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Journal articles on the topic 'RNA viruses Genetics'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 31 January 2023

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1

Enami, Masayoshi. "Negative-strand RNA viruses. Reverse genetics of negative-strand RNA viruses." Uirusu 45, no. 2 (1995): 145–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2222/jsv.45.145.

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2

King, Andrew M. Q. "RNA viruses do it." Trends in Genetics 3 (January 1987): 60–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9525(87)90173-9.

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3

Elena, Santiago F., Stéphanie Bedhomme, Purificación Carrasco, José M. Cuevas, Francisca de la Iglesia, Guillaume Lafforgue, Jasna Lalić, Àngels Pròsper, Nicolas Tromas, and Mark P. Zwart. "The Evolutionary Genetics of Emerging Plant RNA Viruses." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 24, no. 3 (March 2011): 287–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-09-10-0214.

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Over the years, agriculture across the world has been compromised by a succession of devastating epidemics caused by new viruses that spilled over from reservoir species or by new variants of classic viruses that acquired new virulence factors or changed their epidemiological patterns. Viral emergence is usually associated with ecological change or with agronomical practices bringing together reservoirs and crop species. The complete picture is, however, much more complex, and results from an evolutionary process in which the main players are ecological factors, viruses' genetic plasticity, an

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4

Aubry, Fabien, Antoine Nougairède, Lauriane de Fabritus, Gilles Querat, Ernest A. Gould, and Xavier de Lamballerie. "Single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses generated in days using infectious subgenomic amplicons." Journal of General Virology 95, no. 11 (November 1, 2014): 2462–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.068023-0.

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Reverse genetics is a key methodology for producing genetically modified RNA viruses and deciphering cellular and viral biological properties, but methods based on the preparation of plasmid-based complete viral genomes are laborious and unpredictable. Here, both wild-type and genetically modified infectious RNA viruses were generated in days using the newly described ISA (infectious-subgenomic-amplicons) method. This new versatile and simple procedure may enhance our capacity to obtain infectious RNA viruses from PCR-amplified genetic material.

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5

Cuevas, Jose M., Pilar Domingo-Calap, Marianoel Pereira-Gomez, and Rafael Sanjuan. "Experimental Evolution and Population Genetics of RNA Viruses." Open Evolution Journal 3, no. 1 (May 11, 2009): 9–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874404400903010009.

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6

Biacchesi, Stéphane. "The reverse genetics applied to fish RNA viruses." Veterinary Research 42, no. 1 (2011): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1297-9716-42-12.

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7

Wickner, Reed B. "PRIONS AND RNA VIRUSES OFSACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE." Annual Review of Genetics 30, no. 1 (December 1996): 109–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.30.1.109.

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8

Froissart, Rémy, Claus O. Wilke, Rebecca Montville, Susanna K. Remold, Lin Chao, and Paul E. Turner. "Co-infection Weakens Selection Against Epistatic Mutations in RNA Viruses." Genetics 168, no. 1 (September 2004): 9–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.104.030205.

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9

Turner, Paul E., та Lin Chao. "Sex and the Evolution of Intrahost Competition in RNA Virus φ6". Genetics 150, № 2 (1 жовтня 1998): 523–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/150.2.523.

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Abstract Sex allows beneficial mutations that occur in separate lineages to be fixed in the same genome. For this reason, the Fisher-Muller model predicts that adaptation to the environment is more rapid in a large sexual population than in an equally large asexual population. Sexual reproduction occurs in populations of the RNA virus φ6 when multiple bacteriophages coinfect the same host cell. Here, we tested the model's predictions by determining whether sex favors more rapid adaptation of φ6 to a bacterial host, Pseudomonas phaseolicola. Replicate populations of φ6 were allowed to evolve in

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10

Swaminathan, Gokul, Julio Martin-Garcia, and Sonia Navas-Martin. "RNA viruses and microRNAs: challenging discoveries for the 21st century." Physiological Genomics 45, no. 22 (November 15, 2013): 1035–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00112.2013.

