Journal articles on the topic 'Rhodes University – Management'

Purpose In April 2016, students at Rhodes University brought the institution to a standstill as they protested the University’s sexual violence policies and procedures, as well as the “rape culture” that pervades social structures. In response, a Sexual Violence Task Team (SVTT) was formed in an open, participatory, and transparent process. Members of the University community were invited to comment on drafts of the SVTT document. The purpose of this paper is to outline the contestations – arising from both the establishment of the task team and the inputs from University members to drafts of the document – that surfaced concerning managing sexual violence on campuses and sexual offences policies. Design/methodology/approach These contestations are outlined in the form of a case study of Rhodes University. Findings The case study of Rhodes University draws attention to two rifts: fissures between student and management; and the role of universities in prosecuting alleged rapists. Originality/value In light of increased concern about sexual violence on campuses, the rifts highlighted require careful attention in considering sexual violence on university campuses. In addition, the process engaged in by the SVTT may provide a road map for participatory processes for other such task teams.

Human behaviour is at the centre of most environmental problems; hence, the promotion of pro-environmental behaviour is considered to be a pathway towards sustainability. Despite the availability of insights gained from pro-environmental behaviour studies, mainly from household and workplace settings, a key question remains—can these insights be applied in university residence settings? Within university campuses, student residences are a major entity in sustainability debates because they are major consumers of resources including paper, water and energy with severe repercussions for university budgets and the environment. Using a questionnaire survey, this study explores reported pro-environmental behaviour and its determinants at Rhodes University, South Africa. Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics where relevant. The findings show a high level of heterogeneity in reported pro-environmental behaviour, attributed to a suite of internal and external factors. Internal dispositional factors seemed to constrain students from acting pro-environmentally. This study highlights the need to encourage environmental behaviour in university residence settings by supporting the antecedents of and getting rid of barriers to pro-environmental actions.

In Australia, soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is planted at a low density in wide rows, and weeds substantially reduce yield because of opportunities for their growth in the wide rows. Field studies were conducted over 2 years at the University of Queensland farm, Gatton, Australia, to assess the effect of row spacing and seeding rate on the competitiveness of soybeans with a model weed, Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana Kunth). The experiment was conducted in a split-split plot design, replicated three times. Main plots comprised two seeding rates (40 and 80 kg ha–1), subplots two row spacings (25 and 75 cm), and sub-subplots four Rhodes grass infestation periods (weedy from planting to maturity, weedy from 3 weeks after planting (WAP) to maturity, weedy from 6 WAP to maturity, and weed-free from planting to maturity). The results showed that seed rate did not influence Rhodes grass biomass or soybean yield. Soybean yield was greater and Rhodes grass biomass was less in the 25-cm rows than the 75-cm rows. For the 25-cm rows, Rhodes grass biomass in the plots infested beyond 3 WAP was 81–89% less than in the season-long weedy plots, whereas for the wider row crop, this reduction was only 60–75%. For the 25-cm rows, soybean yield in the plots infested with Rhodes grass beyond 3 WAP was 30–36% less than under weed-free condition. However, for the 75-cm rows, this reduction was 56–65%. The results suggest that planting soybean in wider rows caused greater reduction in yield and required an earlier weed management program than planting in narrow rows. The study also suggested that narrowing row spacing was more important than increasing seeding rates for improving weed control and soybean grain yield.

In late 2004 a New Zealander, John Hood, will become the first external appointment to head Oxford University in its 900-year history. Napier-born and raised, Dr Hood studied engineering at Auckland University where he took his doctorate in 1976. He then took up a Rhodes scholarship at Oxford, where he added an MPhil in management and played cricket for the University. These two universities continue to command a special place in his affections. A 19-year career in industry with Fletcher Challenge – at the time New Zealand's largest corporation – took him to senior group responsibilities as CEO of Fletcher Challenge Paper. In 1999, he took on his present role as Vice Chancellor of Auckland University. His record there of innovative and dynamic leadership has surely been instrumental in attracting the attention of his other alma mater, and in attracting him back to Oxford.

In late 2004 a New Zealander, John Hood, will become the first external appointment to head Oxford University in its 900-year history. Napier-born and raised, Dr Hood studied engineering at Auckland University where he took his doctorate in 1976. He then took up a Rhodes scholarship at Oxford, where he added an MPhil in management and played cricket for the University. These two universities continue to command a special place in his affections. A 19-year career in industry with Fletcher Challenge – at the time New Zealand's largest corporation – took him to senior group responsibilities as CEO of Fletcher Challenge Paper. In 1999, he took on his present role as Vice Chancellor of Auckland University. His record there of innovative and dynamic leadership has surely been instrumental in attracting the attention of his other alma mater, and in attracting him back to Oxford.

Since 2008, the Rhode Island (RI) Coastal Resources Management Council has been leading the development of an Ocean Special Area Management Plan (Ocean SAMP), in partnership with the University of Rhode Island, resulting in an extensive multidisciplinary analysis of the Rhode Island offshore environment and its suitability to site offshore wind farms. As part of SAMP, a comprehensive macro-siting optimization tool: the Wind Farm Siting Index (WIFSI), integrating technical, societal, and ecological constraints, was developed within the conceptual framework of ecosystem services. WIFSI uses multivariate statistical analyses (principal component and k-means cluster analyses) to define homogeneous regions, which integrate and balance ecological and societal constraints as part of a Cost/Benefit tool. More recently, a Wind Farm micro-Siting Optimization Tool was developed (WIFSO), which uses a genetic algorithm to derive the optimal layout of a wind farm sited within one of the macro-siting selected regions. In this work, we present an overview of the current state of development of the integrated macro- and micro- siting tools.

This study (conducted as PhD research at Rhodes University, South Africa) describes a formative interventionist research project conducted to explore factors inhibiting improved wetland management within a corporate plantation forestry context and determine if, and how, expansive social learning processes could strengthen organizational learning and development to overcome these factors. A series of formative interventionist workshops and feedback meetings took place over three years; developing new knowledge amongst staff of Company X, and improved wetland management practices. Through the expansive learning process, the tensions and contradictions that emerged became generative, supporting expansive learning that was reflectively engaged with throughout the research period. The study was== supported by an epistemological framework of cultural historical activity theory and expansive learning. Realist social theory, emerging from critical realism, with its methodological compliment the morphogenetic framework gave the research the depth of detail required to explain how the expansive learning, organizational social change, and boundary crossings that are necessary for assembling the collective were taking place. This provided ontological depth to the research. The research found that expansive learning processes, which are also social learning processes (hence we use the term ‘expansive social learning’, supported organizational learning and development for improved wetland management. Five types of changes emerged from the research: (1) Changes in structure, (2) changes in practice, (3) changes in approach, (4) changes in discourse, and (5) changes in knowledge, values, and thinking. The study was able to explain how these changes occurred via the interaction of structural emergent properties and powers; cultural emergent properties and powers; and personal emergent properties and powers of agents. It was concluded that expansive learning could provide an environmental education platform to proactively work with the sociological potential of morphogenesis to bring about future change via an open-ended participatory and reflexive expansive learning process.

Stephen Heard graduated from the University of Rhode Island in 1970 with a degree in business administration. He started his career by signing up as a management trainee at Woolworth℉s Department Store in Wellesley, Massachusetts. It didn℉t take him long to realize he missed his calling: being by the Rhode Island shoreline and employed in the fishing industry. Nearly 35 years later, Stephen is a self-made multimillionaire, having followed both his passion for entrepreneurship and for living his life on the Atlantic coast.

The University of Rhode Island requested an assessment of the potential demand for developing new academic programs in the areas of transportation and logistics. Although the research focused on Rhode Island public- and private-sector organizations, it was concluded that the results have broader applications for the academic community. The research was accomplished by interviewing a total of 24 key executives in four large private companies and five large public-sector organizations. The questions focused on “skills required to do your job.” The interviews resulted in the following conclusions: ( a) a distinct difference must be made between education needs, training needs, and outreach needs; ( b) concerning public agency needs, responses tracked closely to the several national studies that have taken place over the past several years; ( c) private-sector organizations view logistics and supply chain management as critical to their bottom line; ( d) there appears to be a common interest among interviewees for universities to establish more outreach programs; ( e) private-sector companies all expressed possible interest in targeted logistics and supply chain management programs (certificate programs or individual courses could be of interest, either as traditional classroom or Internet-based); ( f) definite interest existed among public agencies to establish courses and distance-learning–based certificate programs in “transportation policy and management” (the author's label); and ( g) there were a surprising number of common needs.

International Business Research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal are greatly appreciated. International Business Research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. If you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. Please find the application form and details at http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ibr/editor/recruitment and e-mail the completed application form to ibr@ccsenet.org. Reviewers for Volume 12, Number 1   Abedalqader Rababah, Arab Open University, Oman Ajit Kumar Kar, Indian Metal & Ferro Alloys Ltd, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Alireza Athari, Eastern Mediterranean University, Iran Andrei Buiga, “ARTIFEX University of Bucharest, Romania Anna Paola Micheli, Univrtsity of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy Ashford C Chea, Benedict College, USA Aurelija Burinskiene, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania Bazeet Olayemi Badru, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Nigeria Benjamin James Inyang, University of Calabar, Nigeria Celina Maria Olszak, University of Economics in Katowice, Poland Claudia Isac, University of Petrosani, Romania Dionito F. Mangao, Cavite State University – Naic Campus, Philippines Duminda Kuruppuarachchi, University of Otago, New Zealand Federica Caboni, University of Cagliari, Italy Federica De Santis, University of Pisa, Italy Georges Samara, ESADE Business School, Lebanon Gianluca Ginesti, University of Naples “FEDERICO II”, Italy Gilberto MarquezIllescas, University of Rhode Island, USA Guo ZiYi, Wells Fargo Bank, N.A., USA Hejun Zhuang, Brandon University, Canada Henrique Fátima Boyol Ngan, Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, Macao Herald Monis, Milagres College, India HungChe Wu, Nanfang College of Sun Yatsen University, China Joanna Katarzyna Blach, University of Economics in Katowice, Poland Manuel A. R. da Fonseca, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Brazil Marcelino José Jorge, Evandro Chagas Clinical Research Institute of Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Brazil Maria do Céu Gaspar Alves, University of Beira Interior, Portugal Maria Teresa Bianchi, University of Rome “LA SAPIENZA”, Italy MariaMadela Abrudan, University of ORADEA, Romania Marta Joanna Ziólkowska, Warsaw School of Economics (Szkoła Główna Handlowa), Poland Maryam Ebrahimi, Azad University, Iran Michaela Maria SchaffhauserLinzatti, University of Vienna, Austria Michele Rubino, Università LUM Jean Monnet, Italy Mithat Turhan, Mersin University, Turkey Mohsen Malekalketab Khiabani, University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia Mongi Arfaoui, University of Monastir, Tunisia Murat Akin, Omer Halisdemir University FEAS – NIGDE, Turkey Ozgur Demirtas, Turkish Air Force Academy, Turkey Pascal Stiefenhofer, University of Brighton, UK Roxanne Helm Stevens, Azusa Pacific University, USA Sara Saggese, University of Naples Federico II, Italy Serhii Kozlovskiy, Donetsk National University, Ukraine Shame Mukoka, Zimbabwe Open University, Zimbabwe Shun Mun Helen Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Silvia Ferramosca, University of Pisa, Italy Sumathisri Bhoopalan, SASTRA Deemed to be University, India Tatiana Marceda Bach, Centro Universitário Univel (UNIVEL), Brazil Vassili JOANNIDES de LAUTOUR, Grenoble École de Management (France) and Queensland University of Technology School of Accountancy (Australia), France Wanmo Koo, Western Illinois University, USA Wasilu Suleiman, Bauchi State University, Nigeria Wejdene Yangui, Institute of High Business Studies of Sfax _ Tunisia (IHEC), Tunisia

Abstract Auker, L. A., and Oviatt, C. A. 2008. Factors influencing the recruitment and abundance of Didemnum in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65: 765–769. The non-indigenous colonial tunicate Didemnum sp. A has been observed in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, since 2000. We compared weekly recruitment of the species and environmental parameters (i.e. temperature, salinity, chlorophyll a, dissolved oxygen, pH, and nutrient concentrations) over a 6-month period among three sites: (i) the University of Rhode Island Graduate School of Oceanography dock (GSO), (ii) the Department of Environmental Management pier at Fort Wetherill (FW), and (iii) the Prudence Island T-wharf. At the GSO and FW, divers surveyed the sites for percentage cover of Didemnum. To assess the spread of Didemnum in the bay and what factors may predict the tunicate’s presence, we also surveyed intertidal sites in October and November 2005, noting Didemnum presence, salinity, number of boats and moorings, and distances to major ports at each site. GSO had the highest percentage cover of adults and the highest recruitment of the tunicate (p < 0.01), reaching average peak values of 319 individuals per 100 cm2 in September 2005. Temperature and salinity demonstrated the best correlation with recruitment, and higher boat and mooring numbers may be a reliable predictor of tunicate presence. Further monitoring is needed to assess the potential spread of Didemnum throughout Narragansett Bay.

