Academic literature on the topic 'Rock bolts'

SummaryRock Bolts, improved design and possibilitiesMaster thesis NTNU 2012Student : Capucine Thomas-LepineSupervisor : Leif LiaKey words : rock foundation, small concrete dam, rock mass classification, rock joints, shear strength of rock discontinuities, fully grouted passive rock bolts designMasters Thesis : “Rock bolts, improved design and possibilities” is a continuation from the Masters Thesis NTNU 2011 “Rock bolts in dams, expected capacity” by Lars Kristian Neby. Internationally, dam engineering focuses mainly on pre-stressed anchors in rehabilitation and improvement of stability of large dams, which is undergoing constant research in North America. Passive rock bolts are used in small concrete dam foundations to ensure sufficient stability against overturning moment from ice loads. This concerns the majority of dams in Norway, over 98% of whose electricity comes from hydropower developed over the last 100 years and still developing. Design is ruled by regulation from NVE (Norwegian water resources and energy directorate) published first in the 1980s, and regularly revised until the retroactive “Retningslinjer for betongdammer” in 2005. This design method for passive rock bolts is conservative with regards to rock capacity, as it is worldwide. The model, developed in the early age of rock bolt development in 1977 by Littlejohn and Bruce, considers the rock resistance as equivalent to the weight of the cone of rock around the bolt. Rock engineering has improved since, often with regards to underground engineering, which is not necessarily transposable to dam engineering. The inherent uncertainty in rock mass characterization slowed development of new design method for passive rock bolts. This is however of great interest in the Norwegian hydropower industry, and for applications to other civil engineering structural foundations. This thesis is meant to develop knowledge of qualitative and quantitative rock mechanisms in passive rock bolts in order to improve their design.The work is composed of three parts, as follows :A study on rock mass capacity and mechanisms in dam foundations, comes first. An empirical and quantitative estimation of rock mass strength with regards to recognized classification Q, RMR or GSI is proposed, based on Wyllie (1992) and results from Lars K. Neby. Full scale tests are then performed to the assess validity of empirical relationships developed in the first part between rock mass quality and rock bolt capacity (maximal tension load in pull out tests). 50 steel bolts with diameter 25mm and mortar grouted length 0.4m were pulled out with logging of strength and deformation in a rock quarry presenting various degrees of rock quality (RMR 40 to 80), representative of expected conditions for dam foundations. Rock quality was assessed for each bolt by laboratory testing (intact material properties) and rock mass characterization on site supplemented by core drilling or video inside hammer drilled holes. This program of tests was an improvement on the protocol developed and performed by Lars K. Neby on 18 bolts, whose results give the first relevant clues on parameters such as limit range of quality of rock (RMR>40), length of bolt (0.4m), maximal capacity (more than 20 tons, when conservative calculations assessed 0.2 tons). The results of testing confirm the relationships developed in a more statistical approach.Conclusions from these two parts lead to a proposition for a new design model, with a higher resistance contribution from the rock. The three modes of failure (rock, steel, grouting) are considered for ensuring resistance of a maximal stress of 180MPa (to avoid important deformations in the structure). Factors of safety and the range of validity in the rock mass condition for the proposed design are also considered. The thesis concludes with propositions for further works in order to :- Further extend the domain of validity of the proposed design.- Review methods of control of installed passive rock bolts.- Document and improve knowledge of load transfer mechanisms in passive rock bolts in dams.

The purpose of this thesis is to evaluate the contribution of grouted rock bolts on the stability of concrete dams. The load capacity of the grouted rock bolts are assessed considering eventual deteriorating processes. An additional objective was to compare the resulting load capacity with the prevailing regulations in RIDAS (the power companies’ guidelines on dam safety) and possibly suggest new guideline values. The literature study consists of two parts; concrete dams and grouted rock bolts. In the first part concrete dams are discussed and especially the inherent forces and aspects when controlling their stability. The second part treats grouted rock bolts and the theoretical focus is on their function and possible failure modes as well as on the degrading processes (primarily corrosion) that are affecting the rock bolts.  Subsequently, the theory was applied on the Swedish concrete buttress dam Storfinnforsen, which is the largest concrete dam in Sweden. The dam was selected for this study mainly because its shape is archetypical for buttress dams. In addition, a digitalized model of the dam was obtainable from previous research projects.  A numerical analysis with the finite element analysis software ABAQUS was performed in order to evaluate the stability of the dam and to support the analytical analysis. The load capacity of the grouted rock bolts was analytically evaluated with consideration to eventual degradation. Assuming a corrosion rate of 60 μm/year, the grouted rock bolts in Storfinnforsen could after 100 years be trusted with a load capacity of approximately 180 MPa. That load capacity is due to shear failure, which constitutes the most plausible failure mode for rock bolts in buttress dams. The value 180 MPa is to be seen in contrast to the current limitation of 140 MPa that is defined in RIDAS (2011). The conclusion of this thesis is accordingly, that the maximum allowed load capacity that can be assigned the grouted rock bolts in the stability calculations of concrete dams can be increased from todays 140 MPa. This conclusion is substantiated by the analytical analyses with the numerical calculations as support.