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RNA viruses represent the predominant cause of many clinically relevant viral diseases in humans. Among several evolutionary advantages acquired by RNA viruses, the ability to usurp host cellular machinery and evade antiviral immune responses is imperative. During the past decade, RNA interference mechanisms, especially microRNA (miRNA)-mediated regulation of cellular protein expression, have revolutionized our understanding of host-viral interactions. Although it is well established that several DNA viruses express miRNAs that play crucial roles in their pathogenesis, expression of miRNAs by

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11

Casais, Rosa, Volker Thiel, Stuart G. Siddell, David Cavanagh, and Paul Britton. "Reverse Genetics System for the Avian Coronavirus Infectious Bronchitis Virus." Journal of Virology 75, no. 24 (December 15, 2001): 12359–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.75.24.12359-12369.2001.

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ABSTRACT Major advances in the study of the molecular biology of RNA viruses have resulted from the ability to generate and manipulate full-length genomic cDNAs of the viral genomes with the subsequent synthesis of infectious RNA for the generation of recombinant viruses. Coronaviruses have the largest RNA virus genomes and, together with genetic instability of some cDNA sequences in Escherichia coli, this has hampered the generation of a reverse-genetics system for this group of viruses. In this report, we describe the assembly of a full-length cDNA from the positive-sense genomic RNA of the

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12

Elena, Santiago F., Purificación Carrasco, José‐Antonio Daròs, and Rafael Sanjuán. "Mechanisms of genetic robustness in RNA viruses." EMBO reports 7, no. 2 (February 2006): 168–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400636.

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13

Alejska, M., A. Kurzyńska-Kokorniak, M. Broda, R. Kierzek, and M. Figlerowicz. "How RNA viruses exchange their genetic material." Acta Biochimica Polonica 48, no. 2 (June 30, 2001): 391–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.18388/abp.2001_3924.

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One of the most unusual features of RNA viruses is their enormous genetic variability. Among the different processes contributing to the continuous generation of new viral variants RNA recombination is of special importance. This process has been observed for human, animal, plant and bacterial viruses. The collected data reveal a great susceptibility of RNA viruses to recombination. They also indicate that genetic RNA recombination (especially the nonhomologous one) is a major factor responsible for the emergence of new viral strains or species. Although the formation and accumulation of viral

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14

Domingo, Esteban, Carlos García-Crespo, Rebeca Lobo-Vega, and Celia Perales. "Mutation Rates, Mutation Frequencies, and Proofreading-Repair Activities in RNA Virus Genetics." Viruses 13, no. 9 (September 21, 2021): 1882. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13091882.

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The error rate displayed during template copying to produce viral RNA progeny is a biologically relevant parameter of the replication complexes of viruses. It has consequences for virus–host interactions, and it represents the first step in the diversification of viruses in nature. Measurements during infections and with purified viral polymerases indicate that mutation rates for RNA viruses are in the range of 10−3 to 10−6 copying errors per nucleotide incorporated into the nascent RNA product. Although viruses are thought to exploit high error rates for adaptation to changing environments, s

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15

Rossmann, Michael G. "The evolution of RNA viruses." BioEssays 7, no. 3 (September 1987): 99–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bies.950070302.

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16

Cuevas, José M., Santiago F. Elena, and Andrés Moya. "Molecular Basis of Adaptive Convergence in Experimental Populations of RNA Viruses." Genetics 162, no. 2 (October 1, 2002): 533–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/162.2.533.

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Abstract Characterizing the molecular basis of adaptation is one of the most important goals in modern evolutionary genetics. Here, we report a full-genome sequence analysis of 21 independent populations of vesicular stomatitis ribovirus evolved on the same cell type but under different demographic regimes. Each demographic regime differed in the effective viral population size. Evolutionary convergences are widespread both at synonymous and nonsynonymous replacements as well as in an intergenic region. We also found evidence for epistasis among sites of the same and different loci. We explain

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17

Strauss, Ellen G., and James H. Strauss. "RNA viruses: genome structure and evolution." Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 1, no. 4 (December 1991): 485–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0959-437x(05)80196-0.