Abstract Covering nearly one third of the Earth's surface, the Pacific Ocean contains many significant interconnected geologic features extending into the coastal zone and the islands themselves. Trenches, ridges, seamount chains, faults, and fracture zones are not only fundamental expressions of Earth processes but also fundamental to life. Without awareness of these features and their natural and cultural importance, marine management and global understanding will remain disjointed. The Ocean Exploration Trust (OET) will spend the next several years in the Pacific conducting scientific expeditions to better understand the ocean through seafloor mapping and ocean exploration. Western ocean science is one of many ways to perceive and value the structural features of the Pacific. Communities across Pacific islands—often volcanic peaks emerging from deep below—are interconnected by water and by the underlying seafloor. We acknowledge the knowledge from local communities and recognize the multitude of ways to conceptualize and relate to the Pacific. With the University of Rhode Island's Coastal Resources Center (CRC), OET seeks to collaborate with local communities to reveal the structural significance and interconnected nature of oceanic features, making a link to the livelihoods of Pacific islanders. Further objectives would be co-designed with partners from local communities.

Soil and fertilizer management during cultivation can affect crop productivity and profitability. Long-term experiments are therefore necessary to determine the dynamics of nutrient and root distribution as related to soil profile, as well as the effects on nutrient uptake and crop growth. An 18-year experiment was conducted at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul State (UFRGS), in Eldorado do Sul, Brazil, on Rhodic Paleudult soil. Black oat and vetch were planted in the winter and corn in the summer. The soil management methods were conventional, involving no-tillage and strip tillage techniques and broadcast, row-and strip-applied fertilizer placement (triple superphosphate). Available P (Mehlich-1) and root distribution were determined in soil monoliths during the corn grain filling period. Corn shoot dry matter production and P accumulation during the 2006/2007 growing season were determined and the efficiency of P utilization calculated. Regardless of the degree of soil mobilization, P and roots were accumulated in the fertilized zone with time, mainly in the surface layer (0-10 cm). Root distribution followed P distribution for all tillage systems and fertilizer treatments. Under no-tillage, independent of the fertilizer placement, the corn plants developed more roots than in the other tillage systems. Although soil tillage systems and fertilizer treatments affected P and root distribution throughout the soil profile, as well as P absorption and corn growth, the efficiency of P utilization was not affected.

Abstract In this essay, I review nearly six decades of a career in marine science and fisheries considering scientific contributions, successes, failures, and changes in my field of practice. My body of work has been in plankton research to support fisheries assessments, and in ecosystems programme development and implementation. I describe my early studies on Pacific plankton oceanography in relation to fisheries assessment, and subsequent studies of plankton oceanography and fisheries in relation to coastal ocean fisheries and management. Early in my career, realizing that applications of my published results and those of other fisheries ecologists were generally not included in fish stock assessments, I participated in a national planning group that introduced a system for marine resources monitoring, assessment, and prediction (MARMAP) that included primary productivity, ichthyoplankton, zooplankton, and oceanographic assessments as important components for large-scale fisheries ecology assessment. I joined with European colleagues in ICES to advance fisheries ecology studies in fish stock assessments in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1983, I conceived with Professor Lewis Alexander of the University of Rhode Island a system for assessing and managing marine resources within the spatial domain of ecologically delineated large marine ecosystems (LMEs). On behalf of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and in partnership with developing countries, international financial organizations, UN agencies, and NGOs, I am currently contributing scientific and technical advice to a global network of assessment and management projects in 22 LMEs with 110 developing countries and $3.1 billion in financial support. The participating countries are applying a modular framework of natural science and social science indicators for assessing the changing states of LMEs. I conclude the essay with a retrospective viewpoint on my career and changes over half a century of practicing the application of marine science in relation to sustaining the goods and services of the ocean Commons.

Economic and environmental concerns over nitrogen (N) fertilization of turfgrasses are prompting serious considerations of how to best use various N pools in turf-soil ecosystems. Nitrogen in clippings is receiving special consideration but information on how large and variable this N source might be for different turfgrasses is limited. Therefore, a field study investigated growth of and N recovery in clippings from 10 cultivars each of kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) turf at the University of Rhode Island Turfgrass Research Station, Kingston, during 1990 and 1991 growing seasons. All turf had been established in 1985, 1986 or 1987 on an Enfield silt loam (Coarse loamy over sandy skeletal, mixed, mesic, Typic Dystrochrepts) and maintained under N fertilization rate of 147 kg N ha/year. Daily clipping growth rate (DCG), leaf blade N concentration (NC), and daily N recovery rate (DNR) in clippings were compared across species and cultivars. Seasonal clipping yields ranged from 5152 kg dry weight/ha for tall fescue to 3680 kg·ha–1 for perennial ryegrass. Significant species differences in the amount and seasonal pattern of N recovery were identified. Cultivar differences in N recovery were greatest for kentucky bluegrass but much less for perennial ryegrass and tall fescue. Total N recovery in clippings ranged from 260 to 111 kg N/ha/year generally exceeded N supplied as fertilizer, thus emphasizing potential importance of clipping N in turf management.

The Status of Women in Leadership Tahani H. Alqahtani PhD student, Management at Aberdeen University – Lecturer, College of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Imam Mohamed Ibn Saud University. Abstract Even though females have indeed entered jobs previously closed to them, many occupations remain as gender-gapped now as they were half a century ago. Gender-segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because, they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. Descriptive stereotyping describes what men and women are like and prescriptive stereotyping defines defining what women and men should be like. This literature review provides a broad understanding of the gender differences in leadership and the gender gap in organization. This literature review founds that gender-segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. Introduction The current literature concerning leadership from a variety of Eastern and Western countries highlights that, regardless of a recent global increase in the number of females entering the labour market, only a small number of professional women hold top management or leadership positions. In spite of the fact that the growth pattern of women in the labour force and their representation in leadership roles does differ across countries and regions, and although a number of women in leadership positions worldwide are making contributions both within and beyond their communities (Percupchick, 2011), the overarching observation can be made that a substantive gender gap exists in female’s representation in relation to leadership positions and decision-making across many sectors of society (Catalyst, 2016). Moreover, studies indicate that a large number of sometimes highly qualified women are choosing to step down from positions of authority and leave their careers (Rabas, 2013). This literature review provides a broad understanding of the gender differences in leadership and the gender gap in organization. Literature Review Research has identified the reasons for the persistence of women having a less expressive presence in management and leadership positions (Acker, 1991; Kolb et al., 1998; Simpson, 2004; Williams, 2001; England, 2010; Kellerman and Rhodes, 2014; Gipson, et al., 2017). Among these, the existence of a male-normed corporate culture and organizational structure is posited as a formidable obstacle to female progress in the workplace. The literature abounds with evidence of the way organizational norms, values and structures, disadvantage females in their career advancement at the institutional level (Morrison, 2012; Keohane, 2014). Looking specifically at the field of academia, for Nguyen (2012), “Policies and process in higher education can act as barriers against women assuming leadership and management positions” (p. 127). Acker (1990) suggests the existence of an organizational attitude behind these gender contrasts as a result of organizational structure, rather than any differences held to exist in the characters of males and females. Goveas and Aslam (2011, p. 236) state that a further important factor with the potential to hinder female's opportunities for development consists of “the unavailability of structured human resource policies and strategies addressing women workers, [which] has proven to be a major obstacle to women’s progress and development”. Referring specifically to the field of educational management, for Sui Chu Ho (2015), “Gender inequalities in staff recruitment, appointment and promotion exist in educational institutions, such as universities” (p. 87). She goes on to note how this evidence and claim to support it are actually routinely dismissed, both by those in authority and the general public. It is likely that hierarchal organizational structures create a setting in which women feel out of place due to gender variances (Morrison, 2012; Al-Shanfari, 2011; Keohane, 2014), resulting in many females stepping down or leaving from a post in a workplace at which their leadership abilities are being questioned. This conflict is further compounded by many jobs being designed around men’s objectives, and that many organizations are reluctant to support women within their workforce when potential career conflicts arise (Kellerman, and Rhode, 2012). Therefore, the ideal worker is male: “Images of men’s bodies and masculinity pervade organizational processes, marginalizing women and contributing to the maintenance of gendered segregation in organisations” (Acker 1990, p. 139). A key impact of organizational masculinity is the emotional labor expended by women in order to succeed. Connell (1987) states that gendered structures and practices operating within organizations result in very different career experiences and outcomes for women and men, and the most senior organizational positions are considered sites of hegemonic masculinity. Thus, organizational structure is not gender neutral and organizational culture reflects the wishes and needs of powerful men. In reviews of research into gender and leadership, limiting women’s progress in organizations is a well-documented phenomenon, including the persistence of gender stereotypes. Kanter (1977) identifies the ‘masculine ethic’ as part of the early image of leaders and managers. This masculine ethic elevates the traits assumed to be exclusive to men as requirements for effective management: a tough-minded approach to problems; analytical planning abilities; a capacity to set aside personal emotional considerations in the interests of task accomplishment; and cognitive superiority in problem-solving and decision-making (Kanter, 1977). Thus, even with regards to Kanter, (1977), although social construction presumes that these traits and characteristics supposedly belong to males only (or are at least more likely to be held by males), if practically all leaders and managers are men from the beginning, it should come as no surprise that when females attempt to enter leadership or management occupations the masculine ethic is invoked as an exclusionary principle Acker (1991) sees the ‘masculine ethic’ referred to earlier as the structural basis of organizations, in the sense that allegedly ‘masculine characteristics’ are built into the very fabric of organizations. As a result, the workplace itself is stacked against the equalization of opportunities for women. Acker (1991, p. 289) defines gendered organizations as occurring when “advantage and drawback, control and exploitation, emotion and action, identity and meaning, are patterned through and in terms of a distinction between female and male, feminine and masculine”. Thus, masculinity assumes control of the workplace environment or the business sphere in the subtlest of ways (Acker, 1991). Additionally, masculinity also appears to affect employees’ characters. The preferred employee presents her/himself as a masculine character in choice of clothes, language, and presentation (Acker, 1991). Furthermore, job opportunities and hierarchies are also filled in accordance with gender preferences, meaning that the positions should concur with what is deemed relevant and suitable for the gender that fills them (Kolb et al., 1998). In this way, gender implications have negatively influenced the progress of women in their working lives (Acker, 1991). Informal occupational segregation due to gender stereotypes as well as the gender biases commonly held by the wider society entail the trend of hiring women and men in different types of working areas and positions (Fitzsimmons, Callan, and Paulsen, 2014). Simpson (2004) argues that gender representation in social discourse and social perceptions of gender play a significant role in sustaining and promoting gendered employment. Consequently, these biased stereotypes, embedded in deep-rooted ideologies, automatically view job placement through the lens of gender (Simpson, 2004). Thus, work related to masculine organizations draws on the notion of a job requiring allegedly masculine qualities such as analytical skills, assertiveness and physical strength, in turn reinforcing more the idea of being ‘manliness’ being something distinct and unattainable for women. Unsurprisingly, as Britton and Logan (2008) note, these jobs, in turn, naturally attract more male applicants than females. At the same time, stereotypical assumptions that females pay more attention to detail, are more caring, and place value on physical attractiveness confine them to roles as teachers, nurses, administrators, and jobs in the beauty industry (Britton and Logan, 2008). Moreover, men are more likely to be selected for any ‘male-type’ position in a company even when women and men possess the same qualifications because of the implicit bias that, like for like, men perform better than women (Omar and Davidson, 2001). This leads individuals to believe that women do not have the necessary skills and so are unable to work effectively in male-type jobs. For example, because women are associated with activities that do not involve much in the way of physical strength (such as taking care of their children and families), they have traditionally been considered a second choice to men when it comes to jobs that involve working outdoors (Britton and Logan, 2008). England’s (2010) research has shown that in the twentieth century women have progressed at a sluggish pace in terms of workplace equality. Despite the fact that females have indeed entered jobs previously closed to them, many occupations remain as gender-gapped now as they were half a century ago. Moreover, she notes that at any level of the employment pyramid, females continue to lag behind males in terms of authority and pay, regardless of the closing gap between men and women in workplace seniority and educational attainment. Acker (1990) argues that such gender segregated employment patterns are so tenacious because, as noted, they are built into the very organizational fabric of work and the workplace. Stereotyping means generalizing behavioural characteristics of groups of individuals and then applying the generalization to people who are members of the group (Heilman, 2012). Recently, researchers have investigated gender stereotyping by dividing the generalizations into two properties, descriptive and prescriptive. Heilman (2012) concentrated on the importance of each of those properties. Descriptive stereotyping describes what men and women are like and prescriptive stereotyping defines defining what women and men should be like. For instance, descriptive stereotyping of women creates negative expectations about a woman’s performance as a leader owing to there is a lack of fit between the characteristics assigned to traditionally male leadership roles and the societal roles assigned to females. Prescriptive stereotypes, or ascribing behaviors women ought to emulate, and the agentic characteristics of leadership create an incongruity with expected women behavior (Wynen et al., 2014). Furthermore, Heilman argues that irrespective of whether gender stereotyping is prescriptive or descriptive, the practice impedes the progress of females into leadership roles. One source for gender inequalities in the work force is gender stereotyping in the form of occupational segregation (Wynen et al., 2014). Occupational segregation occurs because there is a separation of women or men in certain occupations or employment sectors (Wynen et al., 2014). This gender separation is seen in occupations such as doctors , nursing, lawyers and teaching. Often, teachers or nurses are portrayed as women, while, lawyers and doctors are portrayed as men. According to scholars in social role theory, such as Franke, Crown, and Spake (1997) and Eagly (1987) gender stereotyping in certain occupations is deeply inherent in societal roles for female and male. Although both women and men have been shown to exhibit biases toward women in high management positions (Eagly and Carli, 2007; Ellemers, Rink, Derks, and Ryan, 2012; Ryan et al., 2011), Ellemers et al. (2012) pointed out that most individuals prefer to believe in a just world where gender differentiation is rare and success is based on merit; thus, in most instances, they will treat allegations of unequal treatment unfavourably. This result lead to fewer reports for fear of negative repercussions, and consequently inequity is often not noticed, challenged, or addressed (Ellemers et al., 2012). Moreover, Ibarra et al (2013) believe that when organizations advise females to seek leadership positions without addressing the subtle biases that exist in practices and policies, the companies undermine the psychological development that should take place to become a leader. Conclusion In conclusion, this literature review has outlined how women face obstacles in different organizational context, limiting their ability to achieve empowerment by aspiring to and achieving leadership. Historically, certain factors have hindered women from being accepted as leaders, regardless of their achievements, which leads to an underestimation of their capabilities. This under-representation of qualified women in leadership roles is symbolic of the gender gap in the workplace.

