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Journal articles on the topic 'Reversal of the burden of proof'

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Published: 11 September 2021
Last updated: 11 February 2022

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1

Wiriadinata, Wahyu. "Corruption and Reversal Burden of Proof." Journal of Public Administration and Governance 4, no. 1 (March 19, 2014): 62. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jpag.v4i1.5447.

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This paper, entitled Corruption and Reversal Burden of Proof, was intended to deal with a question on the extent of the effectiveness of a reversal burden of proof as stipulated in positive (applicable) Indonesia law, that is, as provided for in Law Number 31 of 1999 on Eradication of Corruption Crime. Then, a problem that rose next was: could the application of reversal burden of proof in proving a corruption crime case prevent or reduce or even eliminate totally corruption crimes in Indonesia? This research built on a theoretical frame of thought from Roscoe Pound, who maintains that law is a tool of social engineering. This concept was cited by Muchtar Kusumaatmadja, who adapted it to Indonesia conditions and adjusted it to be law as a social engineering medium. Engineering is meant here as a transformation of the thinking ways of people from traditional thinking ways to modern ones. Law should be made as a means in resolving the entire problems that emerge between and among community, including corruption crimes. One of the things that needs to be changed is a law of proof law system, that is, from a conventional proof system to be a reversal one. This paper was written by a juridical-normative method, that is, by studying legislations, be they are contained in laws and those contained in literature/books on legal science, particularly legislations related to reversal burden of proof. Then, the results, in a form of juridical aspect, was written in a descriptive-analytical form. The overall conclusion of this research was an answer of the problems posed above, that is: Corruption crimes have been continuously occurring till now in Indonesia. Thus, Law Number 31 of 1999, particularly Article 37, has not been effective yet in eradicating corruption crimes.
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2

Mursanto, Deddy, La Ode Muhammad Karim, and Mashendra Mashendra. "Effectiveness to the reversal of the burden proof system in handling corruption case." Jurnal Hukum Volkgeist 5, no. 1 (December 9, 2020): 14–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.35326/volkgeist.v5i1.863.

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Corruption is an act that can harm State finances and cause losses to the people's economy. This study aims to determine the arrangement of the burden of proof reversals system of corruption according to the applicable provisions and the proper regulation in implementing the system of reversing the burden of proof to be done optimally. This study uses a normative juridical research methodology with a statute approach. This research's data analysis method is descriptive qualitative by describing the problems and facts in writing from the literature. The study indicates that the burden of proof reversal system concerning the Eradication of Corruption Crimes contained in Law no. 20 of 2001 is limited only to the offense of gratification regulated in Article 12 B paragraph (1) letter a. The withdrawal presumption proof can also be extended to the defendant's property, which is claimed to be connected to the accused's case (Article 37 A) and the property of the defendant (who has not been charged) which is not accused of corruption as a result of a criminal act (Article 38 B). Reversal of the burden of proof in the law of corruption is a reversal of the burden of proof impartial public prosecutor and the defendant alike must prove but / the same element proved different.
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3

Nugroho, Hibnu. "Reversal burden of proof on corruption in Indonesia." Problems of Legality, no. 140 (March 13, 2018): 175–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.21564/2414-990x.140.121442.

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4

Azizah, Hanifah, M. Hamdan M. Hamdan, Mahmud Mulyadi, and Sunarmi Sunarmi. "Analisis Pembuktian Terbalik Pada Tindak Pidana Pencucian Uang (Studi Putusan MA NO. 1454 K/PID.SUS/2011; PUTUSAN MA NO. 537 K/PID.SUS/2014; PUTUSAN MA NO. 336 K/PID.SUS/2015)." Journal of Education, Humaniora and Social Sciences (JEHSS) 4, no. 1 (June 24, 2021): 80–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.34007/jehss.v4i1.588.

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TPPU (Money Laundering Criminal Act) is regulated in Law 8/2010 on Prevention and Eradication of TPPU. The research was focused on TPPU which corruption as its principle criminal act, Its Law enforcement by using reversal of the burden of proof. The research used juridical normative and descriptive analytic method. The data were gathered by conducting library research and analyzed qualitatively, and the conclusion was drawn deductively, from general to specific. The purposes of this research is to know about the regulation on reversal of the burden of proof in Law on TPPU and the implementation of reversal of the burden of proof in TPPU in the Supreme Court’s Rulings No. 1454 K/ Pid.Sus/2011, No. 527 K/ Pid.Sus/2014, and No. 336K/ Pid.Sus/2015, and how about the obstacles and their solution for reversal of the burden of proof in the case of TPPU. Reversal of the burden of proof should be applied in the level of investigation because TPPU is an extraordinary crime so that extraordinary treatment should also be applied since TPPU has great impact on the State’s economic condition. Therefore, TPPU should have shortcut in its process so that the State’s loss can optimally (effectively and efficiently) be solved.
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5

Hasnawati, Hasnawati. "REVERSAL BURDEN OF EVIDANCE ON A CRIMINAL CORRUPTION IN INDONESIA." Tadulako Master Law Journal 2, no. 2 (June 30, 2018): 72. http://dx.doi.org/10.22487/j25797697.2018.v2.i2.10411.

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The research aim are to know the implementation of strict evidence in corruption committed in Indonesia and the constraint or obstacle faced by the corruption agency. The method of this research was normative juridical, because the research about reversal burden of proof of corruption in crime in Indonesia, which data obtained from primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials. Research result reveal that implementation of proof in corruption cases is often felt to be ineffective and very burdensome to the Investigator apparatus therefor two theories of proof, namely the free theory embraced by the dependent and negative theory according to the law adopted by the public prosecutor or ordinary commonly called the theory reversal burden of limited proof and in balance , the dependent has the right to proved that he has not commited a criminal act of corruption and that the prosecutor still has the duty to verify the indictment. The obstacles faced by law enforcement in implementing the burdening system of proof on the handling of corruption crime, namely the Contraints for the public Prosecutor and the obstacle for the judge divided into 2(two) types, namely : Juridical and Non Juridical Contrains
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6

Hasuri, Hasuri, and Mia Mukaromah. "PEMBUKTIAN TERBALIK KASUS TINDAK PIDANA KORUPSI DALAM PERSPEKTIF HAK ASASI MANUSIA." ADLIYA: Jurnal Hukum dan Kemanusiaan 14, no. 2 (January 14, 2021): 157–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.15575/adliya.v14i2.9605.