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18

Félix, Marie-Anne, and David Wang. "Natural Viruses of Caenorhabditis Nematodes." Annual Review of Genetics 53, no. 1 (December 3, 2019): 313–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-112618-043756.

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Caenorhabditis elegans has long been a laboratory model organism with no known natural pathogens. In the past ten years, however, natural viruses have been isolated from wild-caught C. elegans (Orsay virus) and its relative Caenorhabditis briggsae (Santeuil virus, Le Blanc virus, and Melnik virus). All are RNA positive-sense viruses related to Nodaviridae; they infect intestinal cells and are horizontally transmitted. The Orsay virus capsid structure has been determined and the virus can be reconstituted by transgenesis of the host. Recent use of the Orsay virus has enabled researchers to iden

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19

Suzuki, Tatsuya, and Akatsuki Saito. "Advances in the reverse genetics system for RNA viruses." Folia Pharmacologica Japonica 157, no. 2 (2022): 134–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1254/fpj.21072.

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20

Moya, Andrés, Edward C. Holmes, and Fernando González-Candelas. "The population genetics and evolutionary epidemiology of RNA viruses." Nature Reviews Microbiology 2, no. 4 (April 2004): 279–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro863.

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21

Moya, A., S. F. Elena, A. Bracho, R. Miralles, and E. Barrio. "The evolution of RNA viruses: A population genetics view." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97, no. 13 (June 20, 2000): 6967–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.13.6967.

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22

Radecke, Frank, and Martin A. Billeter. "Reverse Genetics Meets the Nonsegmented Negative-Strand RNA Viruses." Reviews in Medical Virology 7, no. 1 (April 1997): 49–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-1654(199704)7:1<49::aid-rmv181>3.0.co;2-n.

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23

Dutta, Satyabrat, Ambika Arun, Richa Sarkar, Fulmali Devansh, Khushboo Panwar, Esha Sinha, Gorre Venu, and Arpita Sain. "APPLICATION OF REVERSE GENETICS IN RNA VIRUS VACCINE DEVELOPMENT: A BRIEF REVIEW." International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology 7, no. 6 (October 1, 2022): 442–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.33564/ijeast.2022.v07i06.054.

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RNA viruses can quickly spread and cause serious, even fatal, illnesses in both humans and animals. Platforms for creating and refining viral mutants for vaccine development have been made available by the introduction of reverse genetics methods for manipulating and studying the genomes of RNA viruses. In this article, we review the effects of RNA virus reverse genetics systems on previous and ongoing initiatives to develop efficient and secure viral treatments and vaccines.

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24

Ruigrok, R. W. H. "Assembly of enveloped RNA viruses." FEBS Letters 202, no. 1 (June 23, 1986): 159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-5793(86)80670-6.

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25

Kojima, Shohei, Kohei Yoshikawa, Jumpei Ito, So Nakagawa, Nicholas F. Parrish, Masayuki Horie, Shuichi Kawano, and Keizo Tomonaga. "Virus-like insertions with sequence signatures similar to those of endogenous nonretroviral RNA viruses in the human genome." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 5 (January 25, 2021): e2010758118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2010758118.

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Understanding the genetics and taxonomy of ancient viruses will give us great insights into not only the origin and evolution of viruses but also how viral infections played roles in our evolution. Endogenous viruses are remnants of ancient viral infections and are thought to retain the genetic characteristics of viruses from ancient times. In this study, we used machine learning of endogenous RNA virus sequence signatures to identify viruses in the human genome that have not been detected or are already extinct. Here, we show that the k-mer occurrence of ancient RNA viral sequences remains si

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26

Gorbalenya, Alexander E., and Eugene V. Koonin. "Birnavirus RNA polymerase is related to polymerase of positive strand RNA viruses." Nucleic Acids Research 16, no. 15 (1988): 7735. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/16.15.7735.

