Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Rocks in art'

The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) is interested in understanding the human and environmental consequences of past Glen Canyon Dam water release policies and using these data to inform future water release and land management policies. One step in this direction is to understand how American Indian people have used the Colorado River and adjoining lands in Glen Canyon and Grand Canyon. The BOR, through its Glen Canyon Environmental Studies (GCES) office, has provided funds for various American Indian groups to identify places and things of cultural significance in the 300 mile long river and canyon ecosystem that has come to be called the Colorado River Corridor. This study is the second to report on the cultural resources of the Southern Paiute people found in this riverine ecosystem. The rock art study funded by the BOR and managed by the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies (GCES) office is the basis of this report. This study is unique in the history of rock art studies and is unusual when compared with other American Indian cultural resource assessments. There are five unique features of this study. First, all funds for conducting the research were contracted to the Southern Paiute Consortium. Second, the Southern Paiute people decided during the previous studies that their next study would be about rock art. Third, the GCES /BOR permitted research to be conducted in terms of Paiute perceptions of the study area rather than specifically in terms of the scientifically established study area for the project. Thus, it was possible to conduct the Kanab Creek side canyon study. Fourth, all interviews were guided by a ten -page survey instrument, so Southern Paiute responses could be systematically compared. Fifth, both all-male and all- female research trips were conducted, thus producing the first gender - specific interviews of rock art sites. The resulting study is both interdisciplinary and multivocal.

This government-to-government consultation between the Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office (DOE /NV) and the Consolidated Group of Tribes and Organizations (CGTO) focused on the interpretation of 10 rock art sites; seven on the Nevada Test Site (NTS), and three on the Yucca Mountain Site Characterization Office (YMSCO). The consultation entailed a systematic ethnographic study of petroglyphs, pictographs, and other rock art manipulations. The objective of the project was to gain an understanding of the cultural significance of rock art for contemporary American Indians and its place in their traditional cultural landscapes. Research activities involved visits to rock art sites by tribal elders and tribal cultural experts. During the field visits, Indian consultants responded to standardized interviews and provided observations, comments, and recommendations regarding each of the sites under study. The project involved 14 American Indian tribes and two Indian organizations that represent Indian people having aboriginal and historic ties to lands currently occupied by the NTS. The study was initiated as part of the overall DOE /NV American Indian Program, which includes a decade of project - specific and general consultation efforts. This study built upon previous efforts and contributed to DOE /NV's understanding of American Indian cultural resources on the NTS.

This work is based on the comparative iconographic analysis of a distinct corpus of paintings within the Later Stone Age, Bushman or San art of southern Africa. They are distinct from the rest of the paintings of the region in age, numbers, variety, complexity and density. It defines in detail the principles that determined the form of the paintings - where the primary concern was to depict objects through outline alone - and the canon - the very restricted range of subjects that were depicted. It demonstrates that the human imagery established a set of archetypes, expressing concepts of the roles of men and women in the community through a set of readily legible attributes. The art was thus in essence conceptual and, of its nature, not concerned with the individual, illustration, narrative, documentation or anecdote. Within this framework, the paintings focused on concepts of the various forms and degrees of supernatural energy or potency that all San have believed to be inherent in every person. Further studies demonstrate how large and dangerous animals, particularly the elephant, were conceived as symbols of potency and their hunting as a metaphor for trance. Compositions based on oval shapes and the dots within and emanating from them are shown to be further symbols of aspects of potency. Many recurrent and hitherto ignored motifs attached to human figures are shown to be a graphic commentary on the metaphysics of the archetypes. The study is set in the context of the archaeology of the sub-region, recent studies of San concepts, perceptions and beliefs, a review of previous research, and a critique of influential recent South African work which first integrated paintings with San beliefs.

