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Greene, Rachel K., Cara R. Damiano-Goodwin, Erin Walsh, Joshua Bizzell, and Gabriel S. Dichter. "Neural Mechanisms of Vicarious Reward Processing in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder." Autism Research and Treatment 2020 (March 21, 2020): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/8014248.
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Previous studies examining the neural substrates of reward processing in ASD have explored responses to rewards for oneself but not rewards earned for others (i.e., vicarious reward). This omission is notable given that vicarious reward processing is a critical component of creating and maintaining social relationships. The current study examined the neural mechanisms of vicarious reward processing in 15 adults with ASD and 15 age- and gender-matched typically developing controls. Individuals with ASD demonstrated attenuated activation of reward-related regions during vicarious reward processing. Altered connectivity was also observed in individuals with ASD during reward receipt. These findings of altered neural sensitivity to vicarious reward processing may represent a mechanism that hinders the development of social abilities in ASD.
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Sutcubasi Kaya, B., B. Metin, F. Z. Krzan, N. Tarhan, and C. Tas. "The Relationship Between Responsiveness to Social and Monetary Rewards and ADHD Symptoms." European Psychiatry 41, S1 (2017): S635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.01.1041.
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IntroductionAlterations in reward processing are frequently reported in ADHD. One important factor that affects reward processing is the quality of reward, as social and monetary, rewards are processed by different neural networks. However, effect of reward type on reward processing in ADHD was not extensively studied.AimsWe aimed to explore the effect of reward type (i.e., social or monetary) on different phases of reward processing and also to test the hypothesis that ADHD symptoms may be associated with a problem in processing of social rewards.MethodsWe recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) during a spatial attention paradigm in which cues heralded availability and type of the upcoming reward and feedbacks informed about the reward earned. Thirty-nine (19 males and 20 females) healthy individuals (age range: 19–27) participated in the study. ADHD symptoms were measured using ADHD self-report scale (ASRS).ResultsThe feedback related potentials, namely feedback related negativity (FRN), P200 and P300 amplitudes, were larger for social rewards compared to monetary rewards (Fig. 1). There was a consistent negative correlation between the hyperactivity subscale of ASRS and almost all feedback related ERPs. ERP amplitudes after social rewards were smaller for individuals with more hyperactivity.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that hypo responsiveness to social rewards may be associated with hyperactivity. However, the results have to be confirmed with clinical populations.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.
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Wang, Zhao, Qi Li, Lu Nie, and Ya Zheng. "Neural dynamics of monetary and social reward processing in social anhedonia." Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 15, no. 9 (2020): 991–1003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsaa128.
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Abstract Being characterized by reduced pleasure from social interaction, social anhedonia constitutes a transdiagnostic marker for various psychiatric disorders. However, the neural portrait of social anhedonia remains elusive because of heterogeneities of reward type and reward dynamics in previous studies. The present event-related potential study investigated neural dynamics in response to monetary and social rewards in social anhedonia. Event-related potential responses were examined when a high social anhedonia (HSA, N = 23) group and a low social anhedonia (LSA, N = 26) group were anticipating and consuming social and monetary rewards. LSA but not HSA participants showed an increased stimulus-preceding negativity (anticipatory phase) and and increased reward positivity (consummatory phase) for monetary as compared with social rewards. This group difference could spring from an increased relevance of social rewards or a general decline in affective responding due to a potential association between social anhedonia and depression. Our findings provide preliminary evidence for neural aberrations of the reward system in social anhedonia, which is contingent upon reward type and reward dynamics.
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Metin, Baris, Zeynep C. Tas, Merve Çebi, et al. "Reward Processing Deficits During a Spatial Attention Task in Patients With ADHD: An fMRI Study." Journal of Attention Disorders 22, no. 7 (2017): 694–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087054717703188.
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Objective: In this study, we aimed to explore how cues signaling rewards and feedbacks about rewards are processed in ADHD. Method: Inside the scanner, 16 healthy children and 19 children with ADHD completed a spatial attention paradigm where cues informed about the availability of reward and feedbacks were provided about the earned reward. Results: In ventral anterior thalamus (VA), the controls exhibited greater activation in response to reward-predicting cues, as compared with no-reward cues, whereby in the ADHD group, the reverse pattern was observed (nonreward > reward). For feedbacks; absence of rewards produced greater activation than presence in the left caudate and frontal eye field for the control group, whereas for the ADHD group, the reverse pattern was again observed (reward > nonreward). Discussion: The present findings indicate that ADHD is associated with difficulty integrating reward contingency information with the orienting and regulatory phases of attention.
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Clark, Andrew M. "Reward processing: a global brain phenomenon?" Journal of Neurophysiology 109, no. 1 (2013): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00070.2012.
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Rewards and punishments (reinforcement) powerfully shape behavior. Accordingly, their neuronal representation is of significant interest, both for understanding normal brain-behavior relationships and the pathophysiology of disorders such as depression and addiction. A recent article by Vickery and colleagues ( Neuron 72: 166–177, 2011) provides evidence that the neural response to rewards and punishments is surprisingly widespread, suggesting the need for examination of the specific roles of areas not commonly included in the canonical reward circuitry in processing reinforcement.
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Weinberg, Anna, and Stewart A. Shankman. "Blunted Reward Processing in Remitted Melancholic Depression." Clinical Psychological Science 5, no. 1 (2016): 14–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167702616633158.
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Blunted reward response appears to be a trait-like marker of vulnerability for major depressive disorder (MDD). As such, it should be present in remitted individuals; however, depression is a heterogeneous syndrome. Reward-related impairments may be more pronounced in individuals with melancholic depression. The present study examined neural responses to rewards in remitted melancholic depression (rMD; n = 29), remitted nonmelancholic depression (rNMD; n = 56), and healthy controls (HC; n = 81). Event-related potentials to monetary gain and loss were recorded during a simple gambling paradigm. Relative to both the HC and the rNMD groups, who did not differ from one another, rMD was characterized by a blunted response to rewards. Moreover, the rMD and rNMD groups did not differ in course or severity of their past illnesses, or current depressive symptoms or functioning. Results suggest that blunted response to rewards may be a viable vulnerability marker for melancholic depression.
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Schultz, W. "Neuronal reward processing." Appetite 57 (July 2011): S39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.05.265.
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Wang, Lingxiao, Guochun Yang, Ya Zheng, et al. "Enhanced neural responses in specific phases of reward processing in individuals with Internet gaming disorder." Journal of Behavioral Addictions 10, no. 1 (2021): 99–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/2006.2021.00003.