Abstract Objective – Collaboration and working in teams are key aspects of all types of librarianship, but library and information studies (LIS) students often perceive teamwork and group work negatively. LIS schools have a responsibility to prepare graduates with the skills and experiences to be successful working in teams in the field. Through a grant from the university office of assessment, the assessment committee at the University of Rhode Island Graduate School of Library and Information Studies explored their department’s programmatic approach to teaching teamwork in the MLIS curriculum. Methods – This research followed a multi-method design including content analysis of syllabi, secondary analysis of student evaluation of teaching (SET) data, and interviews with alumni. Syllabi were analyzed for all semesters from fall 2010 to spring 2016 (n = 210), with 81 syllabi further analyzed for details about their team assignments. Some data was missing from the dataset of SETs purchased from the vendor, resulting in a dataset of 39 courses with SET data available. Interviews were conducted with a convenience sample of alumni about their experiences with teamwork in the LIS program and their view of how well the LIS curriculum prepared them for teamwork in their careers (n = 22). Results – Findings indicate that, although alumni remembered teamwork happening too often, it was required in just over one-third of courses in the sample period (fall 2010 to spring 2016), and teamwork accounted for about one-fifth of assignments in each of these courses. Alumni reported mostly positive experiences with teamwork, reflecting that teamwork assignments are necessary for the MLIS program because teamwork is a critical skill for librarianship. Three themes emerged from the findings: alumni perceived teamwork to be important for librarians and therefore for the MLIS program, despite this perception there is also a perception that the program has teamwork in too many courses, and questions remain about whether faculty perceive teaching teamwork as important and how to teach teamwork skills in the MLIS curriculum. Conclusions – Librarians need to be able to collaborate internally and externally, but assigning team projects does not guarantee students will develop the teamwork skills they need. An LIS program should be proactive in teaching skills in scheduling, time management, personal accountability, and peer evaluation to prepare students to be effective collaborators in their careers.

Abstract Objectives Effective weight management interventions that target within-meal eating behaviors, such as biting, chewing, swallowing, and pausing, are limited. The Eating Pace Instructional Classes (EPIC) intervention successfully coached healthy young-adult females with overweight and obesity to eat slower by modifying their within-meal eating behaviors. It was hypothesized that the experimental group who received the 5-week EPIC intervention would reduce bite frequency, bite size, and bite number more than the non-treatment control group. Methods This was a secondary data analysis of mixed-macronutrient ad libitum meals eaten over a universal eating monitor (UEM) in the laboratory, before (PRE) and after (POST) the intervention. A total of 82 meals was analyzed: PRE and POST meals for each experimental participant (E: n = 21, mean age 20.2 ± 3.1 years, mean BMI 30.9 ± 2.1 kg/m2) and each control participant (C: n = 20, mean age 21.4 ± 4.7 years, mean BMI 31.7 ± 2.8 kg/m2). A manual approach was created from pilot work and calculated bite outcomes from UEM data during scale stability, using the range of 1–31 grams for a bite of food and other specific criteria. From this manual method, we developed bite analysis software in MatLab that calculated bite frequency, bite size, and bite number for each meal. Results Repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated a significant time-by-group effect for mean bite frequency (E: −0.75 ± 0.39, C: +0.18 ± 0.42 bites/minute; P = 0.025, ηp2 = 0.123), but changes in mean bite size (E: −0.50 ± 0.04, C: +0.68 ± 1.06 grams; P = 0.254, ηp2 = 0.033) and mean bite number (E: +2.57 ± 6.66, C: +2.45 ± 2.94 bites; P = 0.974, ηp2 = 0.000) did not reach significance. Conclusions The EPIC intervention that reduced the overall eating rate of women who were overweight and obese effectively decreased bite frequency. There was a trend towards smaller bite size, and bite number did not change significantly. These promising results support the incorporation of the EPIC approach and our microstructural methodology into the design and assessment of weight management interventions that modify within-meal eating behaviors. Funding Sources The randomized controlled EPIC Study, the basis for this secondary data analysis, was funded by a University of Rhode Island College of the Environment and Life Sciences (CELS) Community Access to Research and Extension Services (CARES) grant.

As guest editors, we are excited to publish this special double issue of IASSIST Quarterly. The topics of reproducibility, replicability, and transparency have been addressed in past issues of IASSIST Quarterly and at the IASSIST conference, but this double issue is entirely focused on these issues. In recent years, efforts “to improve the credibility of science by advancing transparency, reproducibility, rigor, and ethics in research” have gained momentum in the social sciences (Center for Effective Global Action, 2020). While few question the spirit of the reproducibility and research transparency movement, it faces significant challenges because it goes against the grain of established practice. We believe the data services community is in a unique position to help advance this movement given our data and technical expertise, training and consulting work, international scope, and established role in data management and preservation, and more. As evidence of the movement, several initiatives exist to support research reproducibility infrastructure and data preservation efforts: Center for Open Science (COS) / Open Science Framework (OSF)[i] Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)[ii] CUrating for REproducibility (CURE)[iii] Project Tier[iv] Data Curation Network[v] UK Reproducibility Network[vi] While many new initiatives have launched in recent years, prior to the now commonly used phrase “reproducibility crisis” and Ioannidis publishing the essay, “Why Most Published Research Findings are False,” we know that the data services community was supporting reproducibility in a variety of ways (e.g., data management, data preservation, metadata standards) in wellestablished consortiums such as Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) (Ioannidis, 2005). The articles in this issue comprise several very important aspects of reproducible research: Identification of barriers to reproducibility and solutions to such barriers Evidence synthesis as related to transparent reporting and reproducibility Reflection on how information professionals, researchers, and librarians perceive the reproducibility crisis and how they can partner to help solve it. The issue begins with “Reproducibility literature analysis” which looks at existing resources and literature to identify barriers to reproducibility and potential solutions. The authors have compiled a comprehensive list of resources with annotations that include definitions of key concepts pertinent to the reproducibility crisis. The next article addresses data reuse from the perspective of a large research university. The authors examine instances of both successful and failed data reuse instances and identify best practices for librarians interested in conducting research involving the common forms of data collected in an academic library. Systematic reviews are a research approach that involves the quantitative and/or qualitative synthesis of data collected through a comprehensive literature review. “Methods reporting that supports reader confidence for systematic reviews in psychology” looks at the reproducibility of electronic literature searches reported in psychology systematic reviews. A fundamental challenge in reproducing or replicating computational results is the need for researchers to make available the code used in producing these results. But sharing code and having it to run correctly for another user can present significant technical challenges. In “Reproducibility, preservation, and access to research with Reprozip, Reproserver” the authors describe open source software that they are developing to address these challenges. Taking a published article and attempting to reproduce the results, is an exercise that is sometimes used in academic courses to highlight the inherent difficulty of the process. The final article in this issue, “ReprohackNL 2019: How libraries can promote research reproducibility through community engagement” describes an innovative library-based variation to this exercise. Harrison Dekker, Data Librarian, University of Rhode Island Amy Riegelman, Social Sciences Librarian, University of Minnesota References Center for Effective Global Action (2020), About the Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences. Available at: https://www.bitss.org/about (accessed 23 June 2020). Ioannidis, J.P. (2005) ‘Why most published research findings are false’, PLoS Medicine, 2(8), p. e124. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 [i] https://osf.io [ii] https://www.bitss.org/ [iii] http://cure.web.unc.edu [iv] https://www.projecttier.org/ [v] https://datacurationnetwork.org/ [vi] https://ukrn.org