En el planteamiento previo de este trabajo nos propusimos cinco objetivos que hemos desarrollado a lo largo del estudio y que se detallan a continuación. 1) Documentación del mural La documentación gráfica del mural ha consistido en la realización de un calco digital del mural en base al programa Photoshop y con la ayuda de la aplicación DStrech. A partir de la documentación gráfica hemos identificado 194 motivos en distintas categorías de figuras animales, humanas y elementos esquemáticos y abstractos distribuidos en cinco sectores de la cueva. Todos estos motivos están reproducidos a escala en el calco general y situados en la planimetría de la cavidad. Además, hemos elaborado una aplicación de base de datos específica para nuestras investigaciones referentes al arte rupestre de las sierras centrales de Baja California. La intención es tener unas descripciones estandarizadas que permitan comparar los datos formales de las figuras de una cavidad entre sí y respecto a otros murales. En este estudio incluimos la descripción de la base de datos y su funcionamiento, así como la información perteneciente a la cavidad de El Ratón en forma de ficha individual de cada figura. 2) Proceso de realización del mural La documentación del mural ha servido para establecer el orden de superposición de las figuras que están en contacto y muestran una estratigrafía cromática. El establecimiento de estas superposiciones no está exento de problemas, derivados principalmente de la apreciación del anclaje de los pigmentos, las transparencias de los colores, los repintes y las reelaboraciones de las figuras. A partir de esta información hemos establecido el proceso de ejecución del mural. Para ello hemos tenido también en consideración elementos compositivos y rasgos formales de las figuras pintadas. El resultado son siete fases consecutivas dentro del proceso muralista. Hemos detallado los puntos en la documentación en los que nos hemos basado para establecer el proceso para que pueda juzgarse su idoneidad, y proponemos estudios más detallados que incluyan la elaboración de láminas delgadas en algunos puntos del mural para cerciorarnos de las superposiciones. Por otra parte, hemos confrontado la propuesta de fases que hemos establecido en El Ratón con las fases que R. Viñas propuso para La Pintada y hemos podido apreciar que algunas formas que caracterizan fases consecutivas de La Pintada siguen el mismo patrón en El Ratón. Esto es especialmente apreciable en la evolución del perfil de los cuerpos y la posición de las patas de los cuadúpedos. 3) Contexto cronocultural Durante mucho tiempo los Grandes Murales se han considerado como un fenómeno relativamente homogéneo vinculado con la cultura Comondú, en un periodo de tiempo incluido en las últimas fases de la prehistoria bajacaliforniana. A partir de las observaciones en distintos murales, nuestro equipo de trabajo advirtió que las fases pictográficas que se observan en algunos frisos podían contravenir esta idea inicial y descubrir que el proceso pictográfico de las sierras centrales de Baja California es dilatado en el tiempo. La documentación realizada por R. Viñas en La Pintada y ahora la que presentamos para el caso de El Ratón confirman esta hipótesis: hay una diversidad de momentos pictóricos en los murales que evidencian cambios culturales en un proceso diacrónico dilatado. R. Viñas propone una distinción entre los Grandes Murales con distintas fases internas —en La Pintada propone cuatro fases para los Grandes Murales—; otra etapa pictórica con la inclusión de nuevas formas gráficas que mantendrían elementos de los Grandes Murales, a la que llama «Tradición Gran Mural», y una etapa final en la que predominan los elementos esquemáticos y abstractos y que se desvincula formalmente de los Grandes Murales. Este esquema coincide con nuestras observaciones en El Ratón, donde las fases 1-3 corresponden plenamente a los Grandes Murales, las fases 4 y 5 se incluirían en esa «Tradición Grandes Murales» y las 6 y 7 se apartan formalmente de esta tradición. No obstante, esta propuesta no deja de ser un esquema inicial y el fenómeno rupestre en Baja California es muy complejo como para pensar que a esta tendencia general no le podremos añadir nuevos matices cuando se documenten un mayor número de cavidades pintadas. Las fases finales del arte rupestre de Baja California corresponden a los habitantes de la península que conocieron a los colonizadores europeos. Otra cuestión es establecer el inicio del proceso y las fases intermedias. Las fechas directas sobre los murales establecen una antigüedad que se remonta al Arcaico temprano. La fecha que consideramos fiable obtenida del puma n.º 41 de la cueva de El Ratón (4.845 ±60 BP) es coherente con este entorno de dataciones. Sin embargo, no podemos dar la cuestión por zanjada. En el futuro se deberán establecer proyectos de datación que persigan objetivos específicos. Proponemos la búsqueda de fechas radiocarbónicas que relacionen figuras de las fases de la cronología relativa que se deriva de la documentación, en espera de una coherencia que dé sentido al estudio del proceso y que, posteriormente, sea comparable con el estudio de otros murales. En el caso de El Ratón, la documentación presentada facilita el proceso de selección de figuras potencialmente interesantes para confirmar o corregir la propuesta de las fases pictóricas. 4) Análisis de la composición gráfica del mural El análisis de la composición gráfica del mural nos ha permitido identificar relaciones entre distintas figuras o elementos internos de las pinturas que hemos interpretado como códigos del lenguaje muralista. Los pintores han utilizados los motivos iconográficos, formas, colores, contactos entre figuras, relaciones de simetría, ubicación en el espacio, líneas visuales, sucesiones, actitud y posición de las figuras para crear estos códigos. Estos se manifiestan en ocasiones por su valor recurrente, otras por contraste u oposición y se hacen evidentes en la composición de manera que resultan significativos. Las relaciones codificadas permiten identificar la temática representada dentro del mismo mural, y observar diferencias de estos tratamientos entre sus distintas fases. Conforme avance el estudio de los murales podremos establecer la distribución en extensión geográfica y profundidad histórica de estos códigos y así se convertirán en un elemento para discernir el proceso histórico de los murales rupestres de Baja California. Podremos ver también cómo estos recursos se asemejan o diferencian entre las sierras de San Francisco, Guadalupe y San Borja en una visión amplia del fenómeno de los Grandes Murales. 5) Funcionalidad de la cueva de El Ratón Las cuevas pintadas de la sierra de San Francisco han sido consideradas, a menudo, como agreggaton sites. Tal como fueron definidos para el Paleolítico, estos son yacimientos donde se reúne un grupo numeroso de personas para llevar a cabo una serie de rituales y actos sociales y se caracterizan por una ocupación de mucha gente por poco tiempo. Se espera que esto se refleje de alguna manera en el sedimento arqueológico y en consecuencia quede rastro de la estacionalidad que caracteriza a estas reuniones. Por otro lado, el sitio ha de reunir unas condiciones que permitan concentrar un número importante de asistentes, abundancia de elementos rituales muebles y un panel decorado que presente elementos singulares y decoraciones genéricas. En nuestra opinión, no todas las cuevas pintadas del área de los Grandes Murales cumplían la misma función. Esta apreciación deriva de las obvias diferencias entre distintos tipos de cuevas pintadas que conocemos en las sierras de San Francisco. No es lo mismo una cueva como La Pintada con más de mil figuras, una temática muy variada, muchas fases de realización del mural y una extensión considerable, que pequeñas oquedades que pueden encontrarse en varios barrancos con un número reducido de pinturas, u otras cavidades de mediano tamaño, un mural relativamente con pocas pinturas y una temática unitaria. Pero por el momento, no tenemos unas características definidas que categoricen los distintos tipos de cueva pintada ni siquiera estos sitios de congregación. En el caso de la cueva de El Ratón hemos confrontado sus datos con los provenientes de La Pintada, La Serpiente y El Porcelano y hemos visto que participan de ciertas similitudes y diferencias significativas. En primer lugar, las cuevas de La Pintada y El Ratón son amplias y con una terraza que permite la reunión de un grupo considerable de personas. La cueva de La Serpiente es una grieta en el cantil que apenas puede albergar un número muy reducido de personas y El Porcelano es una cueva mediana sin mucho espacio para grandes reuniones. Si a estas propiedades morfológicas añadimos las características de los respectivos murales vemos que El Ratón y La Pintada comparten rasgos comunes en contraste con los casos de La Serpiente y El Porcelano. Las cuevas de El Ratón y La Pintada presentan una considerable variabilidad de rasgos estilísticos y de recursos técnicos, una paleta de colores amplia y un repertorio iconográfico extenso, a tal punto que los porcentajes son muy similares. Por el contrario, El Porcelano y La Serpiente muestran una gran homogeneidad interna de rasgos estilísticos y de recursos técnicos, una paleta de colores casi monótona y poca variabilidad iconográfica. Es decir, tienen unos rasgos formales muy homogéneos en sus respectivos murales aunque sean dispares entre sí. Por otra parte, en El Ratón y La Pintada existe un proceso de realización prolongado en el tiempo, con distintas fases pictóricas y numerosas superposiciones. Las características de cuatro cuevas pintadas no son suficientes para caracterizar sitios arqueológicos complejos como son los murales pintados de Baja California. Sin embargo, esta comparación orienta en la búsqueda de estas características. De manera provisional y presumiblemente incompleta proponemos que las características que pueden definir los lugares de congregación en la sierra de San Francisco: — Lugares amplios que permitan la reunión de un número importante de gente. — Murales que presenten una considerable variabilidad de rasgos técnicos, estilísticos, cromáticos e iconográficos. — El proceso muralista será dilatado en el tiempo y mostrará diferentes fases. — Probablemente presentarán un tema principal que se complementará en las sucesivas etapas pictóricas y, en algunos casos, se añadirán nuevos temas. Distintos a estos grandes santuarios, podemos encontrar sitios con pinturas que respondan a una temática muy particular, realizados en un momento histórico concreto sin que el uso más o menos continuado del sitio haya requerido ampliar o modificar el mural. Pensamos que corresponden a lugares donde se han celebrado rituales más privados o que han sido pintados por algún motivo muy concreto. Por lo que se refiere al sedimento arqueológico, hemos de advertir que en las cuevas pintadas de estas sierras la potencia estratigráfica es pobre y que el número de excavaciones de que disponemos es escaso. Por eso no nos atrevemos a predecir cómo sería este sedimento en relación con las cuevas pintadas en lugares de congregación. En todo caso, diremos que en El Ratón no hemos identificado disposiciones de material significativas más allá de una concentración del material en hilera paralela a la pared, y que sí hemos documentado unas estructuras de combustión peculiares en cuanto a su función, que pensamos que están relacionadas con los rituales que se llevaron a cabo en este santuario rupestre. Hemos de añadir que la temática representada la cueva de El Ratón muestra una serie de relaciones con temas mitológicos documentados etnográficamente en el entorno cultural, lo que permite una propuesta interpretativa del mural en relación con aspectos astronómicos ligados a los solsticios y, por lo tanto, a la mitología de la renovación estacional y mantenimiento de la periodicidad. Esta propuesta precisa de un estudio más detallado que incluya observaciones in situ en los periodos señalados —especialmente durante el solsticio de verano— y cálculos arqueoastronómicos que abarquen los periodos históricos que nos interese documentar. Para finalizar, presentamos este trabajo del mural de El Ratón como un elemento a tener en cuenta en el estudio global de los Grandes Murales y con la esperanza de crear discusión al respecto. Consideramos que para avanzar necesitamos documentaciones exhaustivas de los murales y el análisis individualizado de los mismos para poder, luego, contrastarlos. Para ello es necesario desarrollar metodologías de documentación que permitan comparaciones parangonables. En este empeño seguiremos trabajando.
The archaeological site of El Ratón Cave: A painted cave in the Sierra de San Francisco (Baja California Sur, Mexico). The painted mural. Albert Rubio i Mora In a previous proposal of this work, we set out five aims which have been developed throughout the present research. These are described below. 1) Recording of the mural painting The visual recording of the mural painting consisted of making a digital carbon copy of the mural using the Photoshop software and with aid of the DStrech plugin. Using this visual record, we have identified 194 motifs of various classes, animal figures, humans, schematic and abstract designs, scattered over five sections in the cave. All of these motifs have been reproduced to scale on the general copy and located in the planimetry of the cave. Additionally, we have compiled a special database for researching the rock art of the Baja California central mountain ranges, or sierras. The aim is to create a resource of standardised descriptions that will allow researchers to compare the formal qualities of the motifs at both the intra- and inter-site levels. In this study, we have included the description of the database and its use, as well as documentation of the data from El Ratón Cave in individual records for each figure. 2) The creation process of the mural The work of recording the painted mural has been useful to establish the order of superimposition of the overlapping figures, which has revealed a chromatic stratigraphy. Determining the order of superimposing images is not without its problems, particularly due to the difficulty of perceiving the pigment background, the colour overlay, and the repainting and modification of the motifs. Using this information, we have been able to establish the sequence of the creation process of the mural. To reconstruct this process, we have also taken into account the composition and formal properties of the figures. The result reveals seven consecutive phases of the painting process. We have detailed the aspects of the record upon which the reconstruction of the work process is based so that it can be assessed. We suggest more specific studies that include making thin prints of some mural sections to corroborate the superimpositions. Finally, we have contrasted our proposal of sequential painting phases at El Ratón with the phases suggested by R. Viñas for La Pintada. We concluded that certain forms which characterize the consecutive phases at La Pintada follow the same pattern at El Ratón. This is better appreciated in the evolution of the profile of the bodies and the position of the quadruped’s feet. 3) Chrono-cultural context For a long time, the Great Murals were considered a relatively homogeneous phenomenon linked to the Comondú culture, which belongs to the latter period of the Baja Californian prehistory. According to the observations made in several rock art sites, our research team noticed that the sequential pictorial phases of some of the panels seemed to contradict that initial assumption and showed that, to the contrary, the painting tradition of the central mountain ranges of Baja California had a long time depth. The recording of La Pintada by R. Viñas and our own research at El Ratón corroborate the hypothesis that there are different painting events in the mural tradition which reflect cultural changes in a long diachronic process. R. Viñas has distinguished various internal phases within the Great Murals. Based on the analysis at La Pintada, he has suggested four Great Mural phases, one pictorial period that includes novel motifs that keep to the elements of the Great Murals, which he has called Great Mural Tradition, and a final phase dominated by schematic and abstract motifs, which is formally removed from the Great Murals. This scheme coincides with our observations at El Ratón, where phases 1 to 3 clearly correspond with the Great Murals, phases 4 and 5 belong to the Great Murals Tradition, and 6 to 7 move away from that tradition. Nevertheless, this proposal is only an initial scheme and the rock art of Baja California is too complex to think that this trend will remain unchanged as more painted sites are recorded. The final phases of the rock art of Baja California belong to the peoples that inhabited the peninsula when the European pioneers arrived. A more pressing issue is to establish the age of the initial and intermediate phases. The direct dates obtained from the paintings suggest an age going back to the early Archaic. The most reliable date, obtained from figure no. 41, the puma, at El Ratón Cave (4,845 +60 BP) is coherent with the range of those dates. However, the issue is not completely resolved. Future dating projects should have well-defined aims. We suggest that radiocarbon dates should concentrate on relating specific figures to the phases of the relative chronology derived from our observations, in order to make sense of the creation process and create a data set that may be compared across mural sites. In the case of El Ratón, our recording can help towards the selection of motifs that could be used for sampling, to test the sequence of pictorial phases. 4) Analysis of the mural’s visual composition The analysis of the visual composition of the mural has thrown light on the associations among figures or internal elements of the paintings, which we interpret as the codes of the mural’s language. To create such codes, the artists seem to have used the iconographic motifs, forms, colours, image overlaps, symmetry relations, location in space, visual lines, sequences, attitude and situation of the motifs. These codes may be identified by their recurrence, contrast, or opposition and become evidently meaningful in the total composition. The codified associations allow us to identify the themes represented in the mural and to distinguish differences between those associations across the various phases. As the research of the murals moves forward we will be able to establish the geographical distribution and historical depth of such codes so that they will become a component that will aid in clarifying the history of the Great Murals of Baja California. We may also be able to observe whether the codes are similar or different across the sierras of San Francisco, Guadalupe and San Borja, in order to obtain a general picture of the Great Mural phenomenon. 5) The function of Cueva del Ratón The painted caves of sierra de San Francisco have often been considered as ‘aggregation sites’. These type of sites, initially defined for the European Palaeolithic, are locations where a numerous group of people convene to carry out a series of rituals and social activities. Thus, they are characterized by a short but intensive occupation. This would somehow be reflected in the archaeological record, leaving some traces of the seasonality that generally typifies such gatherings. Furthermore, the aggregation site should comply with certain conditions to allow the concentration of a large number of attendants, and it should contain portable ritual objects and decorated panels that show singular elements and general motifs. In our opinion, not all painted caves in the region of the Great Murals had the same function. This observation is based on the obvious differences between the various types of painted caves that are known in Sierra de San Francisco. For example, a cave like La Pintada – with over a thousand figures, varied themes, a mural with several creation phases and a large extension – is not the same as the small crevices scattered across the various cliffs with only a few paintings, or the medium-sized rock shelters that contain panels with relatively few figures and one theme. For now, we do not have a fixed set of criteria to categorise the different types of painted caves, or the aggregation sites. In the case of El Ratón Cave, we have contrasted our data against the data from the sites of La Pintada, La Serpeinte and El Porcelano, and we have been able to observe certain meaningful similarities and differences. First, the caves of La Pintada and El Ratón are big and both have a gallery that would allow the gathering of a large group of people. La Serpiente cave is a cliff crevice that can allow access to only a small number of people, and El Porcelano is a medium-sized cave with not much space for a gathering. If these morphological characteristics are seen side by side with the properties of each site’s paintings, we observe that El Ratón and La Pintada share several common traits , whereas this is not the case with La Serpiente and El Porcelano. The caves of El Ratón and La Pintada both show a considerable range of stylistic properties and techniques, an extensive colour palette and iconographic repertoire, to the point that their percentages are quite similar. In contrast, El Porcelano and La Serpiente show a great internal homogeneity of stylistic properties and techniques, an almost monotone colour palette, and little iconographic variety. That is to say, the formal properties of each site’s paintings are very homogeneous, although very different between them. Furthermore, El Ratón and La Pintada reflect a long creation process with different painting phases an numerous superimpositions. The characteristics of just four painted caves are not enough to embody the complex archaeological phenomenon that is the Great Mural rock art of Baja California. However, our observations can guide our search for such criteria. Provisionally and presumably incompletely, we suggest certain characteristics that may define the aggregation sites in the sierra de San Francisco: - Large sites that allow the gathering of a great number of people. - Murals that show considerable variability of techniques, styles, colours, and motifs. - The creation process will have a long time depth and will show several work phases. - Are likely to depict a main theme that will be expanded upon in successive painting stages, and in some cases, new themes will be added. In contrast to the large sanctuaries, there are sites with paintings that portray a singular theme, painted in one single historical moment. Even if these sites were sometimes used continuously over time their murals were not extended or modified. We think that these sites may have been used to celebrate more private rituals or were painted with a very particular aim. Regarding the archaeological sediment, we must point out that the painted caves of the Baja Californian sierras have a poor stratigraphy and the number of excavations has been scarce. For this reason, we can not make any suggestions as to how the sediment of the painted caves would differ from that of aggregation sites. In any case, we will mention that at El Ratón we have not been able to identify any relevant accumulation of archaeological material apart from a concentration of objects aligned to the cave wall. We also recorded some peculiar combustion structures whose function, we believe, may be related to the rituals that were carried out at this rock sanctuary. In addition, the theme depicted at El Ratón Cave has a series of similarities with mythological subjects documented in the ethnography of the cultural region. This allows us to suggest an interpretive reading of the mural in regards of astronomical topics related to the solstices, and consequently to the myth of the seasonal rebirth and cyclic continuity. This suggestion requires a more detailed study that should include in situ observation of the mentioned dates – especially, the summer solstice- and archaeoastronomic calculations that include the historical period we want to research. --- Finally, we present this study of El Ratón mural as a contribution to the global study of the Great Murals, and with it we hope to open a scholarly discussion. We believe that to move forward in this field we need extensive records of the murals and an individual analysis that can be tested afterwards. To this aim we need to develop recording methods that allow us to make reasonable comparisons. We will keep working towards that end.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, Riverside, 2010.
Includes abstract. Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Title from first page of PDF file (viewed May 19, 2010). Includes bibliographical references. Also issued in print.