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AbstractBackground and aimsInternet gaming disorder (IGD) has become a global health problem. The self-regulation model noted that a shift to reward system, whether due to overwhelming reward-seeking or impaired control, can lead to self-regulation failures, e.g., addiction. The present study focused on the reward processing of IGD, aiming to provide insights into the etiology of IGD. Reward processing includes three phases: reward anticipation, outcome monitoring and choice evaluation. However, it is not clear which phases of reward processing are different between individuals with IGD and healthy controls (HC).MethodsTo address this issue, the present study asked 27 individuals with IGD and 26 HC to complete a roulette task during a functional MRI scan.ResultsCompared with HC, individuals with IGD preferred to take risks in pursuit of high rewards behaviorally and showed exaggerated brain activity in the striatum (nucleus accumbens and caudate) during the reward anticipation and outcome monitoring but not during the choice evaluation.DiscussionThese results reveal that the oversensitivity of the reward system to potential and positive rewards in college students with IGD drives them to approach risky options more frequently although they are able to assess the risk values of options and the correctness of decisions properly as HC do.ConclusionsThese findings provide partial support for the application of the self-regulation model to the IGD population. Moreover, this study enriches this model from the perspective of three phases of reward processing and provides specific targets for future research regarding effective treatment of IGD.
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Bermudez, Maria A., and Wolfram Schultz. "Timing in reward and decision processes." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 369, no. 1637 (2014): 20120468. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0468.
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Sensitivity to time, including the time of reward, guides the behaviour of all organisms. Recent research suggests that all major reward structures of the brain process the time of reward occurrence, including midbrain dopamine neurons, striatum, frontal cortex and amygdala. Neuronal reward responses in dopamine neurons, striatum and frontal cortex show temporal discounting of reward value. The prediction error signal of dopamine neurons includes the predicted time of rewards. Neurons in the striatum, frontal cortex and amygdala show responses to reward delivery and activities anticipating rewards that are sensitive to the predicted time of reward and the instantaneous reward probability. Together these data suggest that internal timing processes have several well characterized effects on neuronal reward processing.
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Yuan, Yiran. "The Atypical Neural Processing of Reward in Bipolar Disorder." Communications in Humanities Research 50, no. 1 (2024): 118–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-7064/50/20242510.
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Abstract: There are still many unanswered questions regarding bipolar disorder among researchers. Understanding the characteristics of a particular area and neuroeconomics can aid in a more thorough examination of reward dysfunction and the reward process. Because changes in reward are undoubtedly one of the most prevalent signs of psychopathology in humans, researchers try to understand the prevalence of these diseases as well as the importance of reward in the manifestation of these conditions. Research indicates that different biological entities with comparable phenotypic symptoms make up bipolar illness. Finding the primary and secondary rewards connected to the functioning resting-state of bipolar illness patients' brain circuits is the goal of another investigation. On the other hand, using a reward task that begins with the expectation and consumption of rewarding and nonrewarding outcomes and progresses through fixation point, target, and outcome screen, researchers hope to better understand the connections between healthy individuals and BD patients' reward processing and striatal responses. This review can provide some suggestions to the development of prevention and intervention programs for individuals at risk of BD.
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Skupny, Alex F., Danielle N. Dun, Katia M. Harle, and Alan N. Simmons. "34 Neurocomputational Mechanisms of Social Reward Processing in Combat-Exposed Veterans." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 29, s1 (2023): 823–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355617723010202.
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Objective:Combat exposure is associated with higher rates of depressive symptoms, including anhedonia (i.e., a reduced ability to seek and experience rewards) and feelings of social disconnectedness. While these symptoms are commonly documented in combat-exposed Veterans following deployment, the cognitive mechanisms underlying this pathology is less well understood. Computational modeling can provides detailed mechanistic insights into complex cognition, which may be particularly useful to understand how social reward processing is altered following combat exposure. Here, we use a Bayesian learning model framework to address this question.Participants and Methods:Thirty-three Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF)/ Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF)/Operation New Dawn (OND) Veterans (25 Male, 8 Female) between the ages of 18-65 years old (M = 41.61, SD = 10.49) participated in this study. In both classic/monetary and social reward conditions, participants completed a 2-arm bandit task, in which they must choose on each trial between two options (i.e., slot machine vs social partner) with unknown reward rates. While they received monetary outcomes in the classic condition, participants received compliments from different fictitious partners in the social condition. We first compared a learning-independent Win-stay/Lose-shift (WSLS) heuristic and either a Rescorla-Wagner Q-learning or a Bayesian learning model (Dynamic Belief Model/DBM) paired with a Softmax reward maximization policy. DBM+Softmax provided the best fit of the data for most participants (31/33). Individual DBM parameters of prior reward expectation, reward learning (i.e., perceived stability of reward rates), and Softmax reward maximization were estimated and compared across conditions.Results:Participants did not differ in their reward learning parameters across monetary and social conditions (t(30)= -0.70, p = 0.490), suggesting similar perception of reward stability in both modalities. However, higher Bayesian prior mean (i.e., initial belief of reward rate; t(30)= -2.31, p = 0.028, d=0.42) and greater reward maximization (i.e., Softmax parameter; t(30)= -2.26, p = 0.031, d=0.41) were observed in response to social vs monetary rewards. In the social reward condition, higher self-reported social connectedness was associated with greater model fit of our DBM model (i.e., smaller Bayesian Information Criterion/BIC; r = -0.38, p = 0.041). In this condition, those expecting higher reward rates when initiating reward exploration (those with higher DBM prior mean) endorsed lower self-esteem (Spearman's ρ = -0.43, p = 0.078) and lower positive affect (ρ = -0.32, p = 0.078).Conclusions:A Bayesian learning modeling framework can characterize mechanistic differences in the processing of social vs non-social reward among combat-exposed Veterans. Individuals with higher social connectedness were more model-based in their performance, consistent with the notion that they are more likely to estimate and anticipate how much social peers have to offer. Combat-exposed individuals with lower self-esteem and positive affect appear to have higher initial expectations of reward from unknown partners, which could reflect greater need for mood and/or self-esteem repair in those individuals. Overall, Bayesian modeling of social reward behavior provides a useful quantitative framework to predict clinically relevant construct of functional outcomes in military populations.
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McLaughlin, Patrick, Marija-Magdalena Petrinovic, and Nigel Blackwood. "Reward processing in autism spectrum disorder and psychopathy: a systematic review." BJPsych Open 7, S1 (2021): S41—S42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2021.160.
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AimsEmerging research suggests that aberrant reward processing may underpin much of the social dysfunction we see in psychiatric disorders. Two conditions associated with marked social dysfunction are Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Psychopathy. However, no review to date has directly contrasted reward processing in both conditions and incorporated literature on social and non-social rewards. This systematic review aims to: (i) identify and compare reward processing abnormalities in ASD and Psychopathy as demonstrated in task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies; and (ii) identify correlations between fMRI reward processing abnormalities and manifested symptoms, with a focus on those giving rise to social dysfunction.MethodThe electronic databases PubMed, PsycINFO and EMBASE were searched to identify studies satisfying the following criteria: (i) a validated measure was used to assess ASD or Psychopathy; (ii) the study was published in an English language peer review journal; (iii) the age of participants was 18 years or older; (iv) individuals participated in a reward-based experimental paradigm; and (v) the response to the reward was measure using fMRI.ResultA total of 12 articles were identified that satisfied inclusion criteria. Six studies examined reward processing in ASD and six studies examined reward processing in Psychopathy. All studies in both conditions indicated some degree of abnormal reward-related neural response. The most replicated findings were aberrant responses in the Ventral Striatum (VS). Autism Spectrum Disorder was typified by VS hypoactivation to social and non-social reward, while Psychopathy was associated with VS hyperactivation in response to non-social reward anticipation. No studies were identified of social reward in Psychopathy.ConclusionThe reported fMRI findings correlate with clinical observations in both conditions. Reduced reward response in ASD to a range of social and non-social stimuli would provide a parsimonious account of the social and non-social deficits that characterise the condition. Enhanced responses to the anticipation of reward in Psychopathy provides an account of the ruthless and destructive pursuit of reward-driven behaviours not inhibited by immoral or aversive signals. If, as the literature suggests, reward circuitry dysfunction plays a role in the development and manifestation of symptoms in both conditions, reward processing and its underlying neural circuitry may represent important targets for the development of novel treatment strategies.