Background Hearing aid (HA) use is known to improve health outcomes for people with hearing loss. Despite that, HA use is suboptimal, and communication issues and hearing-related activity limitations and participation restrictions often remain. Web-based self-management communication programs may support people with hearing loss to effectively self-manage the impact of hearing loss in their daily lives. Objective The goal of the research is to examine the short- and long-term effects of a web-based self-management SUpport PRogram (SUPR) on communication strategy use (primary outcome) and a range of secondary outcomes for HA users aged 50 years and older. Methods Clients of 36 HA dispensing practices were randomized to SUPR (SUPR recipients; n=180 HA users) and 34 to care as usual (controls; n=163 HA users). SUPR recipients received a practical support booklet and online materials delivered via email over the course of their 6-month HA rehabilitation trajectory. They were encouraged to appoint a communication partner and were offered optional email contact with the HA dispensing practice. The online materials included 3 instruction videos on HA handling, 5 videos on communication strategies, and 3 testimonial videos. Care as usual included a HA fitting rehabilitation trajectory only. Measurements were carried out at baseline, immediately postintervention, 6 months postintervention, and 12 months postintervention. The primary outcome measure was self-reported use of communication strategies (3 subscales of the Communication Profile for the Hearing Impaired [CPHI]). Secondary outcome measures included self-reported personal adjustment to hearing loss (CPHI); use, satisfaction and benefit of HAs and SUPR (use questionnaire; International Outcome Inventory for Hearing Aids [IOI-HA], Alternative Interventions [IOI-AI]); recommendation of HA dispensing services; self-efficacy for HA handling (Measure of Audiologic Rehabilitation Self-Efficacy for Hearing Aids [MARS-HA]); readiness to act on hearing loss (University of Rhode Island Change Assessment adapted for hearing loss [URICA-HL]); and hearing disability (Amsterdam Inventory for Auditory Disability and Handicap [AIADH]). Results Linear mixed model analyses (intention to treat) showed no significant differences between the SUPR and control group in the course of communication strategy use (CPHI). Immediately postintervention, SUPR recipients showed significantly higher self-efficacy for advanced HA handling than the controls, which was sustained at 12 months (MARS-HA; mean difference immediately postintervention: 5.3, 95% CI 0.3 to 10.4; P=.04). Also, SUPR recipients showed significantly greater HA satisfaction than controls immediately postintervention (IOI-HA; 0.3, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.5; P=.006), which was sustained at 12 months, and significantly greater HA use than the controls immediately postintervention (IOI-HA; 0.3, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.5; P=.03), which was not sustained at 12 months. Conclusions This study provides ground to recommend adding SUPR to standard HA dispensing care, as long-term, modest improvements in HA outcomes were observed. Further research is needed to evaluate what adjustments to SUPR are needed to establish long-term effectiveness on outcomes in the psychosocial domain. Trial Registration ISRCTN77340339; http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN77340339 International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) RR2-10.1136/bmjopen-2016-015012

Aaron Swoboda of Carleton College reviews “The Economics of Climate Change: Adaptations Past and Present” by Gary D. Libecap and Richard H. Steckel. The EconLit Abstract of the reviewed work begins: Eleven papers explore the economics of climate change, focusing on how economies, particularly that of the United States, have adjusted to past challenges posed by climate change. Papers discuss additive damages, fat-tailed climate dynamics, and uncertain discounting (Martin L. Weitzman); modeling the impact of warming in climate change economics (Robert S. Pindyck); droughts, floods, and financial distress in the United States (John Landon-Lane, Hugh Rockoff, and Richard H. Steckel); the effects of weather shocks on crop prices in unfettered markets--the United States prior to the farm programs, 1895&ndash;1932 (Jonathan F. Fox, Price V. Fishback, and Paul W. Rhode); information and the impact of climate and weather on mortality rates during the Great Depression (Fishback, Werner Troesken, Trevor Kollmann, Michael Haines, Rhode, and Melissa Thomasson); responding to climatic challenges--lessons from U.S. agricultural development (Alan L. Olmstead and Rhode); the impact of the 1936 Corn Belt drought on American farmers' adoption of hybrid corn (Richard Sutch); the evolution of heat tolerance of corn--implications for climate change (Michael J. Roberts and Wolfram Schlenker); climate variability and water infrastructure--historical experience in the western United States (Zeynep K. Hansen, Gary D. Libecap, and Scott E. Lowe); whether Frederick Brodie discovered the world's first environmental Kuznets curve--coal smoke and the rise and fall of the London fog (Karen Clay and Troesken); and the impacts of climate change on residential electricity consumption--evidence from billing data (Anin Aroonruengsawat and Maximilian Auffhammer). Libecap is Donald Bren Distinguished Professor of Corporate Environmental Management and Professor of Economics at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Steckel is the Social and Behavioral Sciences Distinguished Professor of Economics, Anthropology, and History and a Distinguished University Professor at Ohio State University. Name and subject indexes.

The article focuses on analyzing the content and relationship between the development of enterprises, enterprise-university models and governance in higher education institutions, thereby providing policy recommendations on innovation in university governance in Vietnam. In the article, documents from internationally published researches as well as arguments on the mentioned subjects are analyzed and synthesized. Results of surveys and analysis on the status of universities in Vietnam that are presented in the article also demonstrate a detailed picture of difficulties and issues in enterprise development and transition into enterprise-university model. On this basis, the article provides recommendations for universities and on the issues that require government’s intervention through supportive policies and mechanisms to accelerate the process of university governance reform in the current period of 4.0 revolution in university education. Keywords Higher education institutions, Developing enterprise in universities, University-enterprise model, University governance References [1] Trần Anh Tài, Trịnh Ngọc Thạch, Mô hình đại học doanh nghiệp: Kinh nghiệm quốc tế và gợi ý cho Việt Nam, Tái bản lần thứ nhất, NXB Khoa học Xã hội, 2003.[2] Yokoyama K, Entrepreneurialism in Japanese and UK Universities: Governance, Management, Leadership and Funding. High Educ (2006) 52: 523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-1168-2.[3] Dinh Van Toan, University - Enterprise Cooperation in International Context and Implications for Vietnam, Vietnam Economic Review No. 7 (275), (2017).[4] Dinh Van Toan, Hoang Van Hai, Nguyen Phuong Mai, The Role of Entrepreneurship Development in Universities to Promote Knowledge Sharing: The Case of Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Kỷ yếu tại hội thảo quốc tế: "Asia Pacific Conference on Information Management 2016: Common Platform to A Sustainable Society In The Dynamic Asia Pacific", Hanoi, 2016.[5] Wennekers S. & Thurik R., Linking Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth, Small Business Economics (1999) 13: 27. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008063200484.[6] Clark. B. R., Creating Entrepreneurial Universities: Organizational Pathways of Transformation, Oxford: IAU Press and Pergamon, 1998.[7] Etzkowitz H., MIT and The Rise of Entrepreneurial Science, Routledge, New York, 2002.https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203216675.[8] Geiger R. L., Knowledge and Money: Research Universities and The Paradox of The Marketplace, Stanford University Press, 2004.[9] Slaughter, S., Leslie, L., Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and The Entrepreneurial University, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1997.[10] Slaughter, S., Rhoades G., Academic Capitalism and The New Economy: Markets, State and Higher Education, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2004.[11] Washburn, J., University Inc: The Corporate Corruption of Higher Education, Stanford University Press, 2005. [12] Han J. và Heshmati A., Determinants of Financial Rewards from Industry-University Collaboration in South Korea, IZA Discussion Paper No. 7695 (2013). [13] Trần Anh Tài, Liên kết nhà trường và doanh nghiệp trong hoạt động đào tạo và nghiên cứu khoa học - kinh nghiệm quốc tế và gợi ý cho Việt Nam, Đề tài cấp ĐHQG, 2009-2010, 2010. [14] Yusof M., Jain K. K., Categories of University-level entrepreneurship: a literature survey, Int. Entrep. Manag. J (2010) 6:81-96. DOI 10.1007/s11365-007-0072-x.[15] Dinh Van Toan, Promoting university startups’ development: International experiences and policy recommendations for Vietnam, Vietnam’s Socio-Economic Development, Vol. 22, No. 90, 7/2017, tr. 19-42.[16] Rothaermel F.T., Agung S.D. and Jiang L., University entrepreneurship: a taxonomy of the literature, Industrial and Corporate Change, Volume 16, Number 4, Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 691-791.[17] Bercovitz J. & Feldman M., Entrepreneurial Universities and Technology Transfer: A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Knowledge Based Economic Development, The Journal of Technology Transfer (2006) 31: 175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-005-5029-z[18] Bercovitz, J., Feldman, M., Feller, I. và cộng sự, Organizational Structure as a Determinant of Academic Patent and Licensing Behavior: An Exploratory Study of Duke, John Hopkins, and Pennsylvania State Universities, The Journal of Technology Transfer (2001) 26: 21. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007828026904[19] Feldman, M., Bercovitz, J., Burton, R., Equity and The Technology Strategies of American Research Universities, Management Science, 48(1), 2002, 105-121.[20] Owen-Smith, J., Trends and transitions in the institutional environment for public and private science, Higher Education, 49, 2005, 91-117.[21] Owen-Smith J., Powell W. W., The Expanding Role of University Patenting in the Life Sciences: Assessing The Importance of Experience and Connectivity, Research Policy, 32(9), 2003, 1695-1711.[22] Colyvas J.A., Powell W.W., From Vulnerable to Venerated: The Institutionalization of Academic Entrepreneurship in The Life Science, in Martin Ruef, Michael Lounsbury (ed.) The Sociology of Entrepreneurship (Research in the Sociology of Organizations, Volume 25) Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2007, pp.219 – 259. [23] Luthje C., Franke N., Fostering entrepreneurship through university education and training: Lessons from Massachusetts Institute of Techolology, European Academy of Management, 2nd Annual Conference on Innovative Research in Management, Stockholm, 2002.[24] Trần Anh Tài, Liên kết nhà trường và doanh nghiệp trong hoạt động đào tạo và nghiên cứu khoa học - kinh nghiệm quốc tế và gợi ý cho Việt Nam, Đề tài cấp ĐHQG, 2009-2010. [25] G. Dalmarco, W. Hulsink, Creating entrepreneurial university in an emerging country: Evidence from Brazil, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j.techfore.2018.04.015] [26] Đinh Văn Toàn, 2018, Phát triển doanh nghiệp trong đại học: Kinh nghiệm trên thế giới và gợi ý chính sách cho Việt Nam, Tạp chí Kinh tế và dự báo, số 33, 12/2018, tr.58-60.[27] Nguyễn Hữu Đức, Nguyễn Hữu Thành Chung, Nghiêm Xuân Huy, Mai Thị Quỳnh Lan, Trần Thị Bích Liễu, Hà Quang Thụy, Nguyễn Lộc, Tiếp cận giáo dục đại học 4.0 – Các đặc trưng và tiêu chí đánh giá, Tạp chí Khoa học ĐHQGHN: Nghiên cứu chính sách và quản lý, Vol.34, số 4, 2018.