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27

Mittelholzer, Christian, and Thomas Klimkait. "Advances in Molecular Genetics Enabling Studies of Highly Pathogenic RNA Viruses." Viruses 14, no. 12 (November 30, 2022): 2682. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v14122682.

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Experimental work with viruses that are highly pathogenic for humans and animals requires specialized Biosafety Level 3 or 4 facilities. Such pathogens include some spectacular but also rather seldomly studied examples such as Ebola virus (requiring BSL-4), more wide-spread and commonly studied viruses such as HIV, and the most recent example, SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19. A common characteristic of these virus examples is that their genomes consist of single-stranded RNA, which requires the conversion of their genomes into a DNA copy for easy manipulation; this can be performed to study

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28

Stram, Yehuda, and Larisa Kuzntzova. "Inhibition of Viruses by RNA Interference." Virus Genes 32, no. 3 (June 2006): 299–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11262-005-6914-0.

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29

Huang, Henry V., Charles M. Rice, Cheng Xiong, and Sondra Schlesinger. "RNA viruses as gene expression vectors." Virus Genes 3, no. 1 (September 1989): 85–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00301989.

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30

Neumann, Gabriele, Michael A. Whitt, and Yoshihiro Kawaoka. "A decade after the generation of a negative-sense RNA virus from cloned cDNA – what have we learned?" Journal of General Virology 83, no. 11 (November 1, 2002): 2635–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-83-11-2635.

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Since the first generation of a negative-sense RNA virus entirely from cloned cDNA in 1994, similar reverse genetics systems have been established for members of most genera of the Rhabdo- and Paramyxoviridae families, as well as for Ebola virus (Filoviridae). The generation of segmented negative-sense RNA viruses was technically more challenging and has lagged behind the recovery of nonsegmented viruses, primarily because of the difficulty of providing more than one genomic RNA segment. A member of the Bunyaviridae family (whose genome is composed of three RNA segments) was first generated fr

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31

Pompei, Simone, Vittorio Loreto, and Francesca Tria. "Phylogenetic Properties of RNA Viruses." PLoS ONE 7, no. 9 (September 20, 2012): e44849. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044849.

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32

Nagasaki, K., Y. Tomaru, Y. Shirai, Y. Takao, and H. Mizumoto. "Dinoflagellate-infecting viruses." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 86, no. 3 (April 10, 2006): 469–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315406013361.

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Dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae) are considered to be one of the most abundant and diverse groups of phytoplankton; however, the viral impact on dinoflagellates was not studied until recently. This review shows the present information concerning the viruses infecting dinoflagellates and the ecology relationships between the host and the virus. So far, two viruses have been isolated and characterized: a large DNA virus (HcV: Heterocapsa circularisquama virus) and a small RNA virus (HcRNAV: H. circularisquama RNA virus); both of which are infectious to the harmful bloom-forming dinoflagellate H. ci

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33

Pekosz, A., B. He, and R. A. Lamb. "Reverse genetics of negative-strand RNA viruses: Closing the circle." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96, no. 16 (August 3, 1999): 8804–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.96.16.8804.

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34

Walpita, Pramila, and Ramon Flick. "Reverse genetics of negative-stranded RNA viruses: A global perspective." FEMS Microbiology Letters 244, no. 1 (March 2005): 9–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.femsle.2005.01.046.

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35

Shah, Het, and Andrews McEwan. "MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF RNA NANOWIRES." International Journal of Advanced Research 9, no. 11 (November 30, 2021): 126–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/13721.

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RNA is a polymeric genetic bio-molecule found in all human beings. It is the main genetic material in many viruses. In this paper we test the mechanical properties of RNA NWs. We will find Youngs Modulus of RNA Nanowires (NWs) as a function of diameter with taking equilibrium strain, Poissons ratio and surface stress in consideration. As previously no study has been published regarding Youngs Modulus of RNA we take a theoretical approach towards it. We will predict the behavior of RNA NWs and see the resemblance to either semiconducting or metallic nature of NWs. This study extrapolates key fa

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36

Stedman, Kenneth. "Mechanisms for RNA Capture by ssDNA Viruses: Grand Theft RNA." Journal of Molecular Evolution 76, no. 6 (June 2013): 359–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00239-013-9569-9.