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van der Ven, Sanne H. G., Sven A. C. van Touw, Anne H. van Hoogmoed, Eva M. Janssen, and Paul P. M. Leseman. "The Effect of a Prospected Reward on Semantic Processing." Zeitschrift für Psychologie 224, no. 4 (2016): 257–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000261.
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Abstract. Promised rewards are often used in education to stimulate learning behaviour. The present study tested whether a reward prospect affects semantic processing and recall of learned materials. Thirty-nine females participated in an electroencephalogram (EEG) task measuring semantic processing using the N400 effect. After that, they completed a cued recall test of the task materials. Before the EEG task, half of the participants (n = 20) were told that financial compensation would increase with each correct answer (reward prospect condition). The other half (n = 19) were told that financial compensation was fixed (control condition). Participants in the reward prospect condition showed an N400 effect that was more spread over the (left) frontal areas, and showed better recall than participants in the control condition. An achievement-related reward prospect alters semantic processing and improves retention of learned material. Whether improved retention benefits learning in longer term needs further study.
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Burke, Christopher J., and Philippe N. Tobler. "Reward skewness coding in the insula independent of probability and loss." Journal of Neurophysiology 106, no. 5 (2011): 2415–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00471.2011.
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Rewards in the natural environment are rarely predicted with complete certainty. Uncertainty relating to future rewards has typically been defined as the variance of the potential outcomes. However, the asymmetry of predicted reward distributions, known as skewness, constitutes a distinct but neuroscientifically underexplored risk term that may also have an impact on preference. By changing only reward magnitudes, we study skewness processing in equiprobable ternary lotteries involving only gains and constant probabilities, thus excluding probability distortion or loss aversion as mechanisms for skewness preference formation. We show that individual preferences are sensitive to not only the mean and variance but also to the skewness of predicted reward distributions. Using neuroimaging, we show that the insula, a structure previously implicated in the processing of reward-related uncertainty, responds to the skewness of predicted reward distributions. Some insula responses increased in a monotonic fashion with skewness (irrespective of individual skewness preferences), whereas others were similarly elevated to both negative and positive as opposed to no reward skew. These data support the notion that the asymmetry of reward distributions is processed in the brain and, taken together with replicated findings of mean coding in the striatum and variance coding in the cingulate, suggest that the brain codes distinct aspects of reward distributions in a distributed fashion.
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Garcia-Lazaro, Haydee G., Mandy V. Bartsch, Carsten N. Boehler, et al. "Dissociating Reward- and Attention-driven Biasing of Global Feature-based Selection in Human Visual Cortex." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 31, no. 4 (2019): 469–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01356.
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Objects that promise rewards are prioritized for visual selection. The way this prioritization shapes sensory processing in visual cortex, however, is debated. It has been suggested that rewards motivate stronger attentional focusing, resulting in a modulation of sensory selection in early visual cortex. An open question is whether those reward-driven modulations would be independent of similar modulations indexing the selection of attended features that are not associated with reward. Here, we use magnetoencephalography in human observers to investigate whether the modulations indexing global color-based selection in visual cortex are separable for target- and (monetary) reward-defining colors. To assess the underlying global color-based activity modulation, we compare the event-related magnetic field response elicited by a color probe in the unattended hemifield drawn either in the target color, the reward color, both colors, or a neutral task-irrelevant color. To test whether target and reward relevance trigger separable modulations, we manipulate attention demands on target selection while keeping reward-defining experimental parameters constant. Replicating previous observations, we find that reward and target relevance produce almost indistinguishable gain modulations in ventral extratriate cortex contralateral to the unattended color probe. Importantly, increasing attention demands on target discrimination increases the response to the target-defining color, whereas the response to the rewarded color remains largely unchanged. These observations indicate that, although task relevance and reward influence the very same feature-selective area in extrastriate visual cortex, the associated modulations are largely independent.
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Bruijnzeel, Adriaan W. "Reward Processing and Smoking." Nicotine & Tobacco Research 19, no. 6 (2017): 661–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntw303.
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Smillie, Luke D. "Extraversion and Reward Processing." Current Directions in Psychological Science 22, no. 3 (2013): 167–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721412470133.
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Zhou, Shiyu, Lu Nie, Zhao Wang, Mengyao Wang, and Ya Zheng. "Aberrant reward dynamics in trait anticipatory anhedonia." Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 14, no. 8 (2019): 899–909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz062.
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Abstract As a cardinal feature of several psychiatric disorders, anhedonia includes a consummatory component (deficits in hedonic response to rewards) and an anticipatory component (a reduced motivation to pursue them). Although being conceptualized as impairments of reward system, the neural characterization of reward processing in anhedonia is hampered by the enormous heterogeneity in the reward phase (‘wanting’ vs ‘liking’) and comorbidity (inherent to disease states). The current event-related potential (ERP) study examined the reward dynamics of anticipatory anhedonia in a non-clinical sample. Anticipatory and consummatory ERP components were assessed with a monetary incentive delay task in a high anticipatory anhedonia (HAA) group and a low anticipatory anhedonia (LAA) group. HAA vs LAA group showed a diminished reward-related speeding during behavioral performance and reported overall reduced positive affect during anticipation and receipt of outcomes. Importantly, neural dynamics underlying reward processing were negatively associated with anticipatory anhedonia across the anticipatory phase indexed by the contingent negative variation and the consummatory phase indexed by the feedback P3. Our results suggest that anticipatory anhedonia in non-clinical individuals is linked to a poor modulation during both anticipatory and consummatory phases of reward processing.
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Frey, Anna-Lena, Mehmet Siyabend Kaya, Irina Adeniyi, and Ciara McCabe. "Anhedonia in Relation to Reward and Effort Learning in Young People with Depression Symptoms." Brain Sciences 13, no. 2 (2023): 341. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13020341.
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Anhedonia, a central depression symptom, is associated with impairments in reward processing. However, it is not well understood which sub-components of reward processing (anticipation, motivation, consummation, and learning) are impaired in association with anhedonia in depression. In particular, it is unclear how learning about different rewards and the effort needed to obtain them might be associated with anhedonia and depression symptoms. Therefore, we examined learning in young people (N = 132, mean age 20, range 17–25 yrs.) with a range of depression and anhedonia symptoms using a probabilistic instrumental learning task. The task required participants to learn which options to choose to maximize their reward outcomes across three conditions (chocolate taste, puppy images, or money) and to minimize the physical effort required to obtain the rewards. Additionally, we collected questionnaire measures of anticipatory and consummatory anhedonia, as well as subjective reports of “liking”, “wanting” and “willingness to exert effort” for the rewards used in the task. We found that as anticipatory anhedonia increased, subjective liking and wanting of rewards decreased. Moreover, higher anticipatory anhedonia was significantly associated with lower reward learning accuracy, and participants demonstrated significantly higher reward learning than effort learning accuracy. To our knowledge, this is the first study observing an association of anhedonia with reward liking, wanting, and learning when reward and effort learning are measured simultaneously. Our findings suggest an impaired ability to learn from rewarding outcomes could contribute to anhedonia in young people. Future longitudinal research is needed to confirm this and reveal the specific aspects of reward learning that predict anhedonia. These aspects could then be targeted by novel anhedonia interventions.