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Corruption is considered a great crime and requires special handling. In handling corruption, special handling is needed by using the proof reversed or reversal of the burden of proof but in a balanced manner. The purpose of this study is to explain the reverse evidence of corruption from a human rights perspective. This research uses the empirical normative legal research method, namely the combination of normative legal provisions (laws) with practical elements (legal events in society/social elements). The study results state that the theory of reverse proof of corruption cases based on a human rights perspective does not violate the principles and respect for the rights of the defendants in the general principles of criminal law.
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7

Sumaryanto, Djoko. "The implication of reversal burden proof on corruption criminal act." Research, Society and Development 9, no. 4 (March 22, 2020): e60942844. http://dx.doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i4.2844.

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The polemic of the ratification of KPK (Corruption Eradication Commission) Constitution indicated the good intentions of government as well as people in society through their respective perceptions which in conclusion whether the KPK is getting stronger or become weaker. The aim of this analysis is to examine on the implication of reversal burden proof system on corruption criminal act in Indonesian Law. Reversal of the burden proof as determined in the PTPK Law and the 2003 KAK Law leaves problems in its implementation, through normative legal research with the study of laws and comparisons, something new is obtained which is a guideline for judges in giving verdicts regarding the results of verification of assets and actions. Implications of proven or unproven acts and assets of the defendant through reversing the burden of proof of criminal criminal behavior which is greatly affects the received sanction by the defendant which include imprisonment penalties, criminal sanctions for fines and additional criminal sanctions in the form of returning state financial losses.
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8

Sadasivam, A. "Reversal of burden of proof: a tough nut to crack." Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice 5, no. 10 (August 12, 2010): 713–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpq100.

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9

Dayton, P. K. "ECOLOGY: Reversal of the Burden of Proof in Fisheries Management." Science 279, no. 5352 (February 6, 1998): 821–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.279.5352.821.

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10

Prabowo, Bagus Surya, and Syarif Fadillah. "PENERAPAN SISTEM BEBAN PEMBUKTIAN TERBALIK DALAM PERKARA TINDAK PIDANA KORUPSI DI INDONESIA." VERITAS 7, no. 1 (April 30, 2021): 89–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.34005/veritas.v7i1.1176.

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Corruption crimes always turn out to be more neat and difficult to reveal, thus demanding changes in the system that capable of eradicating corruption to its roots. And one of the changes is the implementation of a reversed burden of proof system that makes it easier for prosecutors to reveal the criminal elements in a corruption case. Even though it has been included in positive law, in practice this proof is not fully applied and there are still obstacles in its application. This study seeks to answer in what cases this reverse burden of proof is applied and what are the obstacles in its application. This research concludes that the reversal burden of proof system in Indonesia is applied only to criminal acts of gratification whose nominal value is above Rp. 10 million and is used to confiscate the property of the defendant who has not been charged by the prosecutor. Meanwhile, the obstacles to implementing a system of reversal burden of proof are 1) the existence of a judicial mafia, 2) a legal culture that has not yet adapted to the new system, and 3) reverse burden of proof is not clearly regulated in Indonesian law. Abstrak Kejahatan korupsi selalu berubah menjadi lebih rapih dan sulit diungkap sehingga menuntut adanya perubahan sistem yang mampu untuk memberantas korupsi sampai keakarnya. Dan salah satu perubahan itu adalah dengan penerapan sistem beban pembuktian terbalik yang memudahkan jaksa untuk mengungkap unsur pidana dalam sebuah kasus korupsi. Meskipun sudah dicantumkan didalam hukum positif, namun dalam praktiknya pembuktian ini tidak diterapkan secara menyeluruh serta masih ada hambatan dalam penerapannya. Penelitian ini berupaya menjawab dalam kasus apa saja beban pembuktian terbalik ini diterapkan serta apa saja hambatan dalam penerapannya. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan sistem beban pembuktian terbalik di Indonesia dilaksanakan hanya pada tindak pidana gratifikasi yang nominalnya diatas Rp 10 juta serta digunakan untuk perampasan harta terdakwa yang belum didakwakan jaksa. Sedangkan hambatan penerapan sistem beban pembuktian terbalik yaitu 1) adanya mafia peradilan, 2) budaya hukum yang belum beradaptasi dengan sistem baru, dan 3) pembuktian terbalik tidak diatur secara jelas dalam undang-undang.
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11

Mulyadi, Lilik. "ASAS PEMBALIKAN BEBAN PEMBUKTIAN TERHADAP TINDAK PIDANA KORUPSI DALAM SISTEM HUKUM PIDANA INDONESIA DIHUBUNGKAN DENGAN KONVENSI PERSERIKATAN BANGSA-BANGSA ANTI KORUPSI 2003." Jurnal Hukum dan Peradilan 4, no. 1 (March 31, 2015): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.25216/jhp.4.1.2015.101-132.

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This article describes some problems of the result of research regarding the shifting of burden of proof upon corruption offences in the Indonesian system of criminal law with regards UN Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC) 2003. There are two basic questions which become the research objections, firstly: to what extent the shifting of burden of proof has been implemented in the criminal court regarding corruption cases, and secondly, to what extent does the legislation policy apply for the shifting of burden of proof in relation with UNCAC 2003. The article uses normative research which regulation, conceptual, case and comparative approach. Such research emphasizes interpretation and legal construction to obtain some legal norms, conception, regulation list and its implementation in concreto cases. Regulation and conceptual approach to used how to know, existention, consistency and harmonization regarding the shifting of burden of proof upon corruption offences in legislation body. The cases approach uses comparative law regarding the reversal burden of proof upon corruption offencer between Indonesia and the other countries. This research shows that the shifting of burden of proof has never yet applied for in the corruption cases Indonesia. Those experiences is not similar with the experiences of against corruption Hong Kong and India, wihich implement the reversal burden of proof by using some approach socalled balanced probability of principles in the relation to the property or asset of defendant comes from. The Indonesian corruption regulation policy, especialy article 12B, 37, 37A, 38B apparently it’s not cleaq and disharmony to norm of sudden charge of fortune the shifting of burden of proof formulation in connection with United Nations Convention Against Corruption 2003(KAK 2003). So, necessary (needs) of modification sudden charge of fortune shifting of burden of proof formulation which preventive, represive and restorative characteristic. Keywords: Shifting the Burden of Proof, Corruption Offences, Criminal Justice System
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12

Clarke, Steve. "The reversal test, status quo bias, and opposition to human cognitive enhancement." Canadian Journal of Philosophy 46, no. 3 (June 2016): 369–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00455091.2016.1176982.