[Truncated abstract] Many researchers have proposed the use of silicate rock fertilizers (SRFs) as alternatives to chemical fertilizers. However, the application of SRFs in modern agricultural practices is limited due mainly to the slow release of plant-nutrient elements from SRFs and consequently many tonnes/ha of SRFs may need to be applied. Simple and inexpensive methods of modifying the physicochemical properties of SRFs are needed to improve the agronomic effectiveness of SRFs. This thesis is focused on the evaluation of high-energy milling to produce superfine particles to improve the effectiveness of mafic (basalt and dolerite) and felsic (gneiss and K-feldspar) rocks for use as fertilizers. The ground mafic rocks are for use as Ca and Mg fertilizers and the ground felsic rocks as K fertilizers. Laboratory and glasshouse experiments were conducted with several potential SRFs. In laboratory experiments, initially milled rocks (Ø< 250 μm for basalt, dolerite, and gneiss; Ø < 150 μm for K-feldspar) were further milled with a ball mill (Spex-8000) for 10, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min under dry and wet (rock/water ratio = 1/3) conditions. To investigate possible reaction between constituents, other subsamples of initially milled basalt, dolerite, and gneiss were added to reagent grade NaCl or KCl (4.5 g rock + 0.5 g NaCl or KCl) and milled for 120 min under dry and wet conditions. Basalt and dolerite were also mixed with K-feldspar at a ratio of 1 : 1 and milled for 120 min under dry and wet conditions. For use in the glasshouse experiment, the initially milled rocks were further milled with a vertical stirred ball mill for 1 h in a dry condition. The elemental and mineralogical compositions of the SRFs were determined using XRF and XRD. Effects of milling on major physicochemical properties of milled rocks were determined, including particle size (Malvern Mastersizer), surface area (BET-N2), quantities of amorphous constituents (XRD, oxalic acid-oxalate extraction, TEM), extractable cations (1M CH3COONH4 pH 7), pHH2O, and electric conductivity. Dissolution kinetics in 0.01M acetic-citric acids (for 56 days) and soil (for 10 months) were determined. Based on the results of these laboratory experiments, a glasshouse experiment was carried out for 12 months to evaluate the effects of SRF application on growth and nutrient uptake of ryegrass grown on several soils. Milling reduced particle size, enhanced amorphism, and increased the release of structural cations from the rocks, with the effects due to dry milling being greater than for wet milling. The optimum milling times which produced maximum amounts of exchangeable cations (Na, K, Ca, and Mg) were 30 - 90 min, depending on rock type. The use of NaCl and KCl as milling additives did not enhance the properties of the SRF