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Karaivazoglou, Katerina, Ioanna Aggeletopoulou, and Christos Triantos. "The Contribution of the Brain–Gut Axis to the Human Reward System." Biomedicines 12, no. 8 (2024): 1861. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12081861.
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The human reward network consists of interconnected brain regions that process stimuli associated with satisfaction and modulate pleasure-seeking behaviors. Impairments in reward processing have been implicated in several medical and psychiatric conditions, and there is a growing interest in disentangling the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. The brain–gut axis plays a regulatory role in several higher-order neurophysiological pathways, including reward processing. In this context, the aim of the current review was to critically appraise research findings on the contribution of the brain–gut axis to the human reward system. Enteric neuropeptides, which are implicated in the regulation of hunger and satiety, such as ghrelin, PYY3–36, and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), have been associated with the processing of food-related, alcohol-related, and other non-food-related rewards, maintaining a delicate balance between the body’s homeostatic and hedonic needs. Furthermore, intestinal microbiota and their metabolites have been linked to differences in the architecture and activation of brain reward areas in obese patients and patients with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Likewise, bariatric surgery reduces hedonic eating by altering the composition of gut microbiota. Although existing findings need further corroboration, they provide valuable information on the pathophysiology of reward-processing impairments and delineate a novel framework for potential therapeutic interventions.
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Blaukopf, Clare L., and Gregory J. DiGirolamo. "Reward, Context, and Human Behaviour." Scientific World JOURNAL 7 (2007): 626–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2007.122.
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Animal models of reward processing have revealed an extensive network of brain areas that process different aspects of reward, from expectation and prediction to calculation of relative value. These results have been confirmed and extended in human neuroimaging to encompass secondary rewards more unique to humans, such as money. The majority of the extant literature covers the brain areas associated with rewards whilst neglecting analysis of the actual behaviours that these rewards generate. This review strives to redress this imbalance by illustrating the importance of looking at the behavioural outcome of rewards and the context in which they are produced. Following a brief review of the literature of reward-related activity in the brain, we examine the effect of reward context on actions. These studies reveal how the presence of reward vs. rewardandpunishment, or being conscious vs. unconscious of reward-related actions, differentially influence behaviour. The latter finding is of particular importance given the extent to which animal models are used in understanding the reward systems of the human mind. It is clear that further studies are needed to learn about the human reaction to reward in its entirety, including any distinctions between conscious and unconscious behaviours. We propose that studies of reward entail a measure of the animal's (human or nonhuman) knowledge of the reward and knowledge of its own behavioural outcome to achieve that reward.
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Radoman, Milena, Lynne Lieberman, Jagan Jimmy, and Stephanie M. Gorka. "Shared and unique neural circuitry underlying temporally unpredictable threat and reward processing." Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 16, no. 4 (2021): 370–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsab006.
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Abstract Temporally unpredictable stimuli influence behavior across species, as previously demonstrated for sequences of simple threats and rewards with fixed or variable onset. Neuroimaging studies have identified a specific frontolimbic circuit that may become engaged during the anticipation of temporally unpredictable threat (U-threat). However, the neural mechanisms underlying processing of temporally unpredictable reward (U-reward) are incompletely understood. It is also unclear whether these processes are mediated by overlapping or distinct neural systems. These knowledge gaps are noteworthy given that disruptions within these neural systems may lead to maladaptive response to uncertainty. Here, using functional magnetic resonance imaging data from a sample of 159 young adults, we showed that anticipation of both U-threat and U-reward elicited activation in the right anterior insula, right ventral anterior nucleus of the thalamus and right inferior frontal gyrus. U-threat also activated the right posterior insula and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, relative to U-reward. In contrast, U-reward elicited activation in the right fusiform and left middle occipital gyrus, relative to U-threat. Although there is some overlap in the neural circuitry underlying anticipation of U-threat and U-reward, these processes appear to be largely mediated by distinct circuits. Future studies are needed to corroborate and extend these preliminary findings.
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Bar-Haim, Yair, Nathan A. Fox, Brenda Benson, et al. "Neural Correlates of Reward Processing in Adolescents With a History of Inhibited Temperament." Psychological Science 20, no. 8 (2009): 1009–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02401.x.
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Functional imaging data were acquired during performance of a reward-contingency task in a unique cohort of adolescents (ages 14-18 years) who were characterized since infancy on measures of temperamental behavioral inhibition. Neural activation was examined in striatal structures (nucleus accumbens, putamen, caudate) with a known role in facilitating response to salient reward-related cues. Adolescents with a history of behavioral inhibition, relative to noninhibited adolescents, showed increased activation in the nucleus accumbens when they believed their selection of an action would affect reward outcome. Neural responses did not differ between the two groups when participants made a prespecified response that they knew would result in reward or when they produced random motor responses that they knew would not be rewarded. These results link inhibited temperament and perturbed neural responses to reward-contingency cues.
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Gregorios-Pippas, Lucy, Philippe N. Tobler, and Wolfram Schultz. "Short-Term Temporal Discounting of Reward Value in Human Ventral Striatum." Journal of Neurophysiology 101, no. 3 (2009): 1507–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.90730.2008.
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Delayed rewards lose their value for economic decisions and constitute weaker reinforcers for learning. Temporal discounting of reward value already occurs within a few seconds in animals, which allows investigations of the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. However, it is difficult to relate these mechanisms to human discounting behavior, which is usually studied over days and months and may engage different brain processes. Our study aimed to bridge the gap by using very short delays and measuring human functional magnetic resonance responses in one of the key reward centers of the brain, the ventral striatum. We used psychometric methods to assess subjective timing and valuation of monetary rewards with delays of 4.0–13.5 s. We demonstrated hyperbolic and exponential decreases of striatal responses to reward predicting stimuli within this time range, irrespective of changes in reward rate. Lower reward magnitudes induced steeper behavioral and striatal discounting. By contrast, striatal responses following the delivery of reward reflected the uncertainty in subjective timing associated with delayed rewards rather than value discounting. These data suggest that delays of a few seconds affect the neural processing of predicted reward value in the ventral striatum and engage the temporal sensitivity of reward responses. Comparisons with electrophysiological animal data suggest that ventral striatal reward discounting may involve dopaminergic and orbitofrontal inputs.
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Min, Sung, Raegan Mazurka, Diego A. Pizzagalli, et al. "Stressful Life Events and Reward Processing in Adults: Moderation by Depression and Anhedonia." Depression and Anxiety 2024 (February 3, 2024): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2024/8853631.