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AbstractBostrom and Ord’s reversal test has been appealed to by many philosophers to substantiate the charge that preferences for status quo options are motivated by status quo bias. I argue that their characterization of the reversal test needs to be modified, and that their description of the burden of proof it imposes needs to be clarified. I then argue that there is a way to meet that burden of proof which Bostrom and Ord fail to recognize. I also argue that the range of circumstances in which the reversal test can be usefully applied is narrower than they recognize.
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13

Jade, Adinda Putri, Yaris Adhial Fajrin, Diah Nadia Putri, and Aisya Sanghra Devi Nugraha. "The Reverse Burden of Proof in Indonesia's Money Laundering: A Review." Lentera Hukum 7, no. 3 (November 23, 2020): 355. http://dx.doi.org/10.19184/ejlh.v7i3.18680.

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Money laundering has become one of Indonesia's serious criminal offenses. Then, cases related to it should proceed under the specific regulation and procedure. In Indonesia, money laundering is a further crime preceded by predicate offenses. In practice, there are two main problems to apply in money laundering: first, the principles' difference between national and international criminal laws, and second, their norm contradiction. Although the money laundering crime is claimed to be a further crime, it is separated from the preceded crime in prosecution, investigation, and evidence. This study aims to review the juridical contention of the reverse burden of proof in money laundering by considering the existing challenges to apply the norms. This study confirms that there is a juridical problem in the reversal of proof mechanism in money laundering. Therefore, the government should harmonize the existing laws relating to the reverse of the burden of proof in money laundering. It is essential to reform the existing regulations by harmonizing laws related to this case. It considers the existing fragmented criminal provisions set out in the Criminal Code and special laws to indicate serious crimes. This harmonization contributes to restoring the return of the state's losses resulted from this crime. Regulatory reform is inevitable. The government then needs to strengthen diplomatic relations with other countries, especially to enforce national laws through Mutual Legal Assistance (MLA) and extradition of money laundering perpetrators. KEYWORDS: Indonesian Money Laundering, Money Laundering Act, Reverse Burden of Proof.
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14

Jade, Adinda Putri, Yaris Adhial Fajrin, Diah Nadia Putri, and Aisya Sanghra Devi Nugraha. "The Reverse Burden of Proof in Indonesia's Money Laundering: A Review." Lentera Hukum 7, no. 3 (November 23, 2020): 355. http://dx.doi.org/10.19184/ejlh.v7i3.18680.

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Money laundering has become one of Indonesia's serious criminal offenses. Then, cases related to it should proceed under the specific regulation and procedure. In Indonesia, money laundering is a further crime preceded by predicate offenses. In practice, there are two main problems to apply in money laundering: first, the principles' difference between national and international criminal laws, and second, their norm contradiction. Although the money laundering crime is claimed to be a further crime, it is separated from the preceded crime in prosecution, investigation, and evidence. This study aims to review the juridical contention of the reverse burden of proof in money laundering by considering the existing challenges to apply the norms. This study confirms that there is a juridical problem in the reversal of proof mechanism in money laundering. Therefore, the government should harmonize the existing laws relating to the reverse of the burden of proof in money laundering. It is essential to reform the existing regulations by harmonizing laws related to this case. It considers the existing fragmented criminal provisions set out in the Criminal Code and special laws to indicate serious crimes. This harmonization contributes to restoring the return of the state's losses resulted from this crime. Regulatory reform is inevitable. The government then needs to strengthen diplomatic relations with other countries, especially to enforce national laws through Mutual Legal Assistance (MLA) and extradition of money laundering perpetrators. KEYWORDS: Indonesian Money Laundering, Money Laundering Act, Reverse Burden of Proof.
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15

Sumaryanto, Djoko. "HARMONISASI PEMBALIKAN BEBAN PEMBUKTIAN TINDAK PIDANA KORUPSI." Supremasi Hukum: Jurnal Penelitian Hukum 28, no. 2 (September 16, 2019): 108–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.33369/jsh.28.2.108-122.

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This legal research is carried out aimed at finding a common ground and meeting point of reversing the burden of proof to obtain clarity, firmness, and legal certainty and not to violate human rights. The system of reversing the burden of proof of corruption is proof beyond the norm of the evidence system in Indonesia, besides that the application of the reversal of the burden of proof tends to violate human rights (HAM). This legal research uses the normative legal research method with a statutory approach and a conceptual approach. The results of the study concluded that between the legislation resulting from the ratification Act has a different character, so that the reversal of the burden of proof needs to be harmonized so that in its implementation there is no overlapping. Keywords: Corruption; Harmonization; Proof. Penelitian hukum ini dilakukan bertujuan untuk mencari suatu kesamaan dan titik temu dari pembalikan beban pembuktian agar diperoleh kejelasan, ketegasan, dan kepastian hukum serta tidak melanggar HAM. Sistem pembalikan beban pembuktian tindak pidana korupsi merupakan pembuktian diluar kelaziman sistem pembuktian di Indonesia, disamping hal tersebut penerapan pembalikan beban pembuktian cederung melanggar hak asasi manusia (HAM). Penelitian hukum ini menggunakan metode penelitian hukum normative dengan pendekatan Perundang-undangan (Statute Approach) dan pendekatan konsep (Conseptual Approach). Hasil penelitian menyimpulkan bahwa antara undang-undang hasil legislasi dengan Undang-undang hasil ratifikasi memiliki karakter yang berbeda-beda, sehingga pembalikan beban pembuktian perlu dilakukan harmonisasi, agar dalam pelaksanaannya tidak terjadi tumpang tindih (overlapping).Kata Kunci: Harmonisasi; Korupsi; Pembuktian.
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16

Soemarto, Soehartono. "The Reconstruction of the Reversal of the Burden of Proof Verificationin Corruption Delict." International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences 3, no. 5 (2018): 732–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.5.7.