Examining effect of Strain on External and Internal Egg Parameters of Rhode Island Red (RIR), two Nigerian indigenous chicken strain:-(Pure naked neck (NNK); pure Normal feathered (NF)); Crosses were:- RIR x naked neck (RNK) cross; RIR x Normal feathered (RNF) cross. Matured 100 birds reared intensively for 10 weeks at Teaching and Research farm, University of Uyo in a Completely Randomized Design in standard management practices. Feed (16.0% crude protein, 2800 Kcal/Kg Metabolize-able energy) and water given ad libitum. 10 eggs per strain were cracked every Mondays and Fridays every week to examined External (egg weight(Ewt), egg length(El), shell weight (Swt) and Internal (yolk height (Yht), yolk weight(Ywt), albumen weight(Awt) albumen height (Aht) and Haugh unit (HU)) egg parameters. All data were subjected to one-way Analysis of Variance of SAS Statistical Software Package Version 9.2. Results indicated significant (P<0.05) effect of strain on external egg parameters studied. For Ewt, RNK (46.38±0.79 g) and RNF (45.54±0.96 g) were statistically (P<.05) higher than NF (42.42±0.85 g). For Swt, RNF(4.71g±0.09 g) was statistically (P<.05) higher than NF (4.36±0.11g) but similar in other strains. Result indicated significant (P<0.05) effect of strain on all the internal egg parameters measured. For Hu (RNK) 79.08±1.23% and (RNF) 77.83±1.88 were statistically (P<.05) higher than (NF) 73.84±1.10%. The same trend followed in other internal egg parameters among the strains. Generally, the trends placed were exotic birds first, then Crossbreds and Purebreds last in the parameters. In conclusion, RNK and SNF crossbreds performed better in both External and Internal egg parameter than purebred strains studied. Hence, crossbreeding should be adopted to improve Nigerian Chickens.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui Peran Mediasi Komitmen Organisasional pada Pengaruh Big Five Personality dan Persepsi Dukungan Organisasi Terhadap Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah menggunakan metode deskriptif kuantitatif. Sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini yakni perawat dan bidan pada RSUD Sultan Syarif Mohamad Alkadrie. Data diperoleh dari kuesioner yang kemudian diolah dan dianalisis dengan menggunakan analiais jalur melalui Doftware SPSS 17.00.Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Big FivePersonality dan Persepsi Dukungan Organisasi berpengaruh signifikan terhadap Komitmen Organisasional. Sementara itu Big Five Personality dan Persepsi Dukungan Organisasi juga berpengaruh langsung terhadap Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Sementara itu, Komitmen Organisasional berpengaruh terhadap Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Dari hasil analisis jalur diketahui bahwa variabel Komitmen Organisasional merupakan variabel mediasi antara Big FivePersonality dan Persepsi Dukungan Organisasi terhadap Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Kata Kunci : Komitmen Organisasional, Big Five Personality, Persepsi Dukungan Organisasi dan Organizational Citizenship BehaviorDAFTAR PUSTAKA Abdullah, I., Omar, R. & Rashid, Y. (2013). Effect of personality on organizational commitment and employees' performance: Empirical evidence from banking sector of Pakistan. World Applied Sciences Journal. 27. 140-147. Ali H. Muhammad, A. H., (2014). Perceived Organizational Support and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Case of Kuwait. International Journal of Business Administration, 5(3), 59-72. Ali, F.H., Rizavi, S. S., Ahmed, I., Rasheed, M. (2018). Effects of perceived organizational support on organizational citizenship behavior-Sequential mediation by well-being and work engagement. Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society, 31 (1). Aube, C., Rousseau, V. & Morin, E.M. (2007) "Perceived organizational support and organizational commitment: The moderating effect of locus of control and work autonomy", Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22 (5), 479-495.Chiaburu, D. S., Oh, I.-S., Berry, C. M., Li, N., & Gardner, R. G. (2011). The five- factor model of personality traits and organizational citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 1140-1166.Denalia & Sunjoyo, “Pengaruh The Big Five Personality dan Komitmen Organanisasional Citizenship”, Jurnal Manajemen, vol. 11, No. 1, (November, 2011), hlm, 25.Donald, F., Hlanganipai, & Richard. (2016). The relationship between perceived organizational support and organizational commitment among academics: The mediating effect of job satisfaction. Investment Management and Financial Innovations, 13, 267-273. Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchinson, S. & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.82 (5), 812-820Erdheim, J., Wang, M., & Zickar, M. J. (2006) Linking the Big Five personality constructs to organizational commitment. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 959-970. Kumar, K., Bakhshi, A. and Rani, E. (2009) Linking the ‘big five’ personality domains to organizational citizenship behavior. International Journal of Psychological Studies 1(2): 73–81.Kuldep, Et. al, “Linking The Big Five Personality to Organizantional Citizenship Behavior”, International Journal of Psychological Studies, vol. 1, No. 2, (Desember, 2009), hlm, 74.Kurniawan Albert, “Pengaruh Komitmen Organisasi Terhadap Organizational Citizenship Behavior” Jurnal Manajemen, vol. 15, No. 1, (November, 2015), hlm, 98.Kreitner, R. and Kinicki, A. (2004). Organizational Behavior. Fifth Edition. McGraw Hill. New York.Kreitner, R. and Kinicki, A. (2014). Perilaku Organisasi. Edisi 9. Penerbit Salemba Empat. JakartaLeephaijaroen, S. (2016). Effects of the big-five personality traits and organizational commitments on organizational citizenship behavior of support staff at Ubon Ratchathani Rajabhat University, Thailand. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences Luthan, F (2005). Perilaku Organisasi. Edisi ke 10. Yogyakarta : Penerbit AndiWardani & Suseno (2012). Faktor Kepribadian dan Organizational Citizenship Behavior pada Polisi Pariwisata. Humanitas, 9(2), 193-204.Luthans, F. (2006), Perilaku Organisasi. Edisi Sepuluh, PT. Andi: Yogyakarta.Mushraf, A.M., Al-Saqry, R., & Obaid, H. J. (2015). The Impact of Big FivePersonality Factors on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour.International Journal of Management Science, 2 (5), 93-97Mrs Eta Wahab, E., Quaddus, M. & Nowak, M. (2009). Perceived organizational support and organizational commitment: a study of medium enterprises in malaysia. International Conference on Human Capital Development (ICONHCD 2009), 25-27 May 2009, Kuantan Pahang ISBN 978-967-5080-51-7. Organ, D. W. (1990). The motivational basis of organizational citizen ship behavior. In B. M. Staw, & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 43-72). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Organ, D. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (2006). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature, antecedents, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Pala, Fikri, Eker, Semith dkk. 2008. The Effect Of Demographic Characteristic on Organizational Commitment And Job Satisfaction: An Empirical Study On Turkish Health Care Staff. The Journal of Industrial Relations and Human Resources Vol: 10 No:2 April 2008, ISSN: 1303-286Podsakoff P.M, Michae Ahearne, MacKenzie S.B (1997) Organizational Citizenship Behavior and the Quantity of Work Group Perpormance. American Psychological Association. Vol.82, No. 2, 262-270Priyatno, Duwi. (2011). Buku Saku Analisis Statistik Data. Penerbit Media Kom. YogyakartaRaka, Ketut Sudarma (2015) Pengaruh Persepsi Dukungan Dan Keadilan Organisasi Terhadap Organizational Citizenship Behavior Dengan Komitmen Organisasional Sebagai Variabel Intervening. Management Analysis JournalRhoades, L, Eisenberger, R. And Armeli, S. 2001. Affective Commitmen to the Organization: The Contribution of Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Applied Psychologi, 86(5): 825-836Robbins, S. P. & A. Judge, T. (2008). Perilaku Organisasi. Jakarta : PT. IndexRobbins, S. P. & A. Judge, T. (2011). Organizational behavior. Fourteenth Edition. Pearson education. New JerseyRoby & Iring, “Pengaruh The Big Five Personality’’, Journal Manajemen dan Akuntansi, vol. 3, No 1, (April, 2014), hlm, 3.Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 698-714.

Timeliness of financial reporting is a qualitative characteristics that enhance the usefulness of information and significant to users of financial statements. This study examines that board diversity (GENDERCHAIR), CEO age (CEOAGE) have impact on audit report timeliness. The sample of this study comprises of 100 companies listed on Vietnamese Stock Exchange in the period 2012 - 2014. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression analysis are performed to test the audit report timeliness determinants . Using quantitative research methods, findings found that there is a significant positive relationship between board diversity on timeliness of financial reporting while proxy variables of the CEO age have a significant negative relationship with timeliness of financial reporting. . This paper extends prior research by addressing the potential effects of female executives on timeliness of financial reporting. Keywords Chief executive officer, timeliness of financial reporting, listed firms, Vietnam References Abdullah, S. N., “Board composition, audit committee and timeliness of corporate financial reports in Malaysia”, Corporate Ownership & Control, 4 (2006) 4, 33-45.Al-Ajmi, J., “Audit and reporting delays: Evidence from an emerging market”, Advances in Accounting, 24 (2008) 2, 217-226Al-Akra, M., Eddie, I. A., & Ali, M. J., “The influence of the introduction of accounting disclosure regulation on mandatory disclosure compliance: Evidence from Jordan”, The British Accounting Review, 42 (2010) 3, 170-186.Alkhatib, K., & Marji, Q., “Audit reports timeliness: Empirical evidence from Jordan”, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 62 (2012), 1342-1349.AL-Shwiyat, Z. M. M., “Affecting factors on the timing of the issuance of annual financial reports: empirical study on the jordanian public shareholding companies”, European Scientific Journal, 9 (2013) 22, 407-423.Ashton, R. H., Graul, P. R., & Newton, J. D., “Audit delay and the timeliness of corporate reporting”, Contemporary Accounting Research, 5 (1989) 2, 657-673.Bamber, E. M., Bamber, L. S., & Schoderbek, M. P., “Audit structure and other determinants of audit report lag: An empirical analysis”, Auditing, 12 (1993) 1, 1-23.Bergstresser, D. and Philippon, T., “CEO incentives and earnings management”, Journal of Financial Economics, 80 (2006) 3, 511-529.Bertrand, M. and Schoar, A., “Managing with Style: The Effect of Managers on Firm Policies”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118, (2003) 4, 1169–1208Carmichael, D., Ghosh, A. and Lee, H., “Causes and consequences of abnormally long audit reporting lags”, in Bishop, C. C., ed. American Accounting Association Annual Meeting, Colorado, Wednesday August 10, 2011, Denver, Colorado: American Accounting Association (2011), 1-41.Catalyst, “The bottom line: Connecting corporate performance and gender diversity” (2004).Che-Ahmad, A., & Abidin, S., “Audit delay of listed companies: A case of Malaysia”, International business research, 1 (2009) 4, 32.Cohen, J., Krishnamoorthy, G., & Wright, A. M., “Corporate governance and the audit process”, Contemporary accounting research, 19 (2002) 4, 573-594.Ettredge, M. L., Sun, L. and Li, C., “The impact of SOX section 404 internal control quality assessment on audit delay in the SOX era”, Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory, 25 (2006) 2, 1-23.Ezat, A., & El-Masry, A., “The impact of corporate governance on the timeliness of corporate internet reporting by Egyptian listed companies”, Managerial finance, 34 (2008) 12, 848-867.Feng, M., Ge, W., Luo, S., & Shevlin, T., “Why do CFOs become involved in material accounting manipulations?”, Journal of Accounting and Economics, 51 (2011) 1, 21-36.Francis, J., Huang, A. H., Rajgopal, S. and Zang, A. Y., “CEO reputation and earnings quality”, Contemporary Accounting Research, 25 (2008) 1, 109-147.Hambrick, D. C. and Mason, P. A., “Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers”, The Academy of Management Review, 9 (1984) 2, 193-206.Hazarika, S., Karpoff, J. M. and Nahata, R., “Internal corporate governance, CEO turnover, and earnings management”, Journal of Financial Economics, 104 (2012) 1, 44-69.Inchausti, B. G., “The influence of company characteristics and accounting regulation on information disclosed by Spanish firms”, European accounting review, 6 (1997) 1, 45-68.Jiang, F., Zhu, B. and Huang, J., “CEO's financial experience and earnings management”, Journal of Multinational Financial Management, 23 (2013) 3, 134-145.Jiang, J. X., Petroni, K. R., & Wang, I. Y,. “CFOs and CEOs: Who have the most influence on earnings management?”, Journal of Financial Economics, 96 (2010) 3, 513-526.Khademi, V., “The relation between investment opportunities and asset growth among the companies accepted in Tehran Stock Exchange”, Accountant 207 (2009), 74-77.Khasharmeh, H. A., & Aljifri, K., “The timeliness of annual reports in Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates: An empirical comparative study”, The International Journal of Business and Finance Research, 4 (2010) 1, 51-71.Klein, A., “Audit committee, board of director characteristics, and earnings management”, Journal of Accounting and Economics, 33 (2002) 3, 375-400. Knechel, W. R. and Sharma, D. S., “Auditor-provided non audit services and audit effectiveness and efficiency: Evidence from pre- and post-SOX audit Report Lags”, Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory, 31 (2012) 4, 85-114.Knechel, W. R., Sharma, D. S. and Sharma, V. D., “Non-audit services and knowledge spillovers: Evidence from New Zealand”. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, 39 (2012) 1-2, 60-81.Leventis, S., & Weetman, P., “Timeliness of financial reporting: applicability of disclosure theories in an emerging capital market”, Accounting and Business Research, 34 (2004)1, 43-56.Mande, V. and Son, M., “Do audit delays affect client retention?”, Managerial Auditing Journal, 26 (2011) 1, 32-50.Mohamad-Nor, M. N., Shafie, R. and Wan-Hussin, W. N., “Corporate governance and audit report lag in Malaysia”, Asian Academy of Management Journal of Accounting & Finance, 6 (2010) 2, 57-84.Mudrack, P., “Age-related differences in a Machiavellian adult sample”, Psychology Report, 64 (1989) 2, 1947–1950.Munsif, V., Raghunandan, K. and Rama, D. V., “Internal control reporting and audit report lags: Further evidence”, Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory, 31 (2012) 3, 203-218.Nelson, S. N., & Shukeri, S. N., “Corporate governance and audit report timeliness: evidence from Malaysia”, In Accounting in Asia, (2011), 109-127. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.Owusu-Ansah, S., “Timeliness of corporate financial reporting in emerging capital markets: Empirical evidence from the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange”, Accounting and business research, 30 (2000) 3, 241-254.Owusu-Ansah, S., & Leventis, S., “Timeliness of corporate annual financial reporting in Greece”, European Accounting Review, 15 (2006) 2, 273-287.Peterson, D., A. Rhoads, and B. C. Vaught., “Ethical beliefs of business professionals: A study of gender, age and external factors”, Journal of Business Ethics, 31 (2001) 3, 225–233.Rafiee, S. Z., Rafiee, S. Z., & Heidarpoor, F., “The effective factors of financial information quality in listed companies on Tehran Stock Exchange”, International Journal of Accounting and Financial Reporting, 4 (2014) 2, 201.Robinson, G., & Dechant, K., “Building a business case for diversity”, The Academy of Management Executive, 11 (1997) 3, 21-31.Sundaram, R. K., & Yermack, D. L., “Pay me later: Inside debt and its role in managerial compensation”, The Journal of Finance, 62 (2007) 4, 1551-1588.Türel, A., “Timeliness of financial reporting in emerging capital markets: Evidence from Turkey”, Istanbul University Journal of the School of Business, 39 (2010) 2, 227-240.Walt, N., & Ingley, C., “Board dynamics and the influence of professional background, gender and ethnic diversity of directors”, Corporate Governance: An International Review, 11 (2003) 3, 218-234.Wan-Hussin, W. N. and Bamahros, H. M., “Do investment in and the sourcing arrangement of the internal audit function affect audit delay, Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics, 9 (2013) 1, 19-32.Wilson, M., & Wang, L. W., “Earnings management following chief executive officer changes: the effect of contemporaneous chairperson and chief financial officer appointments”, Accounting & Finance, 50 (2010) 2, 447-480.Younes H., “The relationship between financial reporting timeliness and attributes of companies listed on Egyptian Stock Exchange: An empirical study”, Internal Auditing & Risk Management 6 (2011)3.Zhang, Y., & Wiersema, M. F., “Stock market reaction to CEO certification: The signaling role of CEO background”, Strategic Management Journal, (2009), 693-710.