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Background. Exposure to acute stress is associated with reduced reward processing in laboratory studies in animals and humans. However, less clear is the association between reward processing and exposure to naturalistic stressful life events. The goal of the current study was to provide a novel investigation of the relation between past 6-month stressful life events and reward processing, and the extent to which this relation was moderated by depression diagnostic status and state symptoms of anhedonia. Methods. The current study included a secondary analysis of data from 107 adults (37 current-depressed, 25 past-depressed, 45 never-depressed; 75% women) drawn from two previous community studies. Past 6-month stressful life events were assessed with a rigorous contextual interview with independent ratings. Response to monetary reward was assessed with a probabilistic reward task. Results. Among current-depressed participants, and among both current- and past-depressed participants with high levels of anhedonia, greater exposure to independent life events outside of individuals’ control was significantly associated with poorer reward learning. In direct contrast, among those with low levels of anhedonia, greater exposure to independent life events was significantly associated with a greater overall bias toward the more frequently rewarded stimulus. Conclusions. Results suggest that depression and anhedonia are uniquely associated with vulnerability to blunted reward learning in the face of uncontrollable stressors. In contrast, in the absence of anhedonia symptoms, heightened reward processing during or following independent stressful life event exposure may represent an adaptive response.
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Manssuer, Luis, Ding Qiong, Yijie Zhao, et al. "#3097 Temporal and spectral dynamics of reward and risk processing in the amygdala revealed with stereo-EEG recordings in epilepsy." Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 92, no. 8 (2021): A4.2—A5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2021-bnpa.12.
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Objectives/AimsTo examine the temporal and spectral characteristics of local field potentials recorded from the amygdala in epilepsy in the context of the anticipation and receipt of rewards and losses using an incentive learning task and a risky decision-making task.Methods16 Epilepsy patients completed two tasks. In the monetary incentive delay (MID) task, patients saw reward and loss cues which indicated whether money could be won or lost depending on whether a subsequent response was or was not quick/accurate enough, respectively. This was compared with neutral cues where responses were neither rewarded nor punished regardless of response.In the risk task, patients were presented with two face down cards with values ranging from 1 to 10. When the first card is revealed, patients have to choose whether to bet or not bet that the second card is higher. After the card is revealed, patients receive a monetary reward if it is higher and a loss if it is lower. If patients do not bet, they receive nothing.ResultsIn both tasks, patients showed larger left amygdala theta band oscillatory activity to the receipt of monetary rewards compared to no money. In contrast, there were no significant responses to monetary losses. During the decision phase of the risk task, there was increased theta activity when patients chose to bet instead of not betting and when the decision had low risk (card <= 5) compared to high risk (card above 5). There were no effects of uncertainty.ConclusionsThe combined results of these two studies embellish our understanding of the role of the amygdala in motivation and decision-making processes and lend further support for its role in reward related processes rather than its often cited fear-related functions (Baxter & Murray, 2002; Murray, 2007). Theta activation is linked to cognitive processes in frontal cortices and coupled to MTL activity (Helfrich & Knight, 2016). As left amygdala theta activation was only recruited when patients were making their bet and not just anticipating reward, the pattern of results lend support to its role in cognition-emotion interactions specific to risk and reward but not uncertainty. Indeed, the hemispheric asymmetry is highly consistent with EEG studies showing left prefrontal dominance in reward processing (Manssuer et al., 2021).
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Bermudez, Maria A., and Wolfram Schultz. "Responses of Amygdala Neurons to Positive Reward-Predicting Stimuli Depend on Background Reward (Contingency) Rather Than Stimulus-Reward Pairing (Contiguity)." Journal of Neurophysiology 103, no. 3 (2010): 1158–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00933.2009.
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Prediction about outcomes constitutes a basic mechanism underlying informed economic decision making. A stimulus constitutes a reward predictor when it provides more information about the reward than the environmental background. Reward prediction can be manipulated in two ways, by varying the reward paired with the stimulus, as done traditionally in neurophysiological studies, and by varying the background reward while holding stimulus-reward pairing constant. Neuronal mechanisms involved in reward prediction should also be sensitive to changes in background reward independently of stimulus-reward pairing. We tested this assumption on a major brain structure involved in reward processing, the central and basolateral amygdala. In a 2 × 2 design, we examined the influence of rewarded and unrewarded backgrounds on neuronal responses to rewarded and unrewarded visual stimuli. Indeed, responses to the unchanged rewarded stimulus depended crucially on background reward in a population of amygdala neurons. Elevating background reward to the level of the rewarded stimulus extinguished these responses, and lowering background reward again reinstated the responses without changes in stimulus-reward pairing. None of these neurons responded specifically to an inhibitory stimulus predicting less reward compared with background (negative contingency). A smaller group of amygdala neurons maintained stimulus responses irrespective of background reward, possibly reflecting stimulus-reward pairing or visual sensory processes without reward prediction. Thus in being sensitive to background reward, the responses of a population of amygdala neurons to phasic stimuli appeared to follow the full criteria for excitatory reward prediction (positive contingency) rather than reflecting simple stimulus-reward pairing (contiguity).
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Skalaban, Lena J., Allison L. Neeson, Troy M. Houser, Sarah DuBrow, Lila Davachi, and Vishnu P. Murty. "Goal orientation shifts attentional focus and impairs reward-motivated memory." Learning & Memory 32, no. 2 (2025): a054020. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.054020.124.
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While motivation typically enhances memory, some studies show that, in certain contexts, motivation associated with rewards can impair memory. Goal states associated with motivation can impact attention, which in turn influences what information is encoded and later remembered. There is limited research on how different incentive contexts, which manipulate attentional orientation to memoranda, lead to either reward-motivated memory enhancements or impairments in item and relational memory. Here, we test how different reward-motivated states may narrow or broaden attention with downstream consequences on memoranda. In study 1, giving participants a rewarded timed goal during visual search impaired both their item and relational memory relative to un-timed participants who were simply told that they would be rewarded for searching regardless of speed (despite having equated time). In study 2, we show that giving participants an elaborative goalaftervisual search completion remediates item and relational memory deficits in the Feedback group. Finally, in study 3, we show that elaborative processing of target itemsduringvisual search resulted in reward-motivated memory benefits for the item, but not relational memory for the context in which the item was encoded. Together, these findings support a model where the goal-relevant alterations in attentional breadth to reward may ultimately filter what information is remembered or forgotten.
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Zald, David H., and Michael T. Treadway. "Reward Processing, Neuroeconomics, and Psychopathology." Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 13, no. 1 (2017): 471–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032816-044957.
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Schultz, W. "Reward processing in the brain." European Neuropsychopharmacology 27 (March 2017): S24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-977x(17)30092-5.
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Jimenez, E. "Reward processing in bipolar disorders." European Neuropsychopharmacology 27 (October 2017): S558. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-977x(17)31071-4.
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Perry, David C., and Joel H. Kramer. "Reward processing in neurodegenerative disease." Neurocase 21, no. 1 (2014): 120–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13554794.2013.873063.