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17

Endraswari, A. A. Mirah. "PENERAPAN BEBAN PEMBUKTIAN TERBALIK DALAM PERAMPASAN ILLICIT ENRICHMENT KAITANNYA DENGAN HAK ASASI MANUSIA." Jurnal Magister Hukum Udayana (Udayana Master Law Journal) 5, no. 2 (July 31, 2016): 392. http://dx.doi.org/10.24843/jmhu.2016.v05.i02.p13.

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The way to prevention of corruption is to use the reversal burden of proof system to the official public wealth that is not fair ( illicit enrichment ), but in the implementation there is an indication against violation of human rights. This research will be discuss how rule about the reversal burden of proof in the penal law system of Indonesia ? and how to application the reversal burden of proof in deprivation the illicit enrichment which is related with the human rights ?. Method used in this research is normative law research. Data analysis is conducted on primary and secondary law materials and then comparing those both as well were processed and presented by descriptive analysis. Related norm about the reversal burden of proof system now is regulated in act No. 31 of 1999, act No 20 of 2001 and act No. 8 of 2010, but the character of reversal burden of proof system in Indonesia still limited because it can only be used during the trials. Then related illicit enrichment norm is not regulated in Indonesia act’s, while Indonesia has been ratified about illicit enrichment in Article 20 UNCAC. The pros and cons related to the implementation of reversal burden of proof to illicit enrichment it happens because it is considered to against of human rights, which is related to the principle of presumption of innocence and non – self incrimination. However, with regard to other legal principles and consider the interests of the wider, the regulation of the illicit enrichment should be regulated in the provisions of the law in Indonesia. Considering the purpose of the law it self is fighting corruption, money laundering and optimize return on assets of criminals who gained from the crime. Penanggulangan tindak pidana korupsi sebagai kejahatan yang sifatnya luar biasa (extraordinary crime ) membutuhkan penanganan yang sifatnya luar biasa pula. Adapun cara yang dapat ditempuh yaitu dengan menerapan sistem pembuktian terbalik terhadap kekayaan pejabat Negara yang dimiliki secara tidak sah ( illicit enrichment ), namun dalam pelaksanaannya terdapat indikasi bahwa akan bersinggungan dengan Hak Asasi Manusia ( HAM ). Dalam penelitian ini akan dibahas mengenai bagaimana pengaturan terkait pembuktian terbalik yang diatur dalam sistem hukum pidana di Indonesia ? dan bagaimanakah penerapan sistem pembuktian terbalik dalam perampasan terhadap illicit enrichment dikaitkan dengan Hak Asasi Manusia ( HAM ) ?. Metode dalam penelitian ini menggunaan penelitian hukum normatif. Pada penelitian ini difokuskan pada hukum positif serta sumber bahan hukum baik berasal dari primer maupun sekunder. Analisis data dilakukan terhadap bahan hukum primer dan bahan hukum sekunder yang selanjutnya diolah dan disajikan secara deskriptif analisis. Terkait tentang pengaturan sistem pembuktian terbalik saat ini telah diatur dalam ketentuan Undang – Undang No. 31 Tahun 1999 jo Undang – Undang No. 20 Tahun 2001 tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana korupsi serta Undang – Undang No. 8 Tahun 2010 tentang Tindak Pidana Pencucian Uang, namun sifatnya masih terbatas karena penggunaanya hanya dapat dilakukan pada saat persidangan saja. Sedangkan pengaturan terkait illicit enrichment saat ini belum diatur dalam ketentuan perundang – undangan, padahal Indonesia sendiri telah meratifikasi ketentuan illicit enrichment sebagaimana ketentuan Pasal 20 UNCAC. Pro dan kontra terkait penerapan pembuktian terbalik pada illicit enrichment karena ada indikasi bersinggungan dengan Hak Asasi Manusia ( HAM ) khususnya pada asas presumption of innocence dan non – self incrimination. Meskipun demikian, dengan memperhatikan prinsip hukum lainnya serta untuk kepentingan yang lebih luas maka pengaturan illicit enrichment sudah seharusnya diatur dalam ketentuan perundang – undangan di Indonesia. Mengingat tujuan pengaturannya itu sendiri yakni demi memberantas tindak pidana korupsi, tindak pidana pencucian uang serta pengembalian aset - aset yang diperoleh dari tindak pidana tersebut.
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18

Rajah, Meera. "Rationalising the burden of establishing defences at criminal law in Singapore: Reconsidering Jayasena, in the wake of Eu Lim Hoklai." International Journal of Evidence & Proof 21, no. 4 (May 1, 2017): 299–329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1365712717701144.

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The reversal of the burden of proof and the imposition of a mandatory death penalty for certain offences have left the Singapore criminal justice system the subject of much rights-based criticism. Case law hints that there exists a very real possibility of wrongful conviction, should the courts apply s. 107 of the Evidence Act (‘EA’) in its literal sense and shift the legal burden to the accused, irrespective of the defence he seeks to invoke. The Singapore courts have acknowledged that the ‘evidential burden’ of proof as a distinct legal concept on numerous occasions but have not reconciled it with Lord Devlin’s interpretation of s. 3(3) EA in Jayasena, which limits proof to the ‘legal burden’. This article argues that the time has come for the Singapore courts to expressly banish the Jayasena ghost. The fairer approach would be to examine whether the defence falls within the categories of (a) mental condition defences, namely insanity, insane automatism, diminished responsibility and intoxication causing abnormality of mind, and (b) other general defences. Reliance on a defence within the former category will cause the accused to bear the legal burden of proof; he should only bear the evidential burden for the latter.
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19

Hansson, Sven Ove. "Can we reverse the burden of proof?" Toxicology Letters 90, no. 2-3 (February 1997): 223–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(96)03851-9.

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20

Le Moli, Ginevra, Parthan S. Vishvanathan, and Anjali Aeri. "Whither the Proof? The Progressive Reversal of the Burden of Proof in Environmental Cases before International Courts and Tribunals." Journal of International Dispute Settlement 8, no. 4 (August 31, 2017): 644–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnlids/idx014.