Pull out tests were carried out in the laboratory of rock mechanics at Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) for the purpose of determining the critical embedment length of fully grouted rebar bolts. The 20-mm rebar bolts and the grouting material, “the Rescon Zinc bolt cement” used in the testing are widely used in underground projects in Norway. Different embedment lengths, ranging from 10 cm to 40 cm, were employed in the tests under different water-cement ratios for the grouting mortar. The critical embedment length for a given water-cement ratio is determined on the diagram of the pull - out load versus the embedment length. A chart of the critical embedment bolt length versus the water-cement ratio as well as the uniaxial compressive strength of the cement mortar is established based on the testing results. In the theoretical part of the thesis, the main focus is on rock bolting. Bolting principals are introduced along with different types of rock bolts, design of bolting systems and stability problems caused by rock stresses. In the final part of the theoretical part the procedure of pull out testing is described and the load bearing capacity of rock bolts are categorized into the groups in accordance with load deformation performance. Finally, previous pull out test research is presented.

This thesis describes the investigation of a non-destructive test method for integrity assessment of rock bolts using the resonance spectroscopy method. Although other methods exists these all present certain limitations. Initial experimental investigations included the assessment of a number of excitation mechanisms, namely, hammer tests, chirp tests and swept sine tests.

The research in this dissertation was undertaken because of a need for a more accurate, reliable and relatively simple method for determining the combined loading (i.e., axial, flexure and shear) along rock bolts. This combined load determination and understanding also resulted in a relatively simple and reliable new rock bolt design methodology. The new design method was based on a clearer understanding of the actual loading along a grouted rock bolt. To accomplish these research goals, double shear tests were conducted in the lab with reinforced concrete specimens, and field trials were conducted in room and pillar coal mines, with the aim to measure in-situ rock shear. Strain measurements were obtained using rock bolts instrumented with optical fibers that possessed high spatial resolution (≈ 1.25 – 2.5 mm). Corroboration with a past database of rock bolt measurements in shale aided in the deduction of the final support design method. The scientific contributions from this research include the conceptualization of a ground reaction curve that considers time effects such as rock relaxation, long term weakening effects, and lateral rock movement. A new explanation as to why rock bolts creep in practice (i.e., dislocation creep) is described based upon field measurements, which also indicated that the process of in-situ rock shear involves slow episodic movements. Specifically, there are localized compression (i.e., rock pinch) and tensile zones (i.e., dilatation) prior to the occurrence of plastic relief (i.e., rock slip). Finally, the design method is developed using simple factors (i.e., strain and shape factors) and loading conditions (e.g., installed load, rock slip) that occurred throughout the rock bolt’s design life. This approach results in a methodology that considers effects on reinforcement with time and combined loadings. The method is then extended by producing survival and hazard functions for rock bolts to ultimately reduce risk associated with design.

The literature on the design, construction, testing and performance of resin bonded rock bolts has been surveyed, and particularly focused on vibration prediction and the behaviour of rock bolts when subjected to dynamic loading. The dynamic load transfer mechanism, the dynamic and static service behaviour of two-speed resin bonded rock bolts in microdiorite, and the dynamic behaviour of rock anchorages in mudstone when subjected to tunnel blasting have been investigated through two extensive full-scale field and laboratory tests. The investigation on two-speed resin bonded rock bolts has been performed with twenty four rock bolts installed within 1.1 to 5.7 m from the blasting face. All rock bolts were instrumented using load cells and accelerometers fixed on the anchor heads to monitor the instantaneous dynamic load and residual static load, and axial dynamic vibration of the bolts. Eight of the bolts were also instrumented with five inserted load cells along their length to monitor the dynamic load transfer mechanism and static load distribution. The dynamic load transfer mechanism, the dynamic response of rock bolts with scaled distance, and safe distance for the installation of permanent resin bonded rock bolts have been established. The effects of prestress load (from 0 to 100 kN) and distance to blast source have been assessed. For the investigation on mudstone anchorages, nine anchorages were instrumented with accelerometers at the anchor heads and in the vicinity of the fixed anchor zone to monitor vibration levels when subjected to nearby tunnel blasting. Residual loads were checked by lift-off test A relationship of vibration between the anchor head and fixed anchor has been established, and a safe peak particle velocity of 48 mm / s has been established. A physical model, which simulates the dynamic and static behaviour of resin bonded bolts subjected to blast loading, has been developed. Three instrumented bolts were tested, and different prestress and confining pressure levels were applied to the instrumented bolts.