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Keating, Charlotte, Alan J. Tilbrook, Susan L. Rossell, Peter G. Enticott, and Paul B. Fitzgerald. "Reward processing in anorexia nervosa." Neuropsychologia 50, no. 5 (2012): 567–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.01.036.
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Admon, Roee, and Diego A. Pizzagalli. "Dysfunctional reward processing in depression." Current Opinion in Psychology 4 (August 2015): 114–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.011.
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Barrós-Loscertales, A., V. Costumero, J. C. Bustamante, N. Ventura-Campos, P. Fuentes, and C. Ávilla. "Reward sensitivity modulates connectivity among reward brain areas when processing anticipatory reward cues." Personality and Individual Differences 60 (April 2014): S68—S69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.302.
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Doallo, Sonia, Eva Zita Patai, and Anna Christina Nobre. "Reward Associations Magnify Memory-based Biases on Perception." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 25, no. 2 (2013): 245–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00314.
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Long-term spatial contextual memories are a rich source of predictions about the likely locations of relevant objects in the environment and should enable tuning of neural processing of unfolding events to optimize perception and action. Of particular importance is whether and how the reward outcome of past events can impact perception. We combined behavioral measures with recordings of brain activity with high temporal resolution to test whether the previous reward outcome associated with a memory could modulate the impact of memory-based biases on perception, and if so, the level(s) at which visual neural processing is biased by reward-associated memory-guided attention. Data showed that past rewards potentiate the effects of spatial memories upon the discrimination of target objects embedded within complex scenes starting from early perceptual stages. We show that a single reward outcome of learning impacts on how we perceive events in our complex environments.
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Smith, Christopher T., Deanna L. Wallace, Linh C. Dang, et al. "Modulation of impulsivity and reward sensitivity in intertemporal choice by striatal and midbrain dopamine synthesis in healthy adults." Journal of Neurophysiology 115, no. 3 (2016): 1146–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00261.2015.
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Converging evidence links individual differences in mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine (DA) to variation in the tendency to choose immediate rewards (“ Now”) over larger, delayed rewards (“ Later”), or “ Now bias.” However, to date, no study of healthy young adults has evaluated the relationship between Now bias and DA with positron emission tomography (PET). Sixteen healthy adults (ages 24–34 yr; 50% women) completed a delay-discounting task that quantified aspects of intertemporal reward choice, including Now bias and reward magnitude sensitivity. Participants also underwent PET scanning with 6-[18F]fluoro-l- m-tyrosine (FMT), a radiotracer that measures DA synthesis capacity. Lower putamen FMT signal predicted elevated Now bias, a more rapidly declining discount rate with increasing delay time, and reduced willingness to accept low-interest-rate delayed rewards. In contrast, lower FMT signal in the midbrain predicted greater sensitivity to increasing magnitude of the Later reward. These data demonstrate that intertemporal reward choice in healthy humans varies with region-specific measures of DA processing, with regionally distinct associations with sensitivity to delay and to reward magnitude.
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Ubl, B., C. Kuehner, P. Kirsch, M. Ruttorf, H. Flor, and C. Diener. "Neural reward processing in individuals remitted from major depression." Psychological Medicine 45, no. 16 (2015): 3549–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291715001452.
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Background.Dysfunctional behavioural and neural processing of reward has been found in currently depressed individuals. However, little is known about altered reward processing in remitted depressed individuals.Method.A total of 23 medication-free individuals with remitted major depressive disorder (rMDD) and 23 matched healthy controls (HCs) performed a reward task during functional magnetic resonance imaging. We also investigated reward dependence, novelty seeking and harm avoidance using the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire and their association with neural responses of reward processing.Results.Compared to HCs, individuals with rMDD exhibited enhanced responses to reward-predicting cues in the hippocampus, amygdala and superior frontal gyrus. When reward was delivered, rMDD subjects did not significantly differ from HCs. In both groups neural activity during reward anticipation was negatively correlated with harm avoidance.Conclusions.Our results show that rMDD is characterized by hyperactivation in fronto-limbic regions during reward anticipation. Alterations in neural activation during reward processing might reflect an increased effort in remitted depressed individuals to allocate neural activity for executive and evaluative processes during anticipatory reward processing.
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Lindeman, Sander, Xiaochen Fu, Janine Kristin Reinert, and Izumi Fukunaga. "Value-related learning in the olfactory bulb occurs through pathway-dependent perisomatic inhibition of mitral cells." PLOS Biology 22, no. 3 (2024): e3002536. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002536.
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Associating values to environmental cues is a critical aspect of learning from experiences, allowing animals to predict and maximise future rewards. Value-related signals in the brain were once considered a property of higher sensory regions, but their wide distribution across many brain regions is increasingly recognised. Here, we investigate how reward-related signals begin to be incorporated, mechanistically, at the earliest stage of olfactory processing, namely, in the olfactory bulb. In head-fixed mice performing Go/No-Go discrimination of closely related olfactory mixtures, rewarded odours evoke widespread inhibition in one class of output neurons, that is, in mitral cells but not tufted cells. The temporal characteristics of this reward-related inhibition suggest it is odour-driven, but it is also context-dependent since it is absent during pseudo-conditioning and pharmacological silencing of the piriform cortex. Further, the reward-related modulation is present in the somata but not in the apical dendritic tuft of mitral cells, suggesting an involvement of circuit components located deep in the olfactory bulb. Depth-resolved imaging from granule cell dendritic gemmules suggests that granule cells that target mitral cells receive a reward-related extrinsic drive. Thus, our study supports the notion that value-related modulation of olfactory signals is a characteristic of olfactory processing in the primary olfactory area and narrows down the possible underlying mechanisms to deeper circuit components that contact mitral cells perisomatically.
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Delgado, M. R., L. E. Nystrom, C. Fissell, D. C. Noll, and J. A. Fiez. "Tracking the Hemodynamic Responses to Reward and Punishment in the Striatum." Journal of Neurophysiology 84, no. 6 (2000): 3072–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.2000.84.6.3072.
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Research suggests that the basal ganglia complex is a major component of the neural circuitry that mediates reward-related processing. However, human studies have not yet characterized the response of the basal ganglia to an isolated reward, as has been done in animals. We developed an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging paradigm to identify brain areas that are activated after presentation of a reward. Subjects guessed whether the value of a card was higher or lower than the number 5, with monetary rewards as an incentive for correct guesses. They received reward, punishment, or neutral feedback on different trials. Regions in the dorsal and ventral striatum were activated by the paradigm, showing differential responses to reward and punishment. Activation was sustained following a reward feedback, but decreased below baseline following a punishment feedback.
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Soltani, Alireza, Mohsen Rakhshan, Robert J. Schafer, Brittany E. Burrows, and Tirin Moore. "Separable Influences of Reward on Visual Processing and Choice." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 33, no. 2 (2021): 248–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01647.