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21

Purchase, I. F. H. "Comments to 'Can we reverse the burden of proof?" Toxicology Letters 90, no. 2-3 (February 1997): 229–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(96)03852-0.

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22

Gelbke, Peter. "Comments to ‘Can we reverse the burden of proof?’." Toxicology Letters 90, no. 2-3 (February 1997): 233–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(96)03853-2.

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23

Lee, Jewoo. "Two Defining Features of Russian Tort Law: Their Rationale and Legal Effect." Review of Central and East European Law 39, no. 2 (August 20, 2014): 109–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15730352-00000015.

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There are two aspects of Russian tort law that set it apart from that of other countries: the recognition of a general reversal of the burden of proof regarding fault in delictual obligations, and the existence of a general clause of strict liability. Such features are not only unique to Russian law but, also, constitute the very core of tort law in Russia today.Despite the significance of these two features, this is a gravely understudied area of research. One of the main reasons for this lies in the lack of interest in (and access to) Soviet legal literature and case law. However, without examining such sources, it is impossible to grasp the rationale behind such atypical legislation, which in turn, makes it difficult to understand Russian tort law in general. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the legislative history of Russia’s past era.Equally important is the legal effect that features may have in modern Russian tort law. This article will focus on the impact that a general reversal of the burden of proof has had on the outcome of tort cases in Russia. The author also will compare the general clause of strict liability in the Russian Civil Code with the regulation of sources of heightened danger in selected countries, a topic that deserves special attention, given Russia’s extensive experience in the field. In addition, all these questions will be examined against the backdrop of other contemporary jurisdictions and European harmonization initiatives in the area of tort law.
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Rahim, Arhjayati, and Madinah Mokobombang. "Analisis Penerapan Pembuktian Terbalik dalam Kasus Tindak Pidana Korupsi." Al-Mizan 16, no. 2 (December 31, 2020): 225–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.30603/am.v16i2.1897.

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Evidence in criminal cases is generally borne by the public prosecutor. This is different from the criminal case of corruption, in addition to being proven by the public prosecutor, the defendant also has the right to prove that he did not commit a criminal act of corruption. This study aims to determine the arrangement of the shifting burden of proof system in cases of corruption and the application of the shifting burden of proof system in cases of corruption in Decision Number: 22/Pid.Sus-TPK/2018/PN.Gto. This type of research is a literature analyzed with a normative juridical approach. The results of the research show that the Decision Number: 22/Pid.Sus-TPK/2018/PN.Gto, seen from the evidence that in terms of the application of reverse evidence, the defendant exercised his right to carry out shifting burden of proof. However, the defendant did not prove that the property he had obtained was not the result of a criminal act of corruption, even though it was his obligation to prove this, so that the right to shifting burden of proof evidence was not fully utilized by the defendant.
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Glover, Richard. "Regulatory Offences and Reverse Burdens: The ‘Licensing Approach’." Journal of Criminal Law 71, no. 3 (May 2007): 259–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1350/jcla.2007.71.3.259.

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The recent case law on burdens of proof and the presumption of innocence has been inconsistent and, at times, unclear. This article argues that where legislation appears to create a reverse legal burden this may generally be justified for regulatory offences, as defined by the ‘licensing approach’ proposed here (rather than by reference to moral stigma and blame). It will be suggested that there is existing authority for this approach and that it provides the potential for greater clarity and consistency in the law.
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Forejtová, Monika. "The Effort to Achieve Equality with the Help of the Reversal of the Burden of Proof In Anti-Discrimination Litigation." International and Comparative Law Review 13, no. 1 (June 1, 2013): 137–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/iclr-2016-0064.

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Abstract Application of non-discrimination has a fundamental problem inherent in the fact that the prosecutor has only a very limited possibility to prove violations of the prohibition of discrimination, and much less the motives of the discriminating person, and thus the reason for discrimination. In addition, discrimination occurs in the relations, which are characterized by considerable inequalities, when more evidence is on the side of potentially discriminating than on the side of those discriminated. The article offers the analysis and comparison of the US and European approach to the procedural aspects of the anti-discrimination litigation with the special attention given to the special procedural mechanism - the reversal of the burden of proof.
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Straus, Joseph. "Reversal of the Burden of Proof, the Principle of “Fair and Equitable Procedures” and Preliminary Injunctions under the Trips Agreement." Journal of World Intellectual Property 3, no. 6 (November 1, 2005): 807–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-1796.2000.tb00154.x.

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Karnaukh, Bohdan. "Proof of Causation in Tort Cases." Studia Iuridica 82 (March 2, 2020): 149–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.9616.

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The article addresses the problem of uncertainty over causation in tort cases. It reveals the interconnection between burden of proof and standard of proof. The author provides a comparative overview of approaches to standard of proof in common law and civil law systems. It is argued that while in common law there are two different standards viz: beyond-reasonable-doubt-standard for criminal cases and balanceof-probabilities standard for civil cases in civil law system there is only one standard applicable both to criminal and civil cases. With comparative analysis in the background the article also reveals the peculiarities of Ukrainian law in the respect of the issue raised. The problem is approached in a pragmatic manner: using a hypothetical case the author models practical outcomes entailed by each of the approaches being applied to the case. Eventually the conclusion is made that there are four ways of coping with uncertainty over causation: (1) to reverse the burden of proof; (2) to calibrate the standard of proof for certain cases; (3) to recognize the very creation of the abnormal risk as a compensable damage; and (4) to multiply damage plaintiff sustained by the probability factor indicating the likelihood of the damage being actually caused by the defendant.
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K. Clasen, Christian. "2020/47 The Danish Supreme Court decides on reversed burden of proof (DK)." European Employment Law Cases 5, no. 4 (December 2020): 248–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.5553/eelc/187791072020005004005.

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Cyndecka, M. "‘Reversed’, ‘Excessive’ or Misconstrued? The Controversy About the Burden of Proof in MEOP Cases." European State Aid Law Quarterly 18, no. 2 (2019): 157–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.21552/estal/2019/2/5.

