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1
Green, Miranda J. "Crossing the Boundaries: Triple Horns and Emblematic Transference." European Journal of Archaeology 1, no. 2 (1998): 219–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/eja.1998.1.2.219.
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This paper explores one aspect of the way in which cult-iconography of the later Iron Age and Roman periods in non-Classical Europe broke the rules of mimetic (life-copying) representation, with, reference to a particular motif: the triple horn. The presence of three-horned images within the iconographic repertoire of western Europe during this period clearly illustrates two aspects of such rule-breaking. On the one hand, the image of the triple-horned bull – well-known in the archaeological record, particularly of Roman Gaul – exemplifies a recurrent Gallo-Roman and Romano-British tradition in which realism was suppressed in favour of emphasis to the power of three. On the other hand, the triple-horned emblem is not confined to the adornment of bulls but may, on occasion, be transferred to ‘inappropriate’ images, both of animals which are naturally hornless and of humans. Such emblematic transference, with its consequence of dissonance and contradiction in the visual message, on the one hand, and the presence of symbolism associated with boundaries and transition, on the other, suggests the manipulation of motifs in order to endow certain images with a particular symbolic energy, born of paradox, the deliberate introduction of disorder or chaos and the expression of liminality. The precise meaning conveyed by such iconographic ‘anarchy’ is impossible to grasp fully but – at the least – appears to convey an expression of ‘otherness’ in which order imposed by empirical observation of earthly ‘reality’ is deemed irrelevant to other states of being and to the supernatural world.
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Berry, Joanne. "Boundaries and control in the Roman house." Journal of Roman Archaeology 29 (2016): 125–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s104775940007207x.
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How should we read the structure of the atrium house? On the one hand, it is an open space; its rooms are arranged around the central courtyard or atrium. From its narrow entrance it is often possible to see straight through to the back of the garden or peristyle, and it is hardly surprising that scholars have claimed that the house was intentionally designed to allow people to see within, to guide their gaze to special features in order to demonstrate the wealth and status of the owner, or to make outsiders want to enter and see more. On the other hand, the house was also a sacred space that carried a potent symbolic value. It was protected by the household gods, and was sustained by religious, social and economic resources. Symbolically, the house was private even when it was used for public business. It was also strictly monitored and controlled.Scholars are increasingly challenging the idea that the inhabitants of Roman houses were more concerned with display than with privacy, and are suggesting methods by which privacy was established. I will argue here that in the Roman house display and privacy are not mutually exclusive, but of equal importance. Within the open atrium plan there were both physical and symbolic boundaries that functioned to control movement and protect the home from visitors who were not members of the household or family. My aim is to explore the creation and deployment of such boundaries in a society that often used aesthetic markers to control space, and to discuss how what may seem to have been free movement within the atrium house may actually have been restricted.
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Nikishin, Vladimir O. "Pax Romana and the Roman “imperialism” in the 1st century A.D." RUDN Journal of World History 11, no. 1 (December 15, 2019): 76–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8127-2019-11-1-76-90.
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This article is devoted to such a historical phenomenon as the Roman “imperialism” in the epoch of Augustus and his coming successors. Despite the fact that the founder of the Principate had declared the coming of “pax Augusta”, he spent several wars of conquest (for instance, in Spain and Germany). But Tiberius had already refused of “aggressive imperialism”, then the Empire moved to defense at all frontiers. The emperors of the 1st century A.D. only from time to time took offensive actions (for example, in Armenia or Britain). Probably, there were two reasons for the Romans’ rejection of expansion policy. First of all, by that moment they had already conquered practically all the Mediterranean, and the expanding of the boundaries of the Empire hadn’t sense any more. Secondly, the creation of professional army led to the noticeable decline of the militarization level of the Roman society, which from that on was keenly interested in the keeping of peace and stability all over the “pax Romana”.
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Gunawan, Andreas Dwi Maryanto, and Khee Meng Koh. "The Nk-valued Roman Domination and Its Boundaries." Electronic Notes in Discrete Mathematics 48 (July 2015): 95–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.endm.2015.05.014.
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Petrovic, Vladimir. "Pre-roman and Roman Dardania historical and geographical considerations." Balcanica, no. 37 (2006): 7–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/balc0637007p.