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Primate vision is characterized by constant, sequential processing and selection of visual targets to fixate. Although expected reward is known to influence both processing and selection of visual targets, similarities and differences between these effects remain unclear mainly because they have been measured in separate tasks. Using a novel paradigm, we simultaneously measured the effects of reward outcomes and expected reward on target selection and sensitivity to visual motion in monkeys. Monkeys freely chose between two visual targets and received a juice reward with varying probability for eye movements made to either of them. Targets were stationary apertures of drifting gratings, causing the end points of eye movements to these targets to be systematically biased in the direction of motion. We used this motion-induced bias as a measure of sensitivity to visual motion on each trial. We then performed different analyses to explore effects of objective and subjective reward values on choice and sensitivity to visual motion to find similarities and differences between reward effects on these two processes. Specifically, we used different reinforcement learning models to fit choice behavior and estimate subjective reward values based on the integration of reward outcomes over multiple trials. Moreover, to compare the effects of subjective reward value on choice and sensitivity to motion directly, we considered correlations between each of these variables and integrated reward outcomes on a wide range of timescales. We found that, in addition to choice, sensitivity to visual motion was also influenced by subjective reward value, although the motion was irrelevant for receiving reward. Unlike choice, however, sensitivity to visual motion was not affected by objective measures of reward value. Moreover, choice was determined by the difference in subjective reward values of the two options, whereas sensitivity to motion was influenced by the sum of values. Finally, models that best predicted visual processing and choice used sets of estimated reward values based on different types of reward integration and timescales. Together, our results demonstrate separable influences of reward on visual processing and choice, and point to the presence of multiple brain circuits for the integration of reward outcomes.
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Bader, Edward, Emad N. Eskandar, and Nathaniel Killian. "1288 The Rostral Zona Incerta: A Promising DBS Target for Modulating Disordered Reward Behavior." Neurosurgery 71, Supplement_1 (2025): 210. https://doi.org/10.1227/neu.0000000000003360_1288.
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INTRODUCTION: The Zona Incerta has traditionally been a deep brain stimulation (DBS) target for treating movement disorders. However, recent evidence suggests that it may be involved in processing of higher-order behaviors including reward, novelty, and appetite. In particular, its rostral subcomponent, the Rostral Zona Incerta (ZIr), is well placed to serve as an integrative hub for reward processing, given its widespread interconnectivity with numerous cortical and subcortical structures including the ventral tegmental area and lateral habenula. Accordingly, the ZIr may be an appealing target for modulating reward behavior in diseases such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), substance use disorders, and obesity. METHODS: We trained head-fixed, water-restricted C57BL6 mice (n = 2) to perform a classical conditioning task where they learned to associate audio-visual cues with either 100%, 90%, or 0% water reward probability. 32-channel silicon electrodes were implanted into the ZIr to record single unit activity. Data were band-pass filtered and digitized at 30 kHz. Spike sorting and data analyses were performed in Matlab. The Wilcoxon Rank Sum test was used to compare neuronal spike counts; a pre-specified alpha of < 0.05 was used to define statistical significance. RESULTS: We recorded from a total of 249 ZIr neurons across 200 trials. Of recorded neurons, 81 (32.5%) demonstrated a significant modulation of firing in response to reward-predicting cues relative to cues predicting no reward. Additionally, 29 (11.7%) demonstrated a significant modulation of firing rate in response to reward delivery itself, relative to absent rewards. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the ZIr is involved in reward processing. Accordingly, the ZIr may be a promising DBS target for modulating diseases with disordered reward, including OCD, drug use disorders, and obesity.
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Costumero, Victor, Alfonso Barrós-Loscertales, Juan C. Bustamante, Noelia Ventura-Campos, Paola Fuentes, and César Ávila. "Reward sensitivity modulates connectivity among reward brain areas during processing of anticipatory reward cues." European Journal of Neuroscience 38, no. 3 (2013): 2399–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ejn.12234.
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Schultz, Wolfram. "Predictive Reward Signal of Dopamine Neurons." Journal of Neurophysiology 80, no. 1 (1998): 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1998.80.1.1.
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Schultz, Wolfram. Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 80: 1–27, 1998. The effects of lesions, receptor blocking, electrical self-stimulation, and drugs of abuse suggest that midbrain dopamine systems are involved in processing reward information and learning approach behavior. Most dopamine neurons show phasic activations after primary liquid and food rewards and conditioned, reward-predicting visual and auditory stimuli. They show biphasic, activation-depression responses after stimuli that resemble reward-predicting stimuli or are novel or particularly salient. However, only few phasic activations follow aversive stimuli. Thus dopamine neurons label environmental stimuli with appetitive value, predict and detect rewards and signal alerting and motivating events. By failing to discriminate between different rewards, dopamine neurons appear to emit an alerting message about the surprising presence or absence of rewards. All responses to rewards and reward-predicting stimuli depend on event predictability. Dopamine neurons are activated by rewarding events that are better than predicted, remain uninfluenced by events that are as good as predicted, and are depressed by events that are worse than predicted. By signaling rewards according to a prediction error, dopamine responses have the formal characteristics of a teaching signal postulated by reinforcement learning theories. Dopamine responses transfer during learning from primary rewards to reward-predicting stimuli. This may contribute to neuronal mechanisms underlying the retrograde action of rewards, one of the main puzzles in reinforcement learning. The impulse response releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites, thus broadcasting a rather global reinforcement signal to postsynaptic neurons. This signal may improve approach behavior by providing advance reward information before the behavior occurs, and may contribute to learning by modifying synaptic transmission. The dopamine reward signal is supplemented by activity in neurons in striatum, frontal cortex, and amygdala, which process specific reward information but do not emit a global reward prediction error signal. A cooperation between the different reward signals may assure the use of specific rewards for selectively reinforcing behaviors. Among the other projection systems, noradrenaline neurons predominantly serve attentional mechanisms and nucleus basalis neurons code rewards heterogeneously. Cerebellar climbing fibers signal errors in motor performance or errors in the prediction of aversive events to cerebellar Purkinje cells. Most deficits following dopamine-depleting lesions are not easily explained by a defective reward signal but may reflect the absence of a general enabling function of tonic levels of extracellular dopamine. Thus dopamine systems may have two functions, the phasic transmission of reward information and the tonic enabling of postsynaptic neurons.
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Wang, Kainan S., David V. Smith, and Mauricio R. Delgado. "Using fMRI to study reward processing in humans: past, present, and future." Journal of Neurophysiology 115, no. 3 (2016): 1664–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00333.2015.
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a noninvasive tool used to probe cognitive and affective processes. Although fMRI provides indirect measures of neural activity, the advent of fMRI has allowed for 1) the corroboration of significant animal findings in the human brain, and 2) the expansion of models to include more common human attributes that inform behavior. In this review, we briefly consider the neural basis of the blood oxygenation level dependent signal to set up a discussion of how fMRI studies have applied it in examining cognitive models in humans and the promise of using fMRI to advance such models. Specifically, we illustrate the contribution that fMRI has made to the study of reward processing, focusing on the role of the striatum in encoding reward-related learning signals that drive anticipatory and consummatory behaviors. For instance, we discuss how fMRI can be used to link neural signals (e.g., striatal responses to rewards) to individual differences in behavior and traits. While this functional segregation approach has been constructive to our understanding of reward-related functions, many fMRI studies have also benefitted from a functional integration approach that takes into account how interconnected regions (e.g., corticostriatal circuits) contribute to reward processing. We contend that future work using fMRI will profit from using a multimodal approach, such as combining fMRI with noninvasive brain stimulation tools (e.g., transcranial electrical stimulation), that can identify causal mechanisms underlying reward processing. Consequently, advancements in implementing fMRI will promise new translational opportunities to inform our understanding of psychopathologies.
