service quality, customer satisfaction and corporate image when designing marketing programmes intended to increase customer loyalty. Originality/value Studies that have investigated mediators of the relationship between service quality and customer loyalty in banking environments such as in Zimbabwe are scarce. This study was conducted to address this knowledge gap. Relationships among customer loyalty and its antecedents are not likely to change due to conditions prevailing in a particular banking environment.

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Musgrave, Ralph Stephen. "Two flaws in fractional reserve banking." Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 7, no. 7 (July 13, 2020): 26–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.77.8572.

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The existing bank system, fractional reserve, is inherently risky because it involves accepting deposits while lending out about as much money as has been deposited, and telling depositors their money is safe, which it quite clearly is not and for the simple reason that if a bank makes silly loans, it cannot repay depositors. That problem is currently dealt with via taxpayer backed deposit insurance and billion dollar bail outs for banks. But that state support for banks amounts to preferential treatment for banks relative to other lenders, of which there are several: e.g. peer to peer lenders and trade credit lenders to name just two. That preferential treatment for one type of lender is a misallocation of resources. Second, having a bank lend on your money is just as much a commercial transaction as having a stockbroker lend on or invest your money, and it is not to job of taxpayers to shield those involved in commerce from loss, unless there is an extremely good reason for doing so, which in this case there is not. As for the idea which has become popular of late, namely that commercial banks create the money they lend on rather than intermediate between lenders and borrowers, that is not entirely true as was explained in a Bank of England article (McLeay, 2014). The best solution to the above two flaws in fractional reserve is to abandon all state support for banks while letting those who want their money to be totally safe deposit it with the state, something the people in several countries have actually been free to do for a long time anyway. And that arrangement equals full reserve banking. Earlier expositions of some of the basic ideas in this paper by the author are detailed in an endnote.

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