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Macphail, I. D. "HUMAN RIGHTS, BURDEN OF PROOF, RETROSPECTIVITY AND PRECEDENT IN THE HOUSE OF LORDS." Cambridge Law Journal 61, no. 1 (March 7, 2002): 1–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008197302211502.

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R. v. Lambert [2001] UKHL 37, [2001] 3 W.L.R. 206 and R. v. Kansal (No. 2) [2001] UKHL 62, [2001] 3 W.L.R. 1562 are important decisions of the House of Lords in the field of human rights and criminal justice. Lambert is primarily concerned with a question as to the retrospective effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 in criminal proceedings, and with the question whether a reverse onus provision in section 28 of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is compatible with the presumption of innocence in Article 6(2) of the European Convention on Human Rights. Kansal is primarily concerned with the former question. A majority of the House in Kansal decided that the decision of the majority of the House in Lambert on the issue of retrospectivity was wrong, but nevertheless should be followed.
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Sulistyowati, Sulistyowati. "PREVENTIVE EFFORTS OF CORRUPTION THROUGH RELIGIOUS MORAL REINFORCEMENT AND REPRESIVE EFFORTS THROUGH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE REVERSAL BURDEN PROOF IN ERADICATING CORRUPTION IN INDONESIA." Jurnal Pembaharuan Hukum 5, no. 1 (April 1, 2018): 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.26532/jph.v5i1.3000.

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Corruption in Indonesia occurs systematically and extends not only state finances, but also has increased rights and space for society, but also needs to be done in the normal way. Thus, the eradication of corruption must be done in a special way through moral reinforcement and repressive efforts through the application of reversed proof. One way that can be done to resolve corruption, is to take preventive action as a preventive action and law enforcement action, in a repressive way. The spiritual spiritual service is the guidance, the life to determine the attitude and purpose of life. Religious spirituality as well as a solid foundation for determining the direction of life and as the ideal ideal to guide and direct, every human desire and passion
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Giesen, Ivo. "The reversal of the burden of proof in the Principles of European Tort Law A comparison with Dutch tort law and civil procedure rules." Utrecht Law Review 6, no. 1 (January 25, 2010): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.18352/ulr.112.

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GARRIDO-MUÑOZ, ASIER. "Managing Uncertainty: The International Court of Justice, ‘Objective Reasonableness’ and the Judicial Function." Leiden Journal of International Law 30, no. 2 (February 28, 2017): 457–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156517000097.

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AbstractAs a standard of review, ‘objective reasonableness’ has been in the academic spotlight after the Whaling in the Antarctic judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ or the Court). The Court's approach was conceptually innovative and seemed to have operated a partial reversal of the burden of proof in favour of the applicant. In response to certain criticisms addressed to that decision, this article makes two claims. First, ‘reasonableness’, while being inherently vague, gives a justifiable degree of discretion to judges, thereby enabling them to make difficult adjudicatory choices without departing from the applicable legal framework. Second, the term finds sufficient support in the Court's case law dealing with state discretion in the implementation of treaties. Both claims relate to the very same core idea: that even if one remains sceptical as to the capacity of the term to enhance certainty, ‘reasonableness’ is a basic conceptual tool that facilitates judicial review in complex cases, including those of a scientific nature.
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Pavlidis, George. "Towards more responsible international asset recovery." New Journal of European Criminal Law 9, no. 3 (September 2018): 300–307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2032284418802096.

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In order to enhance the existing legal framework on asset recovery, the European Union (EU) will have to apply a ‘no safe haven’ policy to the proceeds of corruption and use all appropriate legal tools. We argue that a new EU instrument on asset recovery, modelled after the Swiss Law on Asset Recovery, would be a valuable addition to the EU’s legal arsenal against corruption, in compliance with its commitments under the United Nations Convention against Corruption. Such an EU instrument will deal specifically with the EU’s power to block the assets of foreign politically exposed persons (PEPs) and eventually facilitate restitution of these assets. Following the model of the Swiss law, a reversal of the burden of proof as to the origin of PEPs’ assets could be introduced in the new EU instrument. Judicial review should be wide enough to ensure fairness to the affected PEPs, balancing the new powers of the Council of the EU.
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Marín Alonso, Inmaculada. "La tutela preventiva de la lactancia natural y discriminación por razón de sexo en la praxis judicial europea y nacional: la inversión de la carga de la prueba en supuestos de incorrecta evaluación de riesgos laborales = Preventive protection of breastfeeding and sex discrimination in European and national judicial practice: reversal of the burden of proof in cases of incorrect assessment of occupational risks." CUADERNOS DE DERECHO TRANSNACIONAL 11, no. 1 (March 11, 2019): 459. http://dx.doi.org/10.20318/cdt.2019.4628.

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Resumen: Este trabajo muestra cómo el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea aplica de manera transversal la normativa comunitaria sobre discriminación entre hombres y mujeres en el empleo y la ocupación en relación con la tutela preventiva de las trabajadoras en situación de lactancia natural y con la prestación de seguridad social que cubre dicha contingencia. El Tribunal europeo ha ocasionado un significativo cambio en la doctrina judicial española al considerar que la incorrecta evaluación de ries­gos de puestos desempeñados por trabajadoras en situación de lactancia natural es una discriminación directa por razón de sexo. Tal entendimiento conlleva la inversión de la carga de la prueba tanto en el derecho europeo como en el interno, reforzando las garantías procesales de la trabajadora en situación de lactancia. Basta que ésta aporte indicios razonables de riesgos para su seguridad y salud y/o su hijo para que el empleador asuma la carga de demostrar la ausencia del riesgo alegado y la carencia de mó­vil discriminatorio. Se suaviza o elimina con ello la exigencia de los tribunales internos de acreditar la existencia de un riesgo específico para la lactante y/o su hijo, aplicándose la nueva doctrina tanto a la evaluación del riesgo en el puesto de trabajo desempeñado por la lactante como a las diferentes medidas adoptadas por el empleador para evitar el mismo.Palabras clave: evaluación de riesgos laborales, lactancia natural, inversión de la carga de la prue­ba, discriminación por razón de sexo.Abstract: This paper shows how the Court of Justice of the European Union applies Community legislation on discrimination between men and women in employment and occupation in a cross-cutting manner in relation to the preventive guardianship of breastfeeding workers and also to the social security benefit which covers this contingency. The European Court has caused a significant change in Spanish judicial doctrine by considering that the incorrect risk assessment of positions held by breastfeeding workers is discrimination on the basis of sex. Such an understanding implies a reversal of the burden of proof in both European and domestic law, thereby reinforcing the procedural guarantees of the worker. It is sufficient for the latter to provide prima facie evidence of risks to her safety and health and/or her child for the employer to assume the burden of proving otherwise and the absence of discriminatory motive. The requirement of the domestic courts to accredit the existence of a specific risk for the breastfeeding worker and/or her child is thus softened or eliminated, applying the new doctrine both to the evaluation of the risk in the job performed by the breastfeeding worker and in the different measures adopted by the employer to avoid itKeywords: occupational risk assessment, breastfeeding, reversal of burden of proof, sex discrimi­nation
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Pawelec, Kazimierz J. "GLOSS to the decision of the Supreme Court of 28 March, 2017, III KK 472/16, lex/el." Issues of Forensic Science 298 (2017): 76–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.34836/pk.2017.298.5.