This study aims to examine all aspects of Moroccan rock art and place it in an archaeological and environmental context. Almost 300 sites are now known but few have been studied fully. This work is the first overall analysis to be attempted. Data on climatic changes during the Holocene period, together with archaeological and faunal reports, provided the necessary background to the rock art. The distribution of engraved and painted sites in Morocco is very uneven. Animals were the most frequent themes, but a review of all the sites revealed great site and subject diversity. Four main types of engravings were Identified, their Characteristics described and their distribution plotted. Climatic fluctuations, new animal species, the introduction of meth weapons, the chariot and writing established a chronological framework. A critical appraisal of these events led to a tentative chronology for Moroccan rock art, thought here to have started around 2500 be. The situation of rock art sites showed that they were chosen for very specific reasons, some of them by nomadic pastoralists. Viewing rock art as a medium of communication, it was proposed that the images were messages defining territories, proclaiming ownership or commemorating heroes or battles. The images may have two levels of meaning: one easily understood by members of the group and by outsiders, the second, symbolic, less obviously comprehensible. Moroccan rock art was not an isolated phenomenon in north Africa. The rock art of Algeria, Libya and Mauritania showed both similarities and differences, IrnpMng a cultural link, albeit tenuous, between these countries. Available archaeological, environmental and rock art data revealed striking differences In information-availability between north and south Morocco. Archaeological research has established a chronologicaal nd cultural framework, in northern Morocco,to which rock art adds nothing. On the other hand, rock engravings of metal weapons are almost the only evidence of a Moroccan Bronze Age. In southern Morocco, the distribution of rock art sites reveals intensive human activity in an area little known from excavation. Rock art, archaeology and environment are thus related in this study to producea comprehensive picture of the past.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Nevada, Reno, 2006.
"May, 2006." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 241-257). Library also has microfilm. Ann Arbor, Mich. : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [2006]. 1 microfilm reel ; 35 mm. Online version available on the World Wide Web.

This study investigates the effects that lichens have on rock surfaces in which ancient rock art (petroglyphs and pictographs) may be found. The study area includes four sites in the United States: one quartzite site in southwest Minnesota, two sandstone sites in Wyoming, and one volcanic site in Central New Mexico. One additional granitic site studied is located northeast Queensland, Australia. The questions driving the pursuit of this dissertation research are: 1. How does the chemistry of the rock change with weathering and how deep is the profile? 2. Do lichens cause differential chemical changes? 3. How does the chemistry of the unaltered rock influence these changes? 4. Do lichens strip the patina or “desert varnish” from the rock surfaces? The results of this research confirm from elemental chemical analyses that geochemical changes do take place in the presence of lichens. The combined mechanical and chemical processes contribute to the degradation and greater erodability of all the rock surfaces studied. Chemically, we have demonstrated that cements that hold grains of rocks together can be dissoluble by lichen byproducts in the presence of an aqueous environment whether the rocks are sandstone or granite. This information regarding the mechanical and geochemical processes at work in natural environments has significant practical benefit for the management, conservation, and preservation of rock art sites everywhere.

Towards "A New Recording of Mauritanian Rock Art" is an attempt to utilise new methods and techniques for recording rock art in north-west Africa. This research aims to show the recorded work not as isolated figures but as groups of inter-related figures. According to the published and unpublished inventories of the Mauritanian rock art sites, the two studied sites, which have only engravings, have not been recorded before. They are situated in the Adrar plateau in the north-central part of the Mauritanian Sahara. In addition to the methods and techniques of recording rock art (e.g. tracing, rubbing and photography), the methodology used in this work includes a number of new aspects that seem to be ignored or omitted in most previous work on the subject. This new recording aims to provide new clues that enable the researcher to carry out two basic interpretative analyses and gain a better understanding of the recorded engravings as an example of the rock art of Mauritania.

Master Erasmus Mundus em Quaternario e Pré-História.Volume 1 e 2
Este trabalho aborda a arte rupestre da Toca do Paraguaio (Piauí, Brasil) como o resultado de composições entre características morfo-técnicas universais. Estas características surgem de acordo com eixos morfo-técnicos interativos (morfologia e técnica), durante o processo de materialização das idéias, conduzido pelos autores. Esta tese buscou pela história morfo-técnica de 939 pinturas da Toca do Paraguaio, com o objetivo de identificar identidades, a partir das particularidades da história morfo-técnica que as pinturas demonstraram. Por meio da aplicação deste modelo, foi possível sugerir um mínimo de identidades que poderiam ter pintado o sítio. Na parte interpretativa das pinturas, foi identificada uma possível representação de cabana (a única em Capivara), bem como, pinturas que aparecem transportando objetos que poderiam ser interpretados como cerâmica ou cestaria. Considerando estas interpretações, foi possível sugerir um marcador cronológica para esses tipos de pinturas, de acordo com as idades estimadas para o surgimento dessas tecnologias na região. Este trabalho também contextualizou cronoestratigraficamente, os outros tipos de materiais encontrados no sítio, como as ferramentas líticas, os fragmentos cerâmicos, restos humanos, faunísticos e vegetais.

Master Erasmus Mundus em quaternário e pré-história. Volume I e II
A arte rupestre que se estende ao longo do rio Tejo é considerada como um dos maiores complexos ao ar livre de arte Pós-Paleolitica, não só na Península Ibérica mas também da Europa. Milhares de imagens banham as margens do rio Tejo num repertorio que conjuga todas as formas de representação. Contudo, com a construção da barragem nos anos 70, mais de 90% desta arte rupestre foi condenada às profundezas do rio para sempre. No entanto e antes do nível da água subir, conseguiu-se preservar grande parte da arte através da transferência das gravuras para moldes de Latex. Estes moldes, ao cuidado do Museu do COA, são da responsabilidade do CNART (Centro Nacional de Arte Rupestre). Por meio do projecto RUPTEJO 2008 – Presente, os moldes foram emprestados ao Instituto Terra e Memoria, Mação, Portugal, onde os investigadores ligados ao projecto podem estudar e tentar compreender os aspectos culturais sociais e técnicos, dando deste modo alguma justiça aos autores originais deste conjunto fascinantes de gravuras. Esta tese foca-se no estudo do sito de Gardete analisando os seus aspectos tipológicos e técnicos, estando inserida numa serie de estudos levados a cabo noutros sítios do Tejo ao longo dos anos que tentam contribuir para uma melhor compreensão de todo o complexo do Tejo. Elaborou-se deste modo um catálogo das gravuras de modo a manter viva a mística e curiosidade que o complexo de arte rupestre do rio tejo desperta nos seus observadores.

The Rock-Art Database (RADB) is a non-for profit online project at PERAHU, Griffith University in Australia. It seeks to improve theory and practice in the digital curation of rock-art data through building a centralized global rock-art heritage hub. Through the use of new technologies the database explores new ways to look at rock-art information and explores the potential within its digital curation. The system can be accessed on the World Wide Web at http://www.rockartdatabase.com. Australia alone features over 100,000 rock art sites, important heritage places for Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples and a testament to over 10,000 years of human activity, including interactions with other peoples and the environment. Many of these sites have not been documented or recorded and are threatened by natural and cultural agents. It is becoming increasingly important to develop conservation models for the protection and preservation of sites. Indigenous cultural heritage in particular is difficult to manage on a local government level due to complex human / time / environment relationships and the importance of intangible cultural heritage. Currently no centralized Australian or global database system exists to curate, present and promote rock-art. This project aims to fill this gap by exploring the potential of collaborative approaches, information structure and visualization of semantic and rich- media formats using Australian rock-art heritage as examples for a centralized global platform.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Humanities, Languages and Social Science
Arts, Education and Law
Full Text