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Matyjek, Magdalena, Mareike Bayer, and Isabel Dziobek. "Pupillary Responses to Faces Are Modulated by Familiarity and Rewarding Context." Brain Sciences 11, no. 6 (2021): 794. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11060794.
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Observing familiar (known, recognisable) and socially relevant (personally important) faces elicits activation in the brain’s reward circuit. Although smiling faces are often used as social rewards in research, it is firstly unclear whether familiarity and social relevance modulate the processing of faces differently, and secondly whether this processing depends on the feedback context, i.e., if it is different when smiles are delivered depending on performance or in the absence of any action (passive viewing). In this preregistered study, we compared pupillary responses to smiling faces differing in subjective familiarity and social relevance. They were displayed in a passive viewing task and in an active task (a speeded visual short-term memory task). The pupils were affected only in the active task and only by subjective familiarity. Contrary to expectations, smaller dilations were observed in response to more familiar faces. Behavioural ratings supported the superior rewarding context of the active task, with higher reward ratings for the game than the passive task. This study offers two major insights. Firstly, familiarity plays a role in the processing of social rewards, as known and unknown faces influence the autonomic responses differently. Secondly, the feedback context is crucial in reward research as positive stimuli are rewarding when they are dependent on performance.
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Pulcu, E., P. D. Trotter, E. J. Thomas, et al. "Temporal discounting in major depressive disorder." Psychological Medicine 44, no. 9 (2013): 1825–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713002584.
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BackgroundMajor depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with abnormalities in financial reward processing. Previous research suggests that patients with MDD show reduced sensitivity to frequency of financial rewards. However, there is a lack of conclusive evidence from studies investigating the evaluation of financial rewards over time, an important aspect of reward processing that influences the way people plan long-term investments. Beck's cognitive model posits that patients with MDD hold a negative view of the future that may influence the amount of resources patients are willing to invest into their future selves.MethodWe administered a delay discounting task to 82 participants: 29 healthy controls, 29 unmedicated participants with fully remitted MDD (rMDD) and 24 participants with current MDD (11 on medication).ResultsPatients with current MDD, relative to remitted patients and healthy subjects, discounted large-sized future rewards at a significantly higher rate and were insensitive to changes in reward size from medium to large. There was a main effect of clinical group on discounting rates for large-sized rewards, and discounting rates for large-sized rewards correlated with severity of depressive symptoms, particularly hopelessness.ConclusionsHigher discounting of delayed rewards in MDD seems to be state dependent and may be a reflection of depressive symptoms, specifically hopelessness. Discounting distant rewards at a higher rate means that patients are more likely to choose immediate financial options. Such impairments related to long-term investment planning may be important for understanding value-based decision making in MDD, and contribute to ongoing functional impairment.
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Kobayashi, Shunsuke, Johan Lauwereyns, Masashi Koizumi, Masamichi Sakagami, and Okihide Hikosaka. "Influence of Reward Expectation on Visuospatial Processing in Macaque Lateral Prefrontal Cortex." Journal of Neurophysiology 87, no. 3 (2002): 1488–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00472.2001.
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The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) has been implicated in visuospatial processing, especially when it is required to hold spatial information during a delay period. It has also been reported that the LPFC receives information about expected reward outcome. However, the interaction between visuospatial processing and reward processing is still unclear because the two types of processing could not be dissociated in conventional delayed response tasks. To examine this, we used a memory-guided saccade task with an asymmetric reward schedule and recorded 228 LPFC neurons. The position of the target cue indicated the spatial location for the following saccade and the color of the target cue indicated the reward outcome for a correct saccade. Activity of LPFC was classified into three main types: S-type activity carried only spatial signals, R-type activity carried only reward signals, and SR-type activity carried both. Therefore only SR-type cells were potentially involved in both visuospatial processing and reward processing. SR-type activity was enhanced (SR+) or depressed (SR−) by the reward expectation. The spatial discriminability as expressed by the transmitted information was improved by reward expectation in SR+ type. In contrast, when reward information was coded by an increase of activity in the reward-absent condition (SR− type), it did not improve the spatial representation. This activity appeared to be involved in gaze fixation. These results extend previous findings suggesting that the LPFC exerts dual influences based on predicted reward outcome: improvement of memory-guided saccades (when reward is expected) and suppression of inappropriate behavior (when reward is not expected).
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Saji, Kanako, Yumiko Ikeda, Woochan Kim, et al. "Acute NK1 receptor antagonist administration affects reward incentive anticipation processing in healthy volunteers." International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 16, no. 7 (2013): 1461–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1461145712001678.
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Abstract The primary brain structures of reward processing are mainly situated in the mid-brain dopamine system. The nucleus accumbens (NAc) receives dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area and works as a key brain region for the positive incentive value of rewards. Because neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor, the cognate receptor for substance P (SP), is highly expressed in the NAc, we hypothesized that the SP/NK1 receptor system might play a role in positive reward processing in the NAc in humans. Therefore, we conducted a functional MRI (fMRI) study to assess the effects of an NK1 receptor antagonist on human reward processing through a monetary incentive delay task that is known to elicit robust activation in the NAc especially during gain anticipation. Eighteen healthy adults participated in two series of an fMRI study, taking either a placebo or the NK1 receptor antagonist aprepitant. Behavioural measurements revealed that there was no significant difference in reaction time, hit rate, or self-reported effort for incentive cues between the placebo and aprepitant treatments. fMRI showed significant decrease in blood oxygenation-level-dependent signals in the NAc during gain anticipation with the aprepitant treatment compared to the placebo treatment. These results suggest that SP/NK1 receptor system is involved in processing of positive incentive anticipation and plays a role in accentuating positive valence in association with the primary dopaminergic pathways in the reward circuit.
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Noritake, Atsushi, Taihei Ninomiya, and Masaki Isoda. "Representation of distinct reward variables for self and other in primate lateral hypothalamus." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 10 (2020): 5516–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1917156117.
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The lateral hypothalamus (LH) has long been implicated in maintaining behavioral homeostasis essential for the survival of an individual. However, recent evidence suggests its more widespread roles in behavioral coordination, extending to the social domain. The neuronal and circuit mechanisms behind the LH processing of social information are unknown. Here, we show that the LH represents distinct reward variables for “self” and “other” and is causally involved in shaping socially motivated behavior. During a Pavlovian conditioning procedure incorporating ubiquitous social experiences where rewards to others affect one’s motivation, LH cells encoded the subjective value of self-rewards, as well as the likelihood of self- or other-rewards. The other-reward coding was not a general consequence of other’s existence, but a specific effect of other’s reward availability. Coherent activity with and top-down information flow from the medial prefrontal cortex, a hub of social brain networks, contributed to signal encoding in the LH. Furthermore, deactivation of LH cells eliminated the motivational impact of other-rewards. These results indicate that the LH constitutes a subcortical node in social brain networks and shapes one’s motivation by integrating cortically derived, agent-specific reward information.