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This paper on Pre-Roman and Roman Dardania is an attempt to review, in a somewhat restricted article form, several important issues marking the development of the Dardanian areas in a period between the earliest references to the Dardani in written sources and their inclusion in the administrative structure of the Roman Empire. Historical developments preceding the Roman conquest of Dardania are analyzed, as well as its boundaries, and the character and administrative structure of the conquered territory. Changes that Dardanian society underwent are paid special attention, and phases in the development of urban centres and communications outlined.
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LaFarge, Antoinette, and Robert Allen. "Media Commedia: The Roman Forum Project." Leonardo 38, no. 3 (June 2005): 213–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/0024094054028949.
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The authors discuss what they term “media commedia”: performance works melding comedic performance traditions with new media technologies. They focus on The Roman Forum Project, a series of mixed-reality performance projects they produced whose subject is contemporary American politics and media as seen through the eyes of ancient Romans. They discuss the developing relationship between the Internet and public discourse; their use of avatars to explore the boundaries between performance and identity; their use of the Internet as an improvisational space; and the mise en abyme effects of working with mixed realities (including text-based virtual worlds).
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Balch, David L. "Luke-Acts:Political Biography/Historyunder Rome. On Gender and Ethnicity." Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 111, no. 1 (April 1, 2020): 65–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znw-2020-0003.
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AbstractIn the Hellenistic-Roman world, both philosophical schools (Platonists) and ethnic groups (Romans, Athenians, Judeans) were committed to the authority of founder figures. Dionysius, Josephus, and Luke included biographies of their founders (Romulus, Moses, Jesus) within their historical works. Luke-Acts also acculturated Roman politics: 1) Luke narrated the official leadership of early Pauline assemblies exclusively by males, not narrating earlier leadership by women (Junia, Euodia, Syntyche). 2) Luke gave Jesus an inaugural address “to declare God’s age open and welcome to all [nations]” (Luke 4:19 quoting Isa 61:2), urging Luke’s auditors to become multiethnic. Peter instituted this crossing of ethnic boundaries in Judea (Acts 10) and Paul “accepted all” in Rome (Acts 28:30), the concluding sentence of the two volumes.
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Guarinello, Noberto Luiz. "Order, Integration and Boundaries in the Roman Empire: An essay." Mare Nostrum (São Paulo) 1, no. 1 (December 28, 2010): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/issn.2177-4218.v1i1p113-127.
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O objetivo deste ensaio é duplo: em primeiro lugar, discutir algumas das tendências mais recentes para se pensar e interpretar o Império Romano e, em segundo lugar, propor um certo ângulo de visão que pretende contribuir para uma compreensão mais atualizada do que foi o Império Romano na longa duração e que posição podemos atribuir-lhe sob o pano de fundo de uma História global. Os conceitos gerais que ordenam essa tentativa de revisão são os de ordem, integração e fronteira.
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Bescoby, D. J. "Detecting Roman land boundaries in aerial photographs using Radon transforms." Journal of Archaeological Science 33, no. 5 (May 2006): 735–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2005.10.012.
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van Enckevort, Harry. "Romeins Nijmegen." Lampas 53, no. 2 (June 1, 2020): 194–240. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/lam2020.2.007.enck.
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Summary The Roman period in the history of Nijmegen starts in 19 BC with the construction of a large military camp on the Hunerberg and ends with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. During this period of nearly 500 years the dynamic history of Nijmegen and the surrounding Batavian area was partly determined by well-considered decisions made by Roman emperors and their army commanders in the province. In addition, incoming Germanic tribes, rebelling Romans and natural events such as climate change and two pandemics each determined the course of this history in its own unique way. Since 1914 archaeological research within the municipal boundaries has uncovered the remains of various military fortresses and smaller camps, urban settlements, small hamlets, burial grounds and an aqueduct. The results of these excavations unravel parts of the history of the oldest city in the Netherlands, but much is still awaiting discovery in the Nijmegen soil and in the archaeological depots.
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Nganang, Patrice. "Le roman des détritus." Matatu 33, no. 1 (June 1, 2006): 241–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18757421-033001032.