Geochemical analyses of igneous rocks can provide valuable information about processes, element fluxes, and rock lithologies not evident at the surface. This is particularly important in subduction zone settings where complex interactions between the subducting plate, mantle wedge and arc crust cannot yet be measured by alternative methods. The Sunda arc, in SE Asia, provides an ideal opportunity to study the effects of subduction in a complex tectonic setting where the basement is poorly exposed and understood. However, in order to do so, magma compositions modified during differentiation in the arc crust must be effectively distinguished from those modified at the source. This study includes a detailed major- and trace element and isotopic (Sr-Nd-Hf-Pb) examination of volcanoes from west Java (Papandayan, Patuha and Galunggung), Central Java (Sumbing), east Java (Kelut) and Bali (Agung), the result of which provides greater insights into petrogenesis both across and along the arc. Contamination in the arc crust is more extensive than previously recognised, particularly in west and central Java where few volcanoes can be used in order to identify subduction and source contributions. In west Java, volcanoes such as Papandayan and Patuha show significant enrichments in isotope ratios above mantle values (e.g. 87Sr/86Sr ~ 0.706, 143Nd/144Nd ~ 0.5125, 208Pb/204Pb ~ 18.91 and 176Hf/177Hf ~ 0.2827) which indicates a terrigneous crustal contaminant. At Sumbing volcano, most magma compositions are similar to those at Merapi and Merbabu, and show strong evidence for the assimilation of carbonate-rich lithologies with some magmas becoming enriched in CaO, Sr and 87Sr/86Sr. Differentiation in volcanoes from east Java and the western part of the Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali, Lombok and Sumbawa) is dominantly controlled by fractional crystallisation, which provides better controls on source compositions. At Kelut, one group of samples show the most ‘depleted’ magma compositions yet discovered on Java, which contain MORB-like values for 143Nd/144Nd and 176Hf/177Hf (0.5130 and 0.2831 respectively). These samples represent the depleted (asthenospheric) mantle and are situated towards the front of the arc in east Java. It is likely that the progressive enrichment further back on the arc (i.e. Leucititic compositions at Ringgit-Besar) include more of an enriched (lithospheric) mantle (SCLM) component derived from the NW margin of Australia during the breakup of Gondwana.

Bibliography: p. 206-228.
Understanding a widespread motif in San rock art - a human figure depicted in frontal perspective with distinctive bodily characteristics - is the aim of this study. A concentration of these figures in north eastern Zimbabwe was first described by researchers in the 1930s and subsequently, when one researcher, Elizabeth Goodall, described them as 'mythic women'. Markedly similar figures in the South African art have received little attention. On the basis of fieldwork in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg, the south western Cape (South Africa) and Zimbabwe, and an extensive literature survey, a spectrum of these figures is described. In order to further understanding of the motif, existing interpretive methods and the traditions which inform them are examined, with a view to outlining a number of areas in need of attention. It is argued that analysis of rock art remains dependent on a range of dualistic notions which may be linked to retained structuralist ideas. It is suggested that the dominant model in rock art research, in which the rock art is seen as essentially shamanistic, perpetuates distinctions between mind and body, myth and ritual, and sacred and profane, while in its search for general truths concerning the rock art, and its central focus on iconography, the model retains traces of linguistic structuralism. It is proposed that the 'mythic woman' motif, with its gendered and sexual characteristics, is not well accounted for by reference to southern San ritual and religious practice alone. Drawing on contemporary theories concerning temporality and embodiment, it is argued that the motif is better understood in relation to recurrent themes of death and regeneration in San mythology and oral narratives, with shamanistic practice enacting related themes. The motif may be seen as representing San history in terms of culturally specific temporal schemes arising from San experience of the world. The 'ethnographic method', by means of which San accounts are used to illuminate features of the art, is reassessed and extended. Hermeneutic theories are drawn upon in order to address questions regarding the way in which ethnographies and art may be mutually illuminating, and to account for the inevitability of multiple interpretations arising from the situated process of reading or viewing. Prominent themes, images and devices in San myth and oral narrative are discussed in an attempt to move beyond a narrowly iconography-centred approach and in order to account for devices and stylistic features of San arts which are evident in both verbal and visual media. Implications of the research for investigating an archaeology of gender, and the writing of San history, are discussed.

The primary aim of this thesis is to explore the contribution that aspects of identity can add to our understanding of societies in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Scotland through the carvings they produced. Through a consideration of the history of rock-art research it is established that the identities of the makers of the art have been largely neglected, except as figures in a simple evolutionary schema where they function as exemplars of 'primitives'. Subsequent developments in the field have broadened the debate by focusing on context. Others have considered other aspects of humaness through their attention to sensation and memory, but these positions leave many questions unresolved. Moving beyond this I utilise developments in social sciences to indicate the important place of art in the expression of social and cultural identities. Drawing too on ethnographic analogies the role of art production in the development and maintenance of social relations is highlighted. Although people may share symbols which are used in order to articulate cultural meaning, these elements can also be employed in different ways which are essential to people's sense of community, tradition and identity. The rock-art repertoires of five areas in Scotland are considered and compared primarily as expressions of identity. These are rigorously analysed and differences made apparent at a number of levels. I assert here that rock-art is not a homogenous entity as assumed by some scholars and have sought to move the study of rock -art beyond those of current concerns to ones that consider the identity of the carvers.

The Central Sahara is one of the richest regions of the prehistoric rock paintings and engravings in the world. The earliest paintings called the Round Heads were created in the Early Holocene by groups of dark-skinned hunter-gatherers who produced their paintings in the mountains of the Tassili n'Ajjer, Algerian Tadrart and Libyan Acacus. Since their discovery in the 1950s these paintings have been described and classified but they have not yet been studied systematically, their chronology has not been established and they have not been related to the archaeology. The study of archaeology, climatology and the rock art not only in the Central Sahara but in all African continent resulted in confirming the so called high chronology of the Round Heads which originated in the l O" millennium BP. It also revealed that this art did not finish with the arrival of pastoral population in the 8th millennium BP but the two artistic traditions coexisted until the complete desertification of the region. The results are based on a critical evaluation of existing literature and on fieldwork undertaken by the author in the key sites. Unlike the southern African rock art, the interpretation of the Round Heads has not been undertaken before because it was considered inappropriate and unachievable. The method of research presented here has not been previously applied to the rock art in the Central Sahara. Using the comparative studies, ethnography and landscape archaeology this thesis approaches the interpretation of the Round Heads and the painted sites as a pioneering work placing them in a wider African context. The first volume of the thesis presents the general overview of the rock art, archaeology and past climates in the Central Sahara, and the results obtained from the fieldwork. The second volume is an Appendix presenting each site studied during the fieldwork which constitutes the basis for the synthesis presented in the first volume.

The aim of this thesis is to examine regionality in the rock art of the north Kimberley, Western Australia. The region is renowned for its art of polychrome Wandjina figures, totemic ancestors and creators of the land for modern West Kimberley people. Underlying them are smaller, elegantly painted human figures. These are Bradshaw Figures or the Gwion Gwion as they are increasingly being called. The figures are decorated as if for dancing with waist mounted tassels, sashes and elaborately decorated headdresses, and an elaborate stylistic chronology has been prepared for the Kimberley art sequence. What is missing from the literature and what this thesis aims to fulfil, is knowledge of regionality and changes in the distribution of the body of art. Some the earliest art is from what I term the Early Phase and is thought to date to a time of aridity near the height of the ice age in Australia. Successive art periods may have occurred at times of changing climate as sea levels rose at the end of the ice age and the ensuing flooding of the exposed coastal plain. The sea level and the shoreline only stabilised in its present day position, and the present climate and environment settled to its current conditions, around 6500 years ago. I argue that the different styles of art and different locations selected in which to paint are related to the situation in the period of flux, when the inhabitants of the Kimberley were affected by changes, including the changes in their territory due to rising sea levels. Two geographically distinct areas were selected which would have been different at the time of painting of the earlier art, one being a river and the other, the coast, as at the time of painting the elegant figures, with retreating shorelines, it would have been inland. My research shows that the painters of Middle Phase art oscillated between permanent water and more transient sources, an effect influenced by their experience of ancient changes in climate.

Circles, cup-marks and wavy lines are some of the most emblematic motifs associated with Atlantic Rock Art. The term 'Atlantic' was only introduced in the 1940s and is used throughout this thesis as it reflects the widespread distribution of the prehistoric assemblage of rock art, but also the geographic scope of this investigation. This particular iconography is known from Portugal, through to Spain, Ireland, England and up to Scotland, sharing a number of characteristics. Prior to the use of this expression, Atlantic Art was known by a variety of designations that demonstrate the fragmented character of its historiography and the regional nature of investigations. In 1997 Bradley's study introduced a turning point in investigations, with an inter-regional approach and the premise of Landscape Archaeology. This contrasted with traditional studies, more focused on the motifs and creation of typologies, failing to view Atlantic Art holistically, as a socially meaningful practice. In this thesis I set out to investigate differences and similarities of Atlantic Art. I define what its quintessential characteristics are beyond the motif typologies, and identify regional variations. Contextualizing these similarities and deviations, I assess the social and cultural implications of its creation and use. In each one of my five study areas (one in each country), I subjected empirical data to a three-scale investigation: i) Graphic - to study the motifs, ii) Sensorial - to study the rock medium and iii) Environmental - to study the landscape placement. These were developed under principles of Relational Ontology and Assemblage Theory, combining a multi-scalar methodology with a dynamic perspective of the data, explored through a detailed categorical scheme and its analysis with a Presence/Absence Matrix (PAM), spatial analysis carried out with GIS and Social Network Analysis (SNA) to relate and explore the differences and similarities, relationships and connectivity between the study areas. Concepts of developmental psychology and cultural transmission were used to posit that the tradition spread through methods of teaching. Contextualizing the tradition chronologically, it became clear that it formed another transformative processes that characterised the Neolithic.