IntroductionAccounts of mentoring relationships inevitably draw attention to hierarchies of expertise, knowledge and learning. While public concerns about both the risks and benefits for young people of social media, little attention has been given to the nature of the mentoring role that parents and families play alongside of schools. This conceptual paper explores models of mentorship in the context of family dynamics as they are affected by social media use. This is a context that explicitly disrupts hierarchical structures of mentoring in that new media, and particularly social media use, tends to be driven by youth cultural practices, identity formation, experimentation and autonomy-seeking practices (see for example: Robards; boyd; Campos-Holland et al.; Hodkinson). A growing body of research supports the notion that young people are more skilled in navigating social media platforms than their parents (FOSI; Campos-Holland et al.). This research establishes that uncertainty and tension derived from parents’ impression that their children know more about social media they do (FOSI; Sorbring) has brought about a market for advice and educational programs. In the content of this paper it is notable that when family dynamics and young people’s social media use are addressed through notions of digital citizenship or cyber safety programs, a hierarchical mentorship is assumed, but also problematised; thus the expertise hierarchy is inverted. This paper argues that use of social media platforms, networks, and digital devices challenges traditional hierarchies of expertise in family environments. Family members, parents and children in particular, are involved in ongoing, complex conversations and negotiations about expertise in relation to technology and social media use. These negotiations open up an alternative space for mentorship, challenging traditional roles and suggesting the need for cooperative processes. And this, in turn, can inspire new ways of relating with and through social media and mobile technologies within the family.Inverting Expertise: Social Media, Family and MentoringSocial media are deeply embedded in everyday routines for the vast majority of the population. The emergence of the ‘networked society’, characterised by increasing and pervasive digital and social connectivity, has the potential to create new forms of social interactions within and across networks (Rainie and Wellman), but also to reconfigure intergenerational and family relations. In this way, social media introduces new power asymmetries that affect family dynamics and in particular relationships between young people and their parents. This relatively new mediated environment, by default, exposes young people to social contexts well beyond family and immediate peers making their lived experiences individual, situational and contextual (Swist et al.). The perceived risks this introduces can provoke tensions within families looking to manage those uncertain social contexts, in the process problematising traditional structures of mentorship. Mentoring is a practice predominantly understood within educational and professional workplace settings (Ambrosetti and Dekkers). Although different definitions can be found across disciplines, most models position a mentor as a more experienced knowledge holder, implying a hierarchical relationship between a mentor and mentee (Ambrosetti and Dekkers). Stereotypically, a mentor is understood to be older, wiser and more experienced, while a mentee is, in turn, younger and in need of guidance – a protégé. Alternative models of mentorship see mentoring as a reciprocal process (Eby, Rhodes and Allen; Naweed and Ambrosetti).This “reciprocal” perspective on mentorship recognises the opportunity both sides in the process have to contribute and benefit from the relationship. However, in situations where one party in the relationship does not have the expected knowledge, skills or confidence, this reciprocity becomes more difficult. Thus, as an alternative, asymmetrical or cooperative mentorship lies between the hierarchical and reciprocal (Naweed and Ambrosetti). It suggests that the more experienced side (whichever it is) takes a lead while mentoring is negotiated in a way that meets both sides’ needs. The parent-child relationship is generally understood in hierarchical terms. Traditionally, parents are considered to be mentors for their children, particularly in acquiring new skills and facilitating transitions towards adult life. Such perspectives on parent-child relationships are based on a “deficit” approach to youth, “whereby young people are situated as citizens-in-the-making” (Collin). Social media further problematises the hierarchical dynamic with the role of knowledge holder varying between and within the family members. In many contemporary mediated households, across developed and wealthy nations, technologically savvy children are actively tailoring their own childhoods. This is a context that requires a reconceptualisation of traditional mentoring models within the family context and recognition of each stakeholder’s expertise, knowledge and agency – a position that is markedly at odds with traditional deficit models. Negotiating Social Media Use within the FamilyIn the early stages of the internet and social media research, a generational gap was often at the centre of debates. Although highly contested, Prensky’s metaphor of digital natives and digital immigrants persists in both the popular media and academic literature. This paradigm portrays young people as tech savvy in contrast with their parents. However, such assumptions are rarely grounded in empirical evidence (Hargittai). Nonetheless, while parents are active users of social media, they find it difficult to negotiate social media use with their children (Sorbring). Some studies suggest that parental concerns arise from impressions that their children know more about social media than they do (FOSI; Wang, Bianchi and Raley). Additionally, parental concern with a child’s social media use is positively correlated with the child’s age; parents of older children are less confident in their skills and believe that their child is more digitally skillful (FOSI). However, it may be more productive to understand social media expertise within the family as shared: intermittently fluctuating between parents and children. In developed and wealthy countries, children are already using digital media by the age of five and throughout their pre-teen years predominantly for play and learning, and as teenagers they are almost universally avid social media users (Nansen; Nansen et al.; Swist et al.). Smartphone ownership has increased significantly among young people in Australia, reaching almost 80% in 2015, a proportion nearly identical to the adult population (Australian Communications and Media Authority). In addition, most young people are using multiple devices switching between them according to where, when and with whom they connect (Australian Communications and Media Authority). The locations of internet use have also diversified. While the home remains the most common site, young people make use of mobile devices to access the internet at school, friend’s homes, and via public Wi-Fi hotspots (Australian Communications and Media Authority). As a result, social media access and engagement has become more frequent and personalised and tied to processes of socialisation and well-being (Sorbring; Swist et al.). These developments have been rapid, introducing asymmetry into the parent-child mentoring dynamic along with family tensions about rules, norms and behaviours of media use. Negotiating an appropriate balance between emerging autonomy and parental oversight has always featured as a primary parenting challenge and social media seem to have introduced a new dimension in this context. A 2016 Pew report on parents, teens, and digital monitoring reveals that social media use has become central to the establishment of family rules and disciplinary practices, with over two thirds of parents reporting the use of “digital grounding” as punishment (Pew). As well as restricting social media use, the majority of parents report limiting the amount of time and times of day their children can be online. Interestingly, while parents engage in a variety of hands-on approaches to monitoring and regulating children’s social media use, they are less likely to use monitoring software, blocking/filtering online content, tracking locations and the like (Pew). These findings suggest that parents may lack confidence in technology-based restrictions or prefer pro-active, family based approaches involving discussion about appropriate social media use. This presents an opportunity to explore how social media produces new forms of parent-child relationships that might be best understood through the lens of cooperative models of mentorship. Digital Parenting: Technological and Pedagogical Interventions Parents along with educators and policy makers are looking for technological solutions to the knowledge gap, whether perceived or real, associated with concerns regarding young people’s social media use. Likewise, technology and social media companies are rushing to develop and sell advice, safety filters and resources of all kinds to meet such parental needs (Clark; McCosker). This relatively under-researched field requires further exploration and dissociation from the discourse of risk and fear (Livingstone). Furthermore, in order to develop opportunities modelled on concepts of cooperative mentoring, such programs and interventions need to move away from hierarchical assumptions about the nature of expertise within family contexts. As Collin and Swist point out, online campaigns aimed at addressing young people and children’s safety and wellbeing “are often still designed by adult ‘experts’” (Collin and Swist). A cooperative mentoring approach within family contexts would align with recent use of co-design or participatory design within social and health research and policy (Collin and Swist). In order to think through the potential of cooperative mentorship approaches in relation to social media use within the family, we examine some of the digital resources available to parents.Prominent US cyber safety and digital citizenship program Cyberwise is a commercial website founded by Diana Graber and Cynthia Lieberman, with connections to Verizon Wireless, Google and iKeepSafe among many other partnerships. In addition to learning resources around topics like “Being a Responsible Citizen of the Digital World”, Cyberwise offers online and face to face workshops on “cyber civics” in California, emphasising critical thinking, ethical discussion and decision making about digital media issues. The organisation aims to educate and support parents and teachers in their endeavor to guide young people in civil and safe social media use. CyberWise’s slogan “No grown up left behind!”, and its program of support and education is underpinned by and maintains the notion of adults as lacking expertise and lagging behind young people in digital literacy and social media skills. In the process, it introduces an additional level of expertise in the cyber safety expert and software-based interventions. Through a number of software partners, CyberWise provides a suite of tools that offer parents some control in preventing