Full scale field trials, carried out during the construction of the Penmaenbach Tunnel in North Wales, have shown that two-speed resin bonded rock bolts are resilient to close proximity blasting. Fully grouted 6m long rock bolts, installed within 0.7m of the tunnel face, have shown no significant signs of distress or failure. Instantaneous loads of up to 40% of the characteristic strength of the bolt were observed together with average residual load losses of 5% of the working load, which compares favourably with the acceptable tolerance of 10% working load stipulated by current practice. Analysis has also shown that rock bolts with low prestress sustain greater vibrations and proportionately higher dynamic load changes during blasting. However, bolts with relatively high prestress loads sustain greater induced loads. Empirical relations have been established to describe rock bolt behaviour in terms of induced vibration and scaled distance. In particular, a predictive equation relating dynamic load changes in the experimental rock bolts to scaled distance, is presented. Calculations based on approximate bolting costs have indicated that cost savings of up to 38% of the total bolting cost could have been effected if the results of this work had been implemented at the design stage. Physical modelling work has confirmed that the distribution of loads in the fixed anchor of a resin bonded bolt are non-linear when both static and impulsive loads are applied to the bolt head. Corroboration of the field results has also been established with respect to the significant influence of initial prestress load on dynamic load change. Complementary finite element modelling work has successfully predicted fixed anchor load distributions under static and dynamic loading conditions. Attempts to establish a detailed relation between distance from blast, magnitude of charge and change in residual load, for low to medium capacity rock anchorages on the West Portal of the tunnel, were thwarted by the poor performance of instrumentation with respect to temperature sensitivity. However, a simplistic approach to analysis has enabled the establishment of a tentative predictive relationship.

The mining industry is a major consumer of rock bolts in the United States. Due to the high humidity in the underground mining environment, the rock bolts corrode and loose their load bearing capacity which in turn reduces the life expectancy of the ground support and, thus, creates operational difficulties and number of safety concerns [1]. Research on rock anchor corrosion has not been adequately extensive in the past and the effects of several factors in the mine atmosphere and waters are not clearly understood. One of the probable reasons for this lack of research may be attributed to the time required for gathering meaningful data that makes the study of corrosion quite challenging. In this particular work underground water samples from different mines in the Illinois coal basin were collected and the major chemical content was analyzed and used for the laboratory testing. The corrosion performance of the different commercial rock anchors was investigated by techniques such as laboratory immersion tests in five different corrosion chambers, and potentiodynamic polarization tests in simulated ground waters based on the Illinois coal basin. The experiments were conducted with simulate underground mining conditions (corrosive). The tensile strengths were measured for the selected rock anchors taken every 3 months from the salt spray corrosion chambers maintained at different pH values and temperatures. The corrosion potential (Ecorr), corrosion current (Icorr) and the corresponding corrosion rates (CR) of the selected commercial rock bolts: #5, #6, #6 epoxy coated and #7 forged head rebar steels, #6 and #7 threaded head rebar steels were measured at the solution pH values of 5 and 8 at room temperature. The open circuit potential (OCP) values of the different rock anchors were recorded in 3 selected underground coal mines (A, B & C) in the Illinois coal basin and the data compared with the laboratory electrochemical tests for analyzing the life of the rock anchors installed in the mines with respect to corrosion potential and corrosion current measured. The results of this research were statistically validated. This research will have direct consequence to the rock related safety. The results of this research indicate that certain corrosive conditions are commonly found in mines but uniform corrosion (around 0.01-0.03mm loss per year across the diameter) is generally not considered a serious issue. From this study, longer term research for long-term excavation support is recommended that could quantify the problem depending on the rock anchor used and specific strata conditions.