Austronesians are a genetically-related people, recognized by the similarities in their languages, and with a shared past evidenced by material culture. Research into the origin and migration route of Austronesians has progressed through the disciplines of Linguistics, Archaeology, and Genetics. Out of Taiwan is currently the dominant theory with strong evidence from the three disciplines involved. Consequentially, the Philippines is the first stop of the migrating Austronesians, and therefore the closest link to the homeland in Taiwan linguistically, archaeologically, and genetically. The archaeological approach to understand the Austronesian diaspora has been tracing material culture like nephrite and ceramics. However, rock art as a traceable material culture has been underutilized, especially in places like the Philippines where the rock art is relatively unknown and lacks research. The two rock art styles that have been identified in Borneo, East Timor, and Southwest Pacific and have been linked to Austronesians are the Austronesian Painting Tradition (APT) and the Austronesian Engraving Style (AES). The aim of this research has been to test the validity of APT and AES in the Philippines. An inventory of rock art of the Philippines was needed to enable descriptions and comparisons with the region. This was achieved through low-cost 3D modelling using Structure-from- Motion (SfM) photogrammetry. However, the physical and socio-economic environment in the Philippines makes rock art research a difficult undertaking. One of the challenges of studying Philippine rock art was the geological condition obfuscating the rock art at some of the sites. Remote sensing techniques were used during this research to address the issue. Specifically, an innovative method of combining SfM and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) algorithms was developed so that obscure engraved rock art was made clearly visible. Being able to properly identify the rock art allowed for a more accurate inventory, thereby increasing the reliability of the interpretations. There are 22 verified rock art sites in the Philippines and seven areas with alleged sites. Of the verified sites, four have engravings, 16 have black figures, and two have predominantly orange figures. Four of the sites (three engraving and one painting site) were completely recorded with 3D models which resulted in spatially-linked databases of the three engraving sites. All other sites were described from past publications, museum reports, and empirical observations. By compiling the rock art in an inventory and comparing the inventory to the prescribed qualities of APT and AES, it is evident that APT and AES are not descriptive of Philippine rock art. Furthermore, primary sources of Taiwanese rock art reveal that it is highly unlikely APT originated in Taiwan since there is no known painted rock art on the island. Although the Taiwanese engraved rock art matches the description of AES and could therefore originate in Taiwan, it is inconclusive because the description of AES is too generic. A systematic quantitative literature review of the rock art of Southeast Asia and Micronesia was compiled to ascertain the amount of research conducted and to compare the inventory of the Philippines with the rock art of the region. For example, parallels in anthropomorphic depictions are found within the Philippines and between the Philippines and the region. Aside from determining similarities, conspicuous absences in motifs and styles were also noted, such as hand stencils and painted boats. An example of the unique aspect of Philippine rock art is the textured vulva-forms of Alab because they are not similar to the few other examples of engraved vulva-forms in Southeast Asia. In addition, a summary of Micronesian rock art is provided which might be the first for the region. Micronesian rock art potentially has information of an Austronesian style of rock art. The first colonizers of Micronesia were Austronesians and they remained the sole inhabitants for millennia on some islands until European contact in the 16th century, making the rock art found in Micronesia very likely Austronesian. Cost-effective techniques were emphasized throughout the research, not just as an efficient way to conduct this particular research but also to encourage the continuity of the research into Philippine rock art. Beyond the Philippines, the methods are relevant to any rock art research on a limited budget, which is typical of most rock art projects. It should be noted that the methods employed, while low-cost, were still state-of-the-art for rock art recording. With a baseline of the current conditions of the rock art sites, a longitudinal study can be organised for the quantitative monitoring of change. In addition to answering archaeological questions, the inventory can be used to develop conservation plans and influence government policies.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Hum, Lang & Soc Sc
Arts, Education and Law
Full Text

This thesis is an investigation of ritual practice in the Dynamic Figure rock art of Jabiluka in Mirarr Country, Australia. Painted across western Arnhem Land, Dynamic Figure art constitutes the earliest easily recognisable body of rock art in this region of northern Australia. Despite its antiquity, its most striking attributes are the extremely detailed depictions of human figures with a plethora of material culture, that are engaged in a range of narrative scenes. This thesis explores how the material culture, scenes and other attributes of Dynamic Figure art are acutely associated with ritual and the insights this rock art provides into past ritual behaviour. The highly detailed work of Dynamic Figure artists has enabled the identification of ritual indicators derived from archaeological and anthropological investigation of ritual practice. These ritual indicators provide insights into aspects of the esoteric and actual performative forms of ritual behaviour. These detailed depictions also provide further insights into people’s lifeways, revealing evidence about society, gender, initiation and material culture during the period of Dynamic Figure art production. In this thesis, I demonstrate the value of rigorous analysis and investigation of one type of rock art from a defined study area, in contrast to previous studies in the region with broad spatial and temporal boundaries. This focused approach incorporates the multi-vocal sources available in northern Australia to consider inquiries not possible of broader studies. The Dynamic Figure art of Jabiluka demonstrates the significance of ritual places, headdresses and aspects of both continuity and discontinuity in art production in northern Australia and further highlights the significance of rock art to understand ritual practice and people’s past lifeways.

A discussion of the concept of worldview shows that how an artist conceives the world in his images is governed by his worldview - an amalgam of the worldview of the group of which he is a part modified by his own ideas, beliefs, attitudes, perceptions and upbringing. The author proposes that studying an artist's work can reveal his, and hence his group's, worldview and thus the attitudes prevalent when the work was produced. A brief historical sketch of the Eastern Cape to 1834 introduces the various settlers in the area. Though no known examples of Black, Boer or Khoi pictorial art are extant, both the Bushmen and the British left such records. A short analysis of rock art shows how the worldview of the Bushman is inherent in their images which reflect man's world as seen with the "inner" eye of the spirit. In white settler art, the author submits that spatial relationships changed in response to a growing confidence as the "savage" land was "civilised" and that the position, pose and size of figures - and the inclusion or exclusion of certain groups - reflect socio-political changes. The two foremost nineteenth-century Eastern Cape artists, Thomas Baines and Frederick I'Ons, succeeded in capturing the atmosphere of Frontier life but are shown to interpret their surroundings through the rose-tinted spectacles of British Romanticism. They also reveal individuality in approach - Baines preferring expansive views while I'Ons's landscapes tend to be "closed-in", strictly following the coulisse scheme of Picturesque painting. Perhaps, the author postulates, such differences result from the very different environments, i.e. Norfolk and London, in which the two grew up. I'Ons is shown typically to use generalised landscapes as backdrops for his foreground figures, while comparing Baines's scenes with modern photographs shows that he adjusted the spacial elements of the topography as well as the temporal sequence of events to suit aesthetic considerations. Lithographed reports of his work contain even further adjustments. The author concludes that the use of Africana art as historical records must be treated with great caution.

This project investigates Saharan pastoralist rock-art (7500-3000BP), with a particular focus on the engravings of the Messak Plateau in southwest Libya. Taking an anthropological approach, the art is examined within the context of the lives of its creators - transhumant cattle-herders who occupied the plateau seasonally. Drawing from fieldwork in Libya together with data from multiple expeditions in the Sahara, the study addresses a major lacuna in Saharan research by focusing on materially constituted, as-lived dimensions at the micro scale. A fundamental but archaeologically elusive aspect of lived experience is a consideration of 'movement', both physical and esoteric. Its incorporation is central to this project, forming a multi-aspected theoretical framework and a methodological tool. Augmented by input from specialists in geomorphology, pastoralism, stone sculpting and animal behaviour, this movement-driven focus has produced a more developed picture of the Messak herder lives, advancing our understanding of these particular non-text, somatic societies. A singular contribution is the creation of a hypothetical model for small-scale, quotidian pastoralist practices, which expands upon the archaeological evidence, fleshing out details of a well-systematised form of dairy pastoralism involving controlled breeding and the processing of milk products. At the same time it is proposed that the herders' relationship with their cattle was one of partnership rather than ownership, involving trans-species empathy and a valuation of animal personhood. This viewpoint is part of a broader set of animal-human relations reflecting a cosmological order that diverges from modern, Western ontological constructs. Other significant findings include detailed information on the role and identity of the image-maker, revisionist data on the amount of effort and skill expended in carving processes, and an examination of the ways in which rock-art was used to manifest social emotional concerns. These were expressed via animal emotions portrayed in the rock-art, and also through performative, gestural markings associated with the imagery. Such expressions include apotropaic, supplicatory or other interactions involving communication with unseen powers.