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37

Sanjuán, Rafael, José M. Cuevas, Victoria Furió, Edward C. Holmes, and Andrés Moya. "Selection for Robustness in Mutagenized RNA Viruses." PLoS Genetics 3, no. 6 (June 15, 2007): e93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0030093.

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38

Sanjuan, Rafael, Jose M. Cuevas, Victoria Furió, Edward C. Holmes, and Andres Moya. "Selection for Robustness in Mutagenized RNA Viruses." PLoS Genetics preprint, no. 2007 (2005): e93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.0030093.eor.

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39

Wolf, Yuri I., Sukrit Silas, Yongjie Wang, Shuang Wu, Michael Bocek, Darius Kazlauskas, Mart Krupovic, Andrew Fire, Valerian V. Dolja, and Eugene V. Koonin. "Doubling of the known set of RNA viruses by metagenomic analysis of an aquatic virome." Nature Microbiology 5, no. 10 (July 20, 2020): 1262–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41564-020-0755-4.

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Abstract RNA viruses in aquatic environments remain poorly studied. Here, we analysed the RNA virome from approximately 10 l water from Yangshan Deep-Water Harbour near the Yangtze River estuary in China and identified more than 4,500 distinct RNA viruses, doubling the previously known set of viruses. Phylogenomic analysis identified several major lineages, roughly, at the taxonomic ranks of class, order and family. The 719-member-strong Yangshan virus assemblage is the sister clade to the expansive class Alsuviricetes and consists of viruses with simple genomes that typically encode only RNA-

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40

Flick, Ramon, Kirsten Flick, Heinz Feldmann, and Fredrik Elgh. "Reverse Genetics for Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus." Journal of Virology 77, no. 10 (May 15, 2003): 5997–6006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.77.10.5997-6006.2003.

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ABSTRACT The widespread geographical distribution of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus (more than 30 countries) and its ability to produce severe human disease with high mortality rates (up to 60%) make CCHF a major public health concern worldwide. We describe here the successful establishment of a reverse genetics technology for CCHF virus, a member of the genus Nairovirus, family Bunyaviridae. The RNA polymerase I (pol I) system was used to generate artificial viral RNA genome segments (minigenomes), which contained different reporter genes in antisense (virus RNA) or sense (virus

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41

Chkuaseli, Tamari, and K. Andrew White. "Activation of viral transcription by stepwise largescale folding of an RNA virus genome." Nucleic Acids Research 48, no. 16 (August 12, 2020): 9285–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkaa675.

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Abstract The genomes of RNA viruses contain regulatory elements of varying complexity. Many plus-strand RNA viruses employ largescale intra-genomic RNA-RNA interactions as a means to control viral processes. Here, we describe an elaborate RNA structure formed by multiple distant regions in a tombusvirus genome that activates transcription of a viral subgenomic mRNA. The initial step in assembly of this intramolecular RNA complex involves the folding of a large viral RNA domain, which generates a discontinuous binding pocket. Next, a distally-located protracted stem-loop RNA structure docks, vi

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42

Strauss, Ellen G., and James H. Strauss. "RNA viruses: genome structure and evolution." Current Biology 2, no. 1 (January 1992): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0960-9822(92)90425-a.

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43

Yamamoto, K., and H. Yoshikura. "Relation between genomic and capsid structures in RNA viruses." Nucleic Acids Research 14, no. 1 (1986): 389–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/14.1.389.

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44

Traina-Dorge, Vicki L., Jean K. Carr, Joan E. Bailey-Wilson, Robert C. Elston, Benjamin A. Taylor, and J. Craig Cohen. "CELLULAR GENES IN THE MOUSE REGULATE IN TRANS THE EXPRESSION OF ENDOGENOUS MOUSE MAMMARY TUMOR VIRUSES." Genetics 111, no. 3 (November 1, 1985): 597–615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/111.3.597.