cyberbullying and establishing norms for cyber safety. For example, Frienedy is a dedicated social media platform that fosters a more private mode of networking for closed groups of mutually known people. It enables users to control completely what they share and with whom they share it. The tool does not introduce any explicit parental monitoring mechanisms, but seeks to impose an exclusive online environment divested of broader social influences and risks – an environment in which parents can “introduce kids to social media on their terms when they are ready”. Although Frienedy does not explicitly present itself as a monitoring tool, it does perpetuate hierarchical forms of mentorship and control for parents. On the other hand, PocketGuardian is a parental monitoring service for tracking children’s social media use, with an explicit emphasis on parental control: “Parents receive notification when cyberbullying or sexting is detected, plus resources to start a conversation with their child without intruding child’s privacy” (the software notifies parents when it detects an issue but without disclosing the content). The tool promotes its ability to step in on behalf of parents, removing “the task of manually inspecting your child's device and accounts”. The software claims that it analyses the content rather than merely catching “keywords” in its detection algorithms. Obviously, tools such as PocketGuardian reflect a hierarchical mentorship model (and recognise the expertise asymmetry) by imposing technological controls. The software, in a way, fosters a fear of expertise deficiency, while enabling technological controls to reassert the parent-child hierarchy. A different approach is exemplified by the Australian based Young and Well Cooperative Research Centre, a “living lab” experiment – this is an overt attempt to reverse deliberate asymmetry. This pedagogical intervention, initially taking the form of an research project, involved four young people designing and delivering a three-hour workshop on social networking and cyber safety for adult participants (Third et al.). The central aim was to disrupt the traditional way adults and young people relate to each other in relation to social media and technology use and attempted to support learning by reversing traditional roles of adult teacher and young student. In this way ‘a non-hierarchical space of intergenerational learning’ was created (Third et al.). The result was to create a setting where intergenerational conversation helped to demystify social media and technology, generate familiarity with sites, improve adult’s understanding of when they should assist young people, and deliver agency and self-efficacy for the young people involved (7-8). In this way, young people’s expertise was acknowledged as a reflection of a cooperative or asymmetrical mentoring relationship in which adult’s guidance and support could also play a part. These lessons have been applied and developed further through a participatory design approach to producing apps and tools such as Appreciate-a-mate (Collin and Swist). In that project “the inclusion of young people’s contexts became a way of activating and sustaining attachments in regard to the campaign’s future use”(313).In stark contrast to the CyberWise tools, the cooperative mentoring (or participatory design) approach, exemplified in this second example, has multiple positive outcomes: first it demystifies social media use and increases understanding of the role it plays in young people’s (and adults’) lives. Second, it increases adults’ familiarity and comfort in navigating their children’s social media use. Finally, for the young people involved, it supports a sense of achievement and acknowledges their expertise and agency. To build sustainability into these processes, we would argue that it is important to look at the family context and cooperative mentorship as an additional point of intervention. Understood in this sense, cooperative and asymmetrical mentoring between a parent and child echoes an authoritative parenting style which is proven to have the best outcome for children (Baumrind), but in a way that accommodates young people’s technology expertise.Both programs analysed target adults (parents) as less skilful than young people (their children) in relation to social media use. However, while first case study, the technology based interventions endorses hierarchical model, the Living Lab example (a pedagogical intervention) attempts to create an environment without hierarchical obstacles to learning and knowledge exchange. Although the parent-child relationship is indubitably characterised by the hierarchy to some extent, it also assumes continuous negotiation and role fluctuation. A continuous process, negotiation intensifies as children age and transition to more independent media use. In the current digital environment, this negotiation is often facilitated (or even led) by social media platforms as additional agents in the process. Unarguably, digital parenting might implicate both technological and pedagogical interventions; however, there should be a dialogue between the two. Without presumed expertise roles, non-hierarchical, cooperative environment for negotiating social media use can be developed. Cooperative mentorship, as a concept, offers an opportunity to connect research and practice through participatory design and it deserves further consideration.ConclusionsPrevailing approaches to cyber safety education tend to focus on risk management and in doing so, they maintain hierarchical forms of parental control. Adhering to such methods fails to acknowledge young people’s expertise and further deepens generational misunderstanding over social media use. Rather than insisting on hierarchical and traditional roles, there is a need to recognise and leverage asymmetrical expertise within the family in regards to social media.Cooperative and asymmetrical mentorship happens naturally in the family and can be facilitated by and through social media. The inverted hierarchy of expertise we have described here puts both parents and children, in a position of constant negotiation over social media use. This negotiation is complex, relational, unpredictable, open toward emergent possibilities and often intensive. Unquestionably, it is clear that social media provides opportunities for negotiation over, and inversion of, traditional family roles. Whether this inversion of expertise is real or only perceived, however, deserves further investigation. This article formulates some of the conceptual groundwork for an empirical study of family dynamics in relation to social media use and rulemaking. The study aims to continue to probe the positive potential of cooperative and asymmetrical mentorship and participatory design concepts and practices. The idea of cooperative mentorship does not necessarily provide a universal solution to how families negotiate social media use, but it does provide a new lens through which this dynamic can be observed. Clearly family dynamics, and the parent-child relationship, in particular, can play a vital part in supporting effective digital citizenship and wellbeing processes. Learning about this spontaneous and natural process of family negotiations might equip us with tools to inform policy and practices that can help parents and children to collaboratively create ‘a networked world in which they all want to live’ (boyd). ReferencesAmbrosetti, Angelina, and John Dekkers. "The Interconnectedness of the Roles of Mentors and Mentees in Pre-Service Teacher Education Mentoring Relationships." Australian Journal of Teacher Education 35.6 (2010): 42-55. Naweed, Anjum, and Ambrosetti Angelina. "Mentoring in the Rail Context: The Influence of Training, Style, and Practicenull." Journal of Workplace Learning 27.1 (2015): 3-18.Australian Communications and Media Authority, Office of the Childrens eSafety Commissioner. Aussie Teens and Kids Online. Australian Communications and Media Authority, 2016. Baumrind, Diana. "Effects of Authoritative Parental Control on Child Behavior." Child Development 37.4 (1966): 887. boyd, danah. It's Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014. Campos-Holland, Ana, Brooke Dinsmore, Gina Pol, Kevin Zevalios. "Keep Calm: Youth Navigating Adult Authority across Networked Publics." Technology and Youth: Growing Up in a Digital World. Eds. Sampson Lee Blair, Patricia Neff Claster, and Samuel M. Claster. 2015. 163-211. Clark, Lynn Schofield. The Parent App: Understanding Families in the Digital Age. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. Collin, Philippa. Young Citizens and Political Participation in a Digital Society: Addressing the Democratic Disconnect. Palgrave Macmillan, 2015. Collin, Philippa, and Teresa Swist. "From Products to Publics? The Potential of Participatory Design for Research on Youth, Safety and Well-Being." Journal of Youth Studies 19.3 (2016): 305-18. Eby, Lillian T., Jean E. Rhodes, and Tammy D. Allen. "Definition and Evolution of Mentoring." The Blackwell Handbook of Mentoring: A Multiple Perspectives Approach. Eds. Tammy D. Allen and Lillian T. Eby. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. 7-20.FOSI. Parents, Privacy & Technology Use. Washington: Family Online Safety Institute, 2015. Hargittai, Eszter. "Digital Na(t)ives? Variation in Internet Skills and Uses among Members of the 'Net Generation'." Sociological Inquiry 80.1 (2010): 92-113.Hodkinson, Paul. "Bedrooms and Beyond: Youth, Identity and Privacy on Social Network Sites." New Media & Society (2015). Livingstone, Sonia. "More Online Risks for Parents to Worry About, Says New Safer Internet Day Research." Parenting for a Digital Future 2016.McCosker, Anthony. "Managing Digital Citizenship: Cyber Safety as Three Layers of Contro." Negotiating Digital Citizenship: Control, Contest and Culture. Eds. A. McCosker, S. Vivienne, and A. Johns. London: Rowman & Littlefield, forthcoming 2016. Nansen, Bjorn. "Accidental, Assisted, Automated: An Emerging Repertoire of Infant Mobile Media Techniques." M/C Journal 18.5 (2015). Nansen, Bjorn, et al. "Children and Digital Wellbeing in Australia: Online Regulation, Conduct and Competence." Journal of Children and Media 6.2 (2012): 237-54. Pew, Research Center. Parents, Teens and Digital Monitoring: Pew Research Center, 2016. Prensky, Marc. "Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 1." On the Horizon 9.5 (2001): 1-6. Rainie, Harrison, and Barry Wellman. Networked: The New Social Operating System. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2012. Robards, Brady. "Leaving Myspace, Joining Facebook: ‘Growing up’ on Social Network Sites." Continuum 26.3 (2012): 385-98. Sorbring, Emma. "Parents’ Concerns about Their Teenage Children’s Internet Use." Journal of Family Issues 35.1 (2014): 75-96.Swist, Teresa, et al. Social Media and Wellbeing of Children and Young People: A Literature Review. Perth, WA: Prepared for the Commissioner for Children and Young People, Western Australia, 2015. Third, Amanda, et al. Intergenerational Attitudes towards Social Networking and Cybersafety: A Living Lab. Melbourne: Cooperative Research Centre for Young People, Technology and Wellbeing, 2011.Wang, Rong, Suzanne M. Bianchi, and Sara B. Raley. "Teenagers’ Internet Use and Family Rules: A Research Note." Journal of Marriage and Family 67.5 (2005): 1249-58.