Hydrated amorphous silicon dioxide (Si02.nH-,O), or opal-A, is deposited naturally from seepage and runoff water as white or brown rock surface coatings, called 'skins', that often partly obscure rock paintings and engravings, but occasionally, a thin translucent silica skin can form a protective film over rock art. White lustrous silica skins, less than 1 mm thick, occur where seepage water regularly flows from bedding and joint planes, whereas much thinner brown skins form on the sides of boulders and cliffs where runoff water periodically flows. To find the degree of silica skin variability and to determine how climate and rock type affect the properties of silica skins I collected samples at seven Australian and two Canadian rock painting sites that were located in temperate, tropical and sub-arctic regions. The skins had developed on sandstone, quartzite, schist, gneiss and migmatite. I studied the effects of the skins on rock art stability, documented their compositions, textures and structures to establish their common properties, and searched for a way to date the silica which would provide an indication of the minimum age of the underlying art. 1 also made replication experiments to determine factors that influence the properties of artificial silica skins and the rates of their precipitation so that I could propose a mechanism for natural silica skin formation, and ascertain whether an artificial silica skin could act as a protective rock art conservation measure. I was able to subdivide the analysed samples into silica skin Types I, II and III on the basis of their colour (translucent, white or brown), composition (SiO2, Al2O3 and absorbed water contents) and texture (smooth vitreous or vermiform). I propose that silica skins initially begin to form on stable rock surfaces by a process involving a combination of evaporation- and ionic-induced polymerisation of silicic acid in seepage and runoff water. Condensation reactions, random clustering of small silica spheres and deposition of the resulting aggregates eventually produce a thin surficial silica film. Deposition of silica often traps micro-organisms that live in the damp seepage and runoff water zones, and these fossils in finely laminated skins enable the radiocarbon dating of silica deposition, and therefore the dating of rock paintings enclosed by silica. Micro-excavation of silica layers associated with rock art combined with accelerator mass spectrometry gave preliminary radiocarbon determinations that were either consistent with, or contradicted, prevailing opinions about the antiquity of the rock art at selected sites. Experiments using a laser technique for combusting fossilised microorganisms in finely laminated skins were unable to generate sufficient carbon for dating. Catalysis of a mixture of equal proportions of methyl-trimethoxy silane and water produces a translucent stable film that may be suitable as a consolidant, whereas other artificial silica skins made from silica glass and tetra-ethoxy silane develop microfractures on drying, and these are unsuitable as rock art consolidants.

The search for a reliable and non-invasive technique for the dating of rock art has produced an array of different, localised, and limited techniques. This is one of them. Still in its experimental stage, the recognition of quartz microdebitage produced by the pecking of engravings is the aim of this project. This investigation aims to establish whether microdebitage from rock engravings can be distinguished from other sediments. Analysis of microdebitage from rock engraving experiments was used to determine the difference between experimental and naturally derived particles. This research discusses methodology, and applications for the recognition of quartz grain features, derived from experimental and natural material from Mutawintji National Park (Broken Hill, NSW, Australia) and the Sydney region (NSW Australia). A three-step process was devised for this research: What features occur on non-cultural quartz grains? What features occur on rock engraving quartz grains? Are they different? Can rock engraving quartz microdebitage be identified under natural conditions? Microdebitage from rock engravings was examined using optical and scanning electron microscopy to identify diagnostic attributes, with the objective of assessing the potential of microdebitage for spatial and temporal archaeological investigation. Characteristics of the quartz grains in the microdebitage were compared with quartz from differing environments. The observation of diagnostic features on quartz grains made it possible to discriminate between microdebitage from rock engravings and the natural soil background. This knowledge may be applied to excavated material from archaeological sites, for identifying episodes of rock engraving and other lithic activity in temporal relation to other evidence of cultural activity.

Cette thèse se donne pour but, la compréhension, à partir de l'exemple des petits groupes "rock" de la banlieue parisienne et d'une expérience personnelle de musicien, de la forme la plus contemporaine de "lien social". Il s'agira de montrer à la fois que cette manière de s'agréger, autour d'une "vision" esthétique commune, d'un imaginaire partage déborde le strict cadre du "rock" et se retrouve sous diverses modulations dans l'ensemble du corps social, mais aussi que l'éthique qui se crée ne peut plus s'analyser avec les outils traditionnels mais nécessite au contraire, un appareillage adapté à la situation "présente". Aussi, après avoir réfuté les critiques adressées la culture de masse et à la culture populaire et examine comment les groupes articulaient leur quotidien, leur "usage des plaisirs" au moyen de rituels et d'un code particulier, nous nous attarderons plus longuement sur les enjeux et les conséquences de cette "éthique de l'esthétique" que ce soit, l'absence de morale, le retour du "sacre", l'apparition d'un narcissisme collectif et l'émergence d'une identification autour de ses propres "valeurs", en un mot, nous nous attacherons a démontrer que la forme de "communauté qui vient" en cette fin de siècle se distingue radicalement des utopies des années 60 et 70
This PhD tackles with the most contemporary form of "social link" from the example of the small rock bands in the suburbs of Paris as well as from my own personal experience as a musician. I will set out to point out that the way musicians incorporate themselves into a band both through a common aesthetic vision and a shared imagination goes well beyond the scope of rock music and shows within the social body as a whole in many different ways. Furthermore, I will show that the code of ethics that's being created should no longer be analyzed through a classical approach but requires new methods of investigation. I first have intended to question the many criticisms that have been levelled at mass culture or folk culture and have analyzed how the bands go through their everyday routine as well as how in grown rituals and specific codes help them fulfill their expectations. The stress will then be laid on what is at stake and on the consequences of this "ethics of aesthetics", whether it be the absence of moral values, the return of the sacred, a collective form of narcissism or a new pattern of identification to one's own set of values. To put it in a nutshell, I will show that this late twentieth century form of community utterly differs from the utopias of the 60s and 70s

Thesis (M. Sc.)--University of Sydney, 2000.
Title from title screen (viewed Apr. 21, 2008). Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science to the Division of Geography, School of Geosciences. Degree awarded 2000; thesis submitted 1999. Includes bibliography. Also available in print form.

This thesis documents the history of the ongoing process for developing and refining field recording, archiving and analysis techniques pertaining to rock art and cultural heritage in Australia.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy by Publication (PhD)
Australian School of Environmental Studies
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
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Do you know that feeling? That feeling when the music you are listening to a concert or a new record and it just seems right? When you think, that’s it! That’s what music should sound like! When the music seems to touch your soul or mirror it, or…. something. And when you feel that, nothing else seems to exist and you are purely experiencing the music. My thesis work explores the way in which we try to capture this ephemeral moment of pure experience in order to keep it with us to revisit at our leisure. This, however, is a futile endeavor. No matter how many photos you take, records you collect, or days of music on your iPod, that initial feeling, that visceral experience, cannot be replicated. In this work I use both materials that evoke this idea of the ephemeral (transparent plastic and glass) and materials are ephemeral themselves (water and wax) to convey the inability to capture music and the feelings it evokes in us. I have also chosen to add elements to the space, such as a wooden floor, stage lights, and fabric panels, to suggest a performance stage or sound studio and to further this connection to the music which the work was inspired by.

Non un musical inteso in senso classico quindi, né solamente una pièce teatrale trasposta in film rock, Hedwig corrisponde in varie caratteristiche all’idea di rock opera fino ad ora stilizzata, diventando a mio parere l’unico esempio moderno e coerente del genere considerato in questo percorso.

The Barrier Canyon Style of rock art is found in south-eastern Utah, United States. It is the work of Late Archaic hunter-gatherers, and dates from approximately 4000 to 1500 B.P. This painted tradition is dominated by abstracted anthropomorphic figures, often depicted life-size. The landscape is a rugged one of deep, dry canyons bordered by sheer sandstone cliffs. It is within these canyons that the rock art is found. The methodological foundations for this study are catered to different facets of the tradition. The macro-topography of the land lends itself well to current trends in the study of rock art and landscape. The micro-topographies of individual sites are ideal subjects for phenomenological and kinaesthetic investigations of place. The large anthropomorphic motifs are best examined in terms of Alfred GelTs theories of art and agency. Metaphor theory helps find meaning in all these elements. Together, they provide an understanding of the relationships between the rock art, the landscape, and those who produced and consumed the sites and their images. The study begins with an experiential exploration of the study area---an embodied discussion of being-in-the-land. It proceeds through a discussion of how sites are discovered and accessed, and then moves on to a smaller-scale study of the physicality of the sites and the demands placed on the visitor by their local topography. Next, the study explores the positioning of the images on the rock, examining the agentive properties of the figures, and the immediate kinaesthetic effects the images impose on the visitor. From here, the art is explored in detail, and then a series of in-depth case studies apply the findings on a site-specific level. Finally, a concluding chapter discusses metaphors gleaned from the art and the land, and brings them together with the experiences described to provide a fuller understanding of this rock art tradition. I, the undersigned Michael Paul Firnhaber, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis.