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ABSTRACT The transcriptional activities of the eleven mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) proviruses endogenous to two sets of recombinant inbred (RI) mouse strains, BXD and BXH, were characterized. Comparison of the levels of virus-specific RNA quantitated in each strain showed no direct relationship between the presence of a particular endogenous provirus or with increasing numbers of proviruses. Association of specific genetic markers with the level of MMTV-specific RNA was examined by using multiple regression analysis. Several cellular loci as well as proviral loci were identified that were

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45

Gao, Qinshan, Edward W. A. Brydon, and Peter Palese. "A Seven-Segmented Influenza A Virus Expressing the Influenza C Virus Glycoprotein HEF." Journal of Virology 82, no. 13 (April 30, 2008): 6419–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.00514-08.

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ABSTRACT Influenza viruses are classified into three types: A, B, and C. The genomes of A- and B-type influenza viruses consist of eight RNA segments, whereas influenza C viruses only have seven RNAs. Both A and B influenza viruses contain two major surface glycoproteins: the hemagglutinin (HA) and the neuraminidase (NA). Influenza C viruses have only one major surface glycoprotein, HEF (hemagglutinin-esterase fusion). By using reverse genetics, we generated two seven-segmented chimeric influenza viruses. Each possesses six RNA segments from influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PB2, PB1, PA, NP

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46

Sanjuán, Rafael, and Katie Bradwell. "The Evolution and Emergence of RNA Viruses." Systematic Biology 59, no. 5 (August 19, 2010): 610–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syq049.

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47

Zhang, Feifei, Margo Chase-Topping, Chuan-Guo Guo, Bram A. D. van Bunnik, Liam Brierley, and Mark E. J. Woolhouse. "Global discovery of human-infective RNA viruses: A modelling analysis." PLOS Pathogens 16, no. 11 (November 30, 2020): e1009079. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1009079.

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RNA viruses are a leading cause of human infectious diseases and the prediction of where new RNA viruses are likely to be discovered is a significant public health concern. Here, we geocoded the first peer-reviewed reports of 223 human RNA viruses. Using a boosted regression tree model, we matched these virus data with 33 explanatory factors related to natural virus distribution and research effort to predict the probability of virus discovery across the globe in 2010–2019. Stratified analyses by virus transmissibility and transmission mode were also performed. The historical discovery of huma

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48

COENEN, ALEX, FERENC KEVEI, and ROLF F. HOEKSTRA. "Factors affecting the spread of double-stranded RNA viruses in Aspergillus nidulans." Genetical Research 69, no. 1 (February 1997): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s001667239600256x.

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Viruses are common in asexual Aspergilli but not in sexual Aspergilli. We found no viruses in 112 isolates of the sexual Aspergillus nidulans. We have investigated factors that could play a role in preventing the spread of mycoviruses through populations of A. nidulans. Experiments were performed with A. nidulans strains infected with viruses originating from A. niger. Horizontal virus transmission was restricted but not prevented by somatic incompatibility. Viruses were transmitted vertically via conidiospores but not via ascospores. Competition experiments revealed no effect of virus infecti

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49

Lundstrom, Kenneth. "RNA Viruses as Tools in Gene Therapy and Vaccine Development." Genes 10, no. 3 (March 1, 2019): 189. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10030189.

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RNA viruses have been subjected to substantial engineering efforts to support gene therapy applications and vaccine development. Typically, retroviruses, lentiviruses, alphaviruses, flaviviruses rhabdoviruses, measles viruses, Newcastle disease viruses, and picornaviruses have been employed as expression vectors for treatment of various diseases including different types of cancers, hemophilia, and infectious diseases. Moreover, vaccination with viral vectors has evaluated immunogenicity against infectious agents and protection against challenges with pathogenic organisms. Several preclinical

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50

Conzelmann, Karl-Klaus. "NONSEGMENTED NEGATIVE-STRAND RNA VIRUSES: Genetics and Manipulation of Viral Genomes." Annual Review of Genetics 32, no. 1 (December 1998): 123–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.123.

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