IntroductionBushfires have taken numerous lives and destroyed communities throughout Australia over many years. Catastrophic fire weather alerts have occurred during the Australian summer of 2012–13, and long-term forecasts predict increased bushfire events throughout several areas of Australia. This article highlights how organisational and individual responses to bushfire in Australia often entail creative responses—either improvised responses at the time of bushfire emergencies or innovative (organisational, strategic, or technological) changes which help protect the community from, or mitigate against, future bushfire catastrophes. These improvised or innovative responses include emergency communications systems, practices, and devices. This article reports on findings from a research project funded by the Australian Research Council titled Using Community Engagement and Enhanced Visual Information to Promote FireWatch Satellite Communications as a Support for Collaborative Decision-making. FireWatch is a Web-based public information product based on near real time satellite data produced by the West Australian (WA) Government entity, Landgate. The project researches ways in which remote and regional publics can be engaged and mobilised through the development of a more user-friendly FireWatch site to make fire information accessible and usable, allowing a community-focused response to risk.The significance of the research project is evident both in how it addresses the important and life-threatening challenge of bushfires; and also in how Australia’s increasingly hot, dry, long summers are adding to historically-established risks. This innovative project uses an iterative, participatory design process incorporating action-research practices. This will ensure that the new Firewatch interface is redesigned, tested, observed, and reflected upon multiple times—and will incorporate the collective creativity of users, designers, and researchers.The qualitative findings reported on in this article are based on 19 interviews with community members in the town of Kununurra in the remote Kimberley region of WA. The findings are positioned within a reconceptualised framework in which creativity is viewed as an essential component of successful emergency responses. This includes, we argue, two critical aspects of creativity: improvisation during a catastrophic event; and ongoing innovation to improve future responses to catastrophes—including communication practices and technologies. This shifts the discourse within the literature in relation to the effective management and community responses to the changing phenomenon of fire catastrophes. Findings from the first round of interviews, and results of enquiries into previous bushfires in Australia, are used to highlight how these elements of creativity often entail a collective creativity on the part of emergency responders or the community in general. An additional focus is on the importance of the critical use of communication during a bushfire event.ImprovisationThe notion of "improvisation" is often associated with artistic performance. Nonetheless, improvisation is also integral to making effectual responses during natural catastrophes. “Extreme events present unforeseen conditions and problems, requiring a need for adaptation, creativity, and improvisation while demanding efficient and rapid delivery of services under extreme conditions” (Harrald 257).Catastrophes present us with unexpected scenarios and require rapid, on the spot problem solving and “even if you plan for a bushfire it is not going to go to plan. When the wind changes direction there has to be a new plan” (Jeff. Personal Interview. 2012). Jazz musicians or improvisational actors “work to build their knowledge across a range of fields, and this knowledge provides the elements for each improvisational outcome” (Kendra and Wachendorf 2). Similarly, emergency responders’ knowledge and preparation can be drawn “upon in the ambiguous and dynamic conditions of a disaster where not every need has been anticipated or accounted for” (Kendra and Wachtendorf 2). Individuals and community organisations not associated with emergency services also improvise in a creative and intuitive manner in the way they respond to catastrophes (Webb and Chevreau). For example, during the 9/11 terrorism catastrophe in the USA an assorted group of boat owners rapidly self-organised to evacuate Lower Manhattan. On their return trips, they carried emergency personnel and supplies to the area (Kendra and Wachendorf 5). An interviewee in our study also recalls bush fire incidents where creative problem solving and intuitive decision-making are called for. “It’s like in a fire, you have to be thinking fast. You need to be semi self-sufficient until help arrives. But without doing anything stupid and creating a worse situation” (Kelly. Personal Interview. 2012). Kelly then describes the rapid community response she witnessed during a recent fire on the outskirts of Kununurra, WA.Everyone had to be accounted for, moving cars, getting the tractors out, protecting the bores because you need the water. It happens really fast and it is a matter of rustling everyone up with the machinery. (2012)In this sense, the strength of communities in responding to catastrophes or disasters “results largely from the abilities of [both] individuals and organisations to adapt and improvise under conditions of uncertainty” (Webb and Chevreau 67). These improvised responses frequently involve a collective creativity—where groups of neighbours or emergency workers act in response to the unforseen, often in a unified and self-organising manner. InnovationCatastrophes also stimulate change and innovation for the future. Disasters create a new environment that must be explored, assessed, and comprehended. Disasters change the physical and social landscape, and thereby require a period of exploration, learning, and the development of new approaches. (Kendra and Wachtendorf 6)These new approaches can include organisational change, new response strategies, and technologies and communication improvements. Celebrated inventor Benjamin Franklin, for instance, facilitated the formation of the first Volunteer Fire department in the 1850s as a response to previous urban fire catastrophes in the USA (Mumford 258). This organisational innovation continues to play an instrumental part in modern fire fighting practices. Indeed, people living in rural and remote areas of Australia are heavily reliant on volunteer groups, due to the sparse population and vast distances that need to be covered.As with most inventions and innovations, new endeavours aimed at improving responses to catastrophes do not occur in a vacuum. They “are not just accidents, nor the inscrutable products of sporadic genius, but have abundant and clear causes in prior scientific and technological development” (Gifillian 61). Likewise, the development of our user-friendly and publically available FireWatch site relies on the accumulation of preceding inventions and innovations. This includes the many years spent developing the existing FireWatch site, a site dense in information of significant value to scientists, foresters, land managers, and fire experts.CommunicationsOften overlooked in discussions regarding emergency communications is the microgeographical exchanges that occur in response to the threat of natural disasters. This is where neighbours fill the critical period before emergency service responders can appear on site. In this situation, it is often local knowledge that underpins improvised grassroots communication networks that inform and organise the neighbourhood. During a recent bushfire on peri-rural blocks on the outskirts of Kununurra, neighbours went into action before emergency services volunteers could respond.We phoned around and someone would phone and call in. Instead of 000 being rung ten times, make sure that one person rang it in. 40 channel [CB Radio] was handy – two-way communication, four wheelers – knocking on doors making sure everyone is out of the house, just in case. (Jane. Personal Interview. 2012) Similarly, individuals and community groups have been able to inform and assist each other on a larger scale via social network technologies (SNTs). This creative application of SNTs began after the 9/11 terror attacks in 2001 when individuals created wikis in order to find missing persons (Palen and Lui). Twitter has experienced considerable growth and was used freely during the 2009 Black Saturday fires in Australia. Studies of tweeting activity during these fires indicate that “tweets made during Black Saturday are laden with actionable factual information which contrasts with earlier claims that tweets are of no value made of mere random personal notes” (Sinnappan et al. n.p.).Traditionally, official alerts and warnings have been provided to the public via television and radio. However, several inquiries into the recent bushfires within Australia show concern “with the way in which fire agencies deliver information to community members during a bushfire...[and in order to] improve community safety from bushfire, systems need to be implemented that enable community members to communicate information to fire agencies, making use of local knowledge” (Elsworth et al. 8).Technological and social developments over the last decade mean the public no longer relies on a single source of official information (Sorensen and Sorensen). Therefore, SNTs such as Twitter and Facebook are being used by the media and emergency authorities to make information available to the public. These SNTs are dynamic, in that there can be a two-way flow of information between the public and emergency organisations. Nonetheless, there has been limited use of SNTs by emergency agencies to source information posted by in situ residents, in order to help in decision-making (Freeman). Organisational use of multiple communication channels and platforms to inform citizens about bushfire emergencies ensures a greater degree of coverage—in case of communication systems breakdowns or difficulties—as in the telephone alert system breakdown in Kelmscott-Roleystone, WA or a recent fire in Warrnambool, Victoria which took out the regional telephone exchange making telephone calls, mobiles, landlines, and the Internet non-operational (Johnson). The new FireWatch site will provide an additional information option for rural and remote Australians who, often rely on visual sightings and on word-of-mouth to be informed about fires in their region. “The neighbour came over and said - there is a fire, we’d better get our act together because it is going to hit us. No sooner than I turned around, I thought shit, here it comes” (Richard. Personal Interview. 2012). The FireWatch ProjectThe FireWatch project involves the redevelopment of an existing FireWatch website to extend the usability of the product from experts to ordinary users in order to facilitate community-based decision-making and action both before and during bushfire emergencies. To this purpose, the project has been broken down to two distinct, yet interdependent, strands. The community strand involves collaboration within a community (in this case the Kununurra community) in order to carry out a community-centred approach to further development of the site. The design strand involves the development of an intuitive and accessible Web presentation of complex information in clear, unambiguous ways to inform action in stressful circumstances. At this stage, a first round of 19 semi-structured interviews with stakeholders has been conducted in Kununurra to determine fire-related information-seeking behaviours, attitudes to mediated information services in the region, as well as user feedback on a prototype website developed in the design strand of the project. Stakeholders included emergency services personnel (payed and volunteer), shire representatives, tourism operators, small business operators (including tourism operators), a forest manager, a mango farmer, an Indigenous ranger team manager as well as general community members. Interviewees reported dissatisfaction with current information systems. They gave positive feedback about the website prototype. “It’s very much, very easy to follow” (David. Personal Interview. 2012). “It looks so much better than [the old site]. You couldn’t get in that close on [the other site]. It is fantastic” (Lance. Personal Interview. 2012). They also added thought-provoking contributions to the design of the website (to be discussed later).Residents of Kununurra who were interviewed for this research project found bushfire warning communications unsatisfactory, especially during a recent fire on the outskirts of town. People who called 000 had difficulties passing the information on, having to explain exactly where Kununurra was and the location of fires to operators not familiar with the area. When asked how the Kununurra community gets their fire information a Shire representative explained: That is not very good at the moment. The only other way we can think about it is perhaps more updates on things like Facebook, perhaps on a website, but with this current fire there really wasn’t a lot of information and a lot of people didn’t know what was going on. We [the shire] knew because we were talking to the [fire] brigades and to FESA [Fire and Emergency Services Authority] but most residents didn’t have any idea and it looks pretty bad. (Ginny. Personal Interview. 2012) All being well, the new user-friendly FireWatch site will add another platform through which fire information messages are transmitted. Community members will be offered continuously streamed bushfire location information, which is independent of any emergency services communication systems. In particular, rural and remote areas of Australia will have fire information at the ready.The participatory methodology used in the design of the new FireWatch website makes use of collaborative creativity, whereby users’ vision of the website and context are incorporated. This iterative process “creates an equal evolving participatory process between user and designer towards sharing values and knowledge and creating new domains of collective creativity” (Park 2012). The rich and sometimes contradictory suggestions made by interviewees in this project often reflected individual visions of the tasks and information required, and individual preferences regarding the delivery of this information. “I have been thinking about how could this really work for me? I can give you feedback on what has happened in the past but how could it work for me in the future?” (Keith. Personal Interview. 2012). Keith and other community members interviewed in Kununurra indicated a variety of extra functions on the site not expected by the product designers. Some of these unexpected functions were common to most interviewees such as the great importance placed on the inclusion of a satellite view option on the site map (example shown in Figure 1). Jeremy, a member of an Indigenous ranger unit in the Kununurra area, was very keen to incorporate the satellite view options on the site. He explained that some of the older rangers:can’t use GPSs and don’t know time zones or what zones to put in, so they’ll use a satellite-style view. We’ll have Google Earth up on one [screen], and also our [own] imagery up on another [screen] and go that way. Be scrolling in and see – we’ve got a huge fire scar for 2011 around here; another guy will be on another computer zoning in and say, I think it is here. It’s quite simplistic but it works. (Personal Interview. 2012) In the case above, where rangers are already switching between computer screens to incorporate a satellite view into their planning, the importance of a satellite view layer on the FireWatch website makes user context an essential part of the design process. Incorporating many layers on one screen, as recommended by participants also ensures a more elegant solution to an existing problem.Figure 1: Satellite view in the Kununurra area showing features such as gorges, rivers, escarpments and dry riverbedsThis research project will involve further consultation with participants (both online and offline) regarding bushfire safety communications in their region, as well as the further design of the site. The website will be available over multiple devices (for example desktops, smart phones, and hand held tablet devices) and will be launched late this year. Further work will also be carried out to determine if social media is appropriate for this community of users in order to build awareness and share information regarding the site.Conclusion Community members improvise and self-organise when communicating fire information and organising help for each other. This can happen at a microgeographical (neighbourhood) level or on a wider level via social networking sites. Organisations also develop innovative communication systems or devices as a response to the threat of bushfires. Communication innovations, such as the use of Twitter and Facebook by fire emergency services, have been appropriated and fine-tuned by these organisations. Other innovations such as the user-friendly Firewatch site rely on previous technological developments in satellite-delivered imagery—as well as community input regarding the design and use of the site.Our early research into community members’ fire-related information-seeking behaviours and attitudes to mediated information services in the region of Kununurra has found unexpectedly creative responses, which range from collective creativity on the part of emergency responders or the community in general during events to creative use of existing information and communication networks. We intend to utilise this creativity in re-purposing FireWatch alongside the creative work of the designers in the project.Although it is commonplace to think of graphic design and new technology as incorporating creativity, it is rarely acknowledged how frequently these innovations harness everyday perspectives from non-professionals. In the case of the FireWatch developments, the creativity of designers and technologists has been informed by the creative responses of members of the public who are best placed to understand the challenges posed by restricted information flows on the ground in times of crisis. In these situations, people respond not only with new ideas for the future but with innovative responses in the present as they communicate with each other to deal with the challenge of a fast-moving and unpredictable situation. Such improvisation, honed through close awareness of the contours and parameters of both community and communication, are one of the ways through which people help keep themselves and each other safe in the face of dramatic developments.ReferencesElsworth, G., and K. Stevens, J. Gilbert, H. Goodman, A Rhodes. "Evaluating the Community Safety Approach to Bushfires in Australia: Towards an Assessment of What Works and How." Biennial Conference of the Eupopean Evaluation Society, Lisbon, Oct. 2008. Freeman, Mark. "Fire, Wind and Water: Social Networks in Natural Disasters." Journal of Cases on Information Technology (JCIT) 13.2 (2011): 69–79.Gilfillan, S. Colum. The Sociology of Invention. Chicago: Follett Publishing, 1935.Harrald, John R. "Agility and Discipline: Critical Success Factors for Disaster Response." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 604.1 (2006): 256–72.Johnson, Peter. "Australia Unprepared for Bushfire”. Australian Broadcasting Corporation 17 Dec. 2012. 3 Jan. 2013 ‹http://www.abc.net.au/environment/articles/2012/12/17/3654075.htm›.Keelty, Mick J. "A Shared Responsibility: the Report of the Perth Hills Bushfires February 2011". Department of Premier and Cabinet, Government of Western Australia, Perth.Kendra, James, and Tricia Wachtendorf. "Improvisation, Creativity, and the Art of Emergency Management." NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Understanding and Responding to Terrorism: A Multi-Dimensional Approach. Washington, DC, 8-9 Sep. 2006.———. "Creativity in Emergency Response after the World Trade Centre Attack". Amud Conference of the International Emergency Management Society. University of Delaware. 14-17 May 2002. Mumford, Michael D. "Social Innovation: Ten Cases from Benjamin Franklin." Creativity Research Journal 14.2 (2002): 253–66.Palen, Leysia, and Sophia.B. Liu. "Citizen Communications in Crisis: Anticipating a Future of ICT-Supported Public Participation." Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. San Jose, 28 Apr. - 3 May 2007.Park, Ji Yong. "Design Process Excludes Users: The Co-Creation Activities between User and Designer." Digital Creativity 23.1 (2012): 79–92. Sinnappan, Suku, Cathy Farrell, and Elizabeth Stewart. "Priceless Tweets! A Study on Twitter Messages Posted During Crisis: Black Saturday." Proceedings of 21st Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS 2010). Brisbane, Australia, 1-3 Dec 2010.Sorensen, John H., and Barbara Vogt Sorensen. "Community Processes: Warning and Evacuation." Handbook of Disaster Research. Eds. Havidán Rodríguez, Enrico Louis Quarantelli, and Russell Rowe Dynes. New York: Springer, 2007. 183–99.Webb, Gary R., and Francois-Regis Chevreau. "Planning to Improvise: The Importance of Creativity and Flexibility in Crisis Response." International Journal of Emergency Management 3.1 (2006): 66–72.