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The verdict of the Supreme Court was devoted to determining the land traffic criterion for the perpetrator of a road offence. The Supreme Court noted that the indicated concept should not be associated solely with the formal status of a given road, but with the criteria of its availability and actual use. This issue is extremely important for practice. Hence, the judgment comprises an analysis of the notion of land traffic from both juridical and dogmatic sides. The Author criticised the decision in question, as well as the previous sentences passed by the Supreme Court. He pointed to the introduction of an analogy in the area of criminal responsibility, the blanket character of the concept of accessibility and real use of the road, the reversal of the burden of proof in such matters. He postulated the unification of the criteria for places where land traffic takes place to all roads, with an exception of private property and areas clearly excluded from traffic. He argued that in practice, from the subjective point of view perpetrator’s guilt and awareness do not undergo an analysis.
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Kovac, Mitja, Salvini Datta, and Rok Spruk. "Pharmaceutical Product Liability, Litigation Regimes, and the Propensity to Patent: An Empirical Firm-Level Investigation." SAGE Open 11, no. 2 (April 2021): 215824402110094. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/21582440211009470.

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Do different pharmaceutical product liability regimes in different countries induce propensity to patent? We exploit the variation in pharmaceutical liability and litigation rules across firms in the pharmaceutical industry and countries to explain the firm-level propensity to patent. Drawing on a large dataset from European Patent Office (EPO) covering over 9,950 pharmaceutical patents from 63 countries over the period 1991–2015, we compute the conditional probabilities of individual pharmaceutical firms to acquire a valid-based patent on the validation outcomes and examine whether different liability regimes encourage or deter firm-level propensity to patent. Our empirical strategy addresses firm-level idiosyncrasies, country-level unobserved effects, and common technology shocks that potentially invoke omitted variable bias in the effects of liability regimes on the propensity to patent. Our investigation reveals that liability regimes combined with damage caps, broad statutory excuses, and reversed burden of proof have a strong positive effect on the firm-level patent stock and a negative effect upon EPO patent validation rate. The evidence suggests that not all liability rules and related litigation procedures are created equal. Firms are systematically more likely to hold (firm-level patent stock) valid patents at the EPO when the liability and litigation rules are not complex and when the damage cap, broad statutory excuses, and reversed burden of proof are introduced.
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Peterman, Randall M. "Statistical Power Analysis can Improve Fisheries Research and Management." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47, no. 1 (January 1, 1990): 2–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f90-001.

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Ninety-eight percent of recently surveyed papers in fisheries and aquatic sciences that did not reject some null hypothesis (H0) failed to report β, the probability of making a type II error (not rejecting H0 when it should have been), or statistical power (1 – β). However, 52% of those papers drew conclusions as if H0 were true. A false H0 could have been missed because of a low-power experiment, caused by small sample size or large sampling variability. Costs of type II errors can be large (for example, for cases that fail to detect harmful effects of some industrial effluent or a significant effect of fishing on stock depletion). Past statistical power analyses show that abundance estimation techniques usually have high β and that only large effects are detectable. I review relationships among β, power, detectable effect size, sample size, and sampling variability. I show how statistical power analysis can help interpret past results and improve designs of future experiments, impact assessments, and management regulations. I make recommendations for researchers and decision makers, including routine application of power analysis, more cautious management, and reversal of the burden of proof to put it on industry, not management agencies.
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SBM, Nugroho. "Otonomi Daerah dan Korupsi." Jurnal Desentralisasi 10, no. 1 (June 30, 2012): 55–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.37378/jd.2012.1.55-62.

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Arise among scholars about whether the pros and cons of fiscal decentralization to reduce corruption or whether it exacerbates corruption. Facts in Indonesia show that the fiscal decentralization or regional autonomy would exacerbate corruption because there is no public control, there is no state institution that is able to effectively control the local government and the failure of legislative control functions in the local area. It is necessary to revise Law No. 32 of 2004, the establishment of the KPK in the local or district area, and reversed burden of proof application.
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Demmallino, Eymal B., M. Saleh S. Ali, Abd Qadir Gassing, Munsi Lampe, Nurbaya Busthanul, and La Nalefo. "The Capitalism and Economic Behavior of the Maritime Community A Case Study of the Pasompe’ Community in the Bugis Makassar Land of South Sulawesi." Journal of Sustainable Development 9, no. 1 (January 26, 2016): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v9n1p44.

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<p>This study aims to reveal the influence of capitalism on the economic behavior of the maritime community, by studying the case of the Pasompe’ Community in the Bugis Makassar Land of South Sulawesi. This research was conducted using the Verstehen method which is the "reversal of the burden of proof" of what is at the "back" of the Pasompe’ Community’s income distribution in the Bugis-Makassar area in South Sulawesi. The results showed that the underdevelopment of the maritime community, especially the Pasompe Community is rooted in the uncultured mentality characterized by the large claim made by owners of capital to the workers, a negative deflection of Western capitalism, which historically has been created since the days of colonialism. Without ignoring the positive side of capitalism, further research also found that the greater the capital invested by the owners of capital (bourgeois) on the one hand and the lower productivity of workers (proletariat) on the other hand in the socio-economic structure of the maritime community, resulted in the ever flourishing uncultured mentality, where it is very clear that people with this type of mentality can not be expected to build maritime civilizations in the future.</p>
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42

Fiorenza, Katia. "Discriminazioni e rapporti di lavoro: l’inversione dell’onere della prova = Discriminación y relaciones laborales: la inversión de la carga de la prueba = Discrimination and Working Relationships: the Reversal of the Burden of Proof." Revista Jurídica de la Universidad de León, no. 7 (June 25, 2020): 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.18002/rjule.v0i7.6269.