This thesis presents a comprehensive review and analysis of the prehistoric rock carvings in the county of Cumbria in NW England. It builds upon Beckensall's Prehistoric Rock Art in Cumbria (2002), focussing on a substantial study area with diverse topography, and seeking to understand the rock art in relation to the natural landscape and known archaeology, and in the context of rock art traditions in neighbouring regions. Systematic evaluation of the database resulted in the exclusion of several panels of `rock art', which were determined to be of geological origin. Additional panels were sought by increasing public awareness and through direct field-survey, and six new panels were documented. Further examples were identified from literature sources, and all were collated in a revised dataset. From the landscape characteristics of known panels, predictive theoretical models were developed, and areas matching these models were field-surveyed. These demonstrated that the upland rock art tradition of NE England does not appear to cross into Cumbria, and that a very different, outcrop-based practice occurred in the central valleys. GIS was used to explore the updated dataset for relationships between rock art, topography, and archaeology. Three groups of panels with shared characteristics were further investigated, focussing on the materiality of the carved rocks, their accessibility within the landscape, their potential social and religious dimensions, and their extended biographies within multiple contexts. Connections with seasonal expeditions for the procurement of stone were explored and the notion of natural route-ways applied to account for the location of rock art at key communication nodes. Concepts of `natural monuments' and `ancestral art' were also considered, with topographical elements such as rivers and mountains, and natural features like fissures and solution hollows, argued to be integral to a social and sacred landscape, which was signified and enhanced by rock carvings.

The focus of this thesis is the rock art of Nevada, a state in the western United States. While the previously dominant models of rock art interpretation (hunting-magic and shamanism) have produced significant bodies of research, I argue that both are based on faulty Anthropological theory and produce theorisations which are one dimensional because of the focus on rock art imagery at the expense of site contexts. Because meaning is not derived from the images themselves, but is rather derived from the social contexts of use and production, it is these which must be reconstructed and which will elucidate the imagery. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the details of rock art site contexts, rather than simply select a model and apply it to the site regardless of fit. In short, rock art must be approached as archaeology, albeit informed by ethnography when possible. In this thesis I examine in detail the official rock art site records for the state of Nevada and identify patterns in the contexts and distributions and examine variation and similarities throughout the state. Based on these, I suggest alternative analyses of Nevada's rock art and discuss the role that it may have played in the colonization of the Americas; the symbolic construction of social and ethnic identities; the identification of ritual spaces in pre-history; and the significance of rock art to modern Native Americans.

This work investigates three key issues in Central Indian rock art research. The first is the question of chronology. How old is this art? I deployed state of the art dating techniques, namely V-series and screening methods, to assign an absolute chronology to the rock art of Central India, with special reference to Mirzapur and Rewa. Apart from absolute ages, the possibilities of relative dating techniques have also been explored, taking into consideration the techniques of superimposition and colour scheme. A case study has been included to support my hypothesis complementary to the existing framework of relative chronology in the region. The next issue is involved with mapping, where rock-shelter sites were mapped on the landscape creating several GIS models, land use models and finally predictive models to test a few hypotheses in Central Indian rock shelter archaeology. New techniques have been introduced here as well, to quantify the changing landscape along with archaeological record in the regions of Mirzapur and Rewa. This study helped to understand and indentify the threats related to the preservation of painted rock-shelters. Lastly several new sites were discovered over a period of a long field survey and this provided fresh data for Indian rock-shelter archaeology, facilitating the testing of several hypotheses, with a number of caveats, in terms of location and types of rock shelters and finally the role of descriptive statistics in rock art research. On the basis of my research, data collection, laboratory experiments, analyses and ultimately final results and data interpretation, I argue that rock art in some specific regions of Central India dates back to Late Pleistocene age and they are mostly made in red and various shades of red colour. Some of these rock art sites are in great danger because of mining activity, honey collection, fire making and camping activities within these precious sites. Apart from anthropogenic reasons, natural reasons, like the effects of desertification is also damaging this extraordinary corpus. Therefore, proper policy implementation is absolutely imperative to conserve and preserve the cultural heritage of this region.

Four centuries of rock art exploration and research in Siberia resulted in considerable achievements in documentation, cultural and chronological attributions of style and traditions and learning about ancient ritual practices related to rock art. However, the range of interpretational frameworks has remained rather limited, and the active role rock art played in prehistoric ethno-cultural processes has been overlooked. Rock art motifs and styles have been by default considered as mere markers of ethno-cultural groupings and migrations. This thesis continues a long-established Soviet/Russian tradition of considering rock art sites in their archaeological context but poses and answers new questions which are relevant not only for Siberian but also global rock art research, namely, why rock art was created, why specific styles emerged and why changes in rock art production occurred. These questions are explored through anthropological perspectives on ethnicity, identity, community and symbolism. Aiming to answer these questions, macro ethno-cultural and social processes that took place in East Siberia in the prehistoric period are reconsidered through the development of rock art styles and traditions. Importantly, this PhD is primarily fieldwork based because publications available for the rock art of East Siberia contain only black-and-white drawings and few low-quality black-and-white photographs. This research is focused on East Siberia which lies east of the Yenisey River, and specifically deals with the following regions: 1) Cis-Baikal, an area to the west from Lake Baikal; 2) Trans-Baikal, an area to the east from Lake Baikal which includes Zabaykalsky Krai and Buryatia; and 3) Sakha Republic (Yakutia). This project’s fieldwork was carried out in Sakha Republic (Yakutia) and Trans-Baikal. In total, 108 rock art sites with more than 6,000 designs were recorded. In addition, rock art sites in the Lower Amur River basin and Tomskaya Pisanitsa in West Siberia were surveyed during this fieldwork. Prior to this PhD project, rock art sites of the Upper Lena River in Cis-Baikal were visited by the author to gain better understanding of the area’s rock art. This thesis is focused on three chronological rock art groups: 1) the earliest, possibly Paleolithic rock art, 2) Neolithic rock art, and 3) Bronze Age rock art styles and traditions. The concept of style is employed as an analytical tool to investigate diachronic and spatial patterns. Several rock art styles and traditions, such as Amur, Angara, Selenga and Kyakhta, were better defined, and their chronology was elaborated based on the archaeological record and analogues in art objects from archaeological contexts. Such an accurate placement of rock art in time and space allowed the exploration of the role rock art played in constructing and reconstructing ethno-cultural identities, which contributes to the wider field of archaeology and cultural anthropology. The most important observation made in this research addresses the questions of why rock art is created, why specific styles and traditions emerge and why changes in rock art occur. Rock art sites create and maintain a strong connection between people, their past and their land. Rock art does not just reflect group or individual identities but helps construct them through powerful emotional attachments. The emergence or change of rock art styles occurs in a situation of major cultural changes, the reasons and dynamics of which may vary. The important factor is that people had to protect their tradition, culture and well-being in a situation of threat to their ethno-cultural continuity. In protecting continuity, it is inevitable changes in a rock art tradition occur. It becomes highly important to mark rocks with symbols of now ‘hot’ identity thus expressing belongingness, and those marks remain there for millennia continuing to structure identities of those who claim their belongingness to these places afterward. Specific styles and motifs become these symbols which need to be threefold – exhibiting the connection with the past, expressing a new identity and being perceived by an outsider. Therefore, a rock art tradition/style simultaneously features continuity, change and similarity to other synchronous traditions/styles which is a shared field of interaction. This view explains why rock art styles do not fit into neat culture-historical frameworks and do not have clear-cut temporal and spatial limits. This explanatory framework can be applied elsewhere in any other study on rock art and identity. This PhD thesis not only contributes to Siberian rock art research in a major new way but also shows many new directions for future rock art research globally.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Hum, Lang & Soc Sc
Arts, Education and Law
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This thesis examines six prominent Pecos River Style rock art anthropomorph attributes to determine if they are found in limited geographic districts of the Lower Pecos Region. Both Boyd (2003) and Turpin (2004) have suggested that spatially-segregated motif distributions exist in the rock art and that these patterns are important in understanding regional prehistoric hunter-gatherer lifeways during the Archaic Period. This study verifies that the feather hip cluster motif is geographically limited, identified only in the neighboring Seminole and Painted Canyon systems. As part of this spatial analysis, the previously undocumented principle of intersite stylistic traditions is introduced. Possible explanations for these anthropomorph attributes are also discussed. Finally, structural analyses of the six attributes are presented.