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43

Bender, Ina. "Diskriminierung am Arbeitsplatz und Gleichbehandlung." Der Betriebswirt 55, no. 3 (September 30, 2014): 32–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3790/dbw.55.3.32.

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Vor einigen Jahren ist das allgemeine Gleichbehandlungsgesetz in Kraft getreten und bildete zugleich den vorläufigen Höhepunkt in der Diskussion um die Rechte von Minderheiten und benachteiligten Bevölkerungsgruppen. Dabei nehmen die arbeitsrechtlichen Vorschriften einen großen Teil ein, um Diskriminierung aufgrund der Rasse, der ethnischen Herkunft, des Geschlechts, des Alters, der Religion oder Weltanschauung, Behinderung oder der sexuellen Identität zu bekämpfen. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist es jedem Arbeitgeber dringend zu empfehlen, sich für dieses Thema zu sensibilisieren und einen Überblick über die Anforderungen und den Umgang der Gerichte mit diesem Gesetz in den vergangenen Jahren zu verschaffen. A few years ago, at the height of a discussion about the rights of minorities and disadvantaged groups, a law against discrimination came into force. The regulations of this labor law are very important in order to prevent discrimination on grounds of racial or ethnic origin, disability, gender, age, religion or belief, or sexual identity. The employer has a lot of obligations to prevent discrimination in the workplace. Legal claims for damages, compensation for pain and suffering, as well as procedural facilitation (reversal of the burden of proof) make this law a very efficient instrument. Indeed, a lot of employers have felt the full force of it. For this reason, it is strongly recommended that all employers familiarize themselves with the requirements of this law, and be aware of how the court has been dealing with its implications over the last few years. Keywords: sensibilisierung, religion, herkunft, gleichbehandlung, geschlecht, diskriminierung
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Demmallino, Eymal B., M. Saleh S. Ali, Abd Qadir Gassing, Munsi Lampe, La Nalefo, Nurbaya Busthanul, and Tamzil Ibrahim. "Sufism and Behavior of Maritime Economic Community (Case Study on Pakkaja Community in South Sulawesi)." Journal of Sustainable Development 9, no. 3 (May 30, 2016): 136. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v9n3p136.

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<p>This research is motivated by a concern to the maritime community in Indonesia and South Sulawesi in particular, which is up to now still very behind compared with other communities on the mainland or degenerate far backward compared with the maritime community in the past royal era (eighth century ~ XVII century: Sriwidjaya, Majapahit, and Gowa~Makassar). This study aims to reveal the negative effect on classical Sufism of maritime community economic behavior, by taking the case to the Pakkaja Community. This study uses Verstehen method is done by "reversed burden of proof". The results showed that the backwardness of maritime community, in particular the Pakkaja Community is rooted in the mentality of weak intention characterized by low productivity, dependence excessively and consumptive lifestyles in their lives, is a negative deflection of classical Sufism, which stuck very strong since early Islamization of the archipelago and Bugis ~ Makassar in particular.</p>
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45

Gray, Anthony Davidson. "The Presumption of Innocence Under Attack." New Criminal Law Review 20, no. 4 (2017): 569–615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2017.20.4.569.

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This Article documents the increasing range of instances in which the presumption of innocence has been abrogated by legislation. Legislatures are responding to fears around terrorism and general community anxiety about law and order issues by increasing resort to reverse onus provisions. While the right of the legislature to enact laws thought to further public safety is acknowledged, the presumption of innocence is a long-standing, fundamental due process right. This Article specifically considers the extent to which reverse onus provisions are constitutionally valid in a range of jurisdictions considered comparable. It finds that the approach in use in some jurisdictions studied, testing the constitutionality of reverse onus provisions on the basis of whether they practically permit an accused to be found guilty although there is reasonable doubt about their guilt, has much to commend it. However, this is part-solution only, since legislatures may then be driven to redefine crimes to seek to effectively cast the burden of proof onto an accused by redefining what is in substance an element of a defense. Thus, it favors a substantive approach to determining what the prosecutor must show to obtain a conviction, utilizing concepts such as moral blameworthiness and actus reus/mens rea.
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Warburton, Damian. "The Rape of a Label Why it Would Be Wrong to Follow Canada in Having a Single Offence of Unlawful Sexual Assault." Journal of Criminal Law 68, no. 6 (November 2004): 533–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1350/jcla.68.6.533.54144.

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With the enactment of the Sexual Offences Act 2003, the UK has just had its biggest shake-up of the existing law on sexual offences. Rape has been widened to include oral sex, a new offence of assault by penetration has been created, and what was indecent assault has been renamed sexual assault. Twenty-one years ago the Canadians did away altogether with the legal term of rape and created an all-encompassing offence of sexual assault. While the UK is experiencing an all-time low in securing convictions for rape, this article asks what can be done to reverse this. Could doing away with the label of rape make it easier to obtain a conviction in rape trials? Perhaps reversing the burden of proof, or tightening up the requirements for obtaining consent, or tackling the biggest new phenomenon in sexual offences, date rape, is the way forward. What we call something may not seem all that important, but this article aims to show that the social stigma attached to the word rape is as important as the sentence itself.
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Duffin, Christian. "Burden of proof." Nursing Standard 17, no. 20 (January 29, 2003): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.7748/ns.17.20.14.s33.

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48

du Sautoy, Marcus. "Burden of proof." New Scientist 191, no. 2566 (August 2006): 41–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(06)60299-6.

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49

Shah, Nisha. "Burden of proof." Political Geography 51 (March 2016): 87–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.01.006.

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50

Weil, Max Harry. "Burden of Proof." Critical Care Medicine 32, no. 5 (May 2004): 1237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ccm.0000115252.59573.91.

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