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For the last ten years, new and very exciting writers have been emerging in the landscape of African literature. Their books are redefining the boundaries of the novel, opening it up to the tumult of the present and to the new potentialities of the future. This essay looks at one particular type of fiction that can lay claim to a more important status among the novels published by African writers in the course of the decade – the novel of detritus. This is a particular form of novel that opens itself to the marvels of the city, as opposed to the village, and at the same time addresses the rampant destruction which, in the form of numerous civil wars, has established itself as an indisputable paradigm of contemporary Africa.
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Price, Simon. "Religious Mobility in the Roman Empire." Journal of Roman Studies 102 (July 16, 2012): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0075435812000056.
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AbstractThe spread of religions throughout the Roman world may be explained partly as a consequence of the movements of peoples, partly in terms of the emergence of new elective cults. Understanding these processes entails exploring the kinds of contacts and exchanges established between individual worshippers, and the contexts — local and imperial — within which they took place. These developments culminated in the emergence of new cults that spilled over the boundaries of the Roman Empire to create the first global religions.
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Faversani, Fabio. "Social boundaries and social-political categories in Early Imperial Roman History." Romanitas - Revista de Estudos Grecolatinos, no. 11 (November 4, 2018): 154–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.17648/rom.v0i11.21822.
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This article discusses different historiographical approaches that dominated the studies on early imperial Roman history during the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. In order to do this, it focuses on two historiographic controversies: in the first place, the modernist-primitivist debate concerning economic history; in the second place, the debate about the constitutionalist approach to Roman politics, and the criticism it attracted. We conclude that historians have paid great attention to the elements that characterize the different spheres of social life, and to the reasons why scholars ought to favour one of them - especially whether to consider more structural or more dynamic aspects of social life. Our article considers the challenges in surveying the elements that integrate and separate these different spheres, i.e. the frontiers, suggesting possible approaches to overcome these limits, mainly by paying attention to their boundaries and connections.
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Vaníčková, Jaroslava, Jiří Děd, P. Bartuška, and Pavel Lejček. "Intergranular Failure of Roman Silver Artefacts." Materials Science Forum 567-568 (December 2007): 213–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.567-568.213.
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Silver objects obtained from archaeological excavations often exhibit an extended embrittlement. The causes of this embrittlement were studied on silver artefacts buried for more than one thousand years in the soil using light and electron microscopy techniques and EDX microanalysis. Our investigation revealed presence of chlorine, sulphur and oxygen along the grain boundaries suggesting that most likely, the catastrophic failure of the grave objects made of Ag–Cu alloys is caused by an intercrystalline corrosion attack. The role of possible grain boundary segregation and/or precipitation of copper as a path of easy corrosion is discussed.
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Butcher, S. A., F. Cameron, P. E. Curnow, and H. Pengelly. "Romano-British features and material Introduction." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 53, s1 (1987): 86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00078580.
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A quantity of Romano-British material was found in the course of excavation and although most of this was from disturbed contexts an attempt was made to define the nature and period of occupation which it represents.The principal features dated to this period by material from primary positions are a number of long straight ditches, F138, F225, F225a and F255, running roughly north-east to south-west, and an irregular D-shaped enclosure, F170 (Fig 12). It is suggested that the ditches form the boundaries of a fairly large-scale layout of fields. From the discrepancies of alignment in ditches lying close together it appears that the boundaries silted and were re-cut without much exactitude. Very little stratified pottery could be associated with these ditches: a Flavian sherd from F138 and late Roman wares from F255.
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Bernads’ka, Nina. "Novitniy ukrayinsʹkyy roman: zhanrovi poshuky." Studia Ucrainica Varsoviensia, no. 8 (August 31, 2020): 207–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.31338/2299-7237suv.8.16.
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The article outlines the main trends of development of the newest Ukrainian novel, its achievements and genre searches of the last decades. Increased interest of prose writers in historical subjects, documents, biographies has been noted, so the matrix of the historical novel is modified, history is artistically reproduced both as a private destiny of man, and as a hero, and as a trauma and as a game. At the same time, new psycho-biography novels, techno- and psychotriller novels, quotation books, retro-detectives are emerging for Ukrainian literature, and the genre of dystopia is being activated. The boundaries between mass and elitist literature are blurred, postmodern practices of writing are fading away, while realistic, romantic, even sentimental accents in the image of the past and present are intensified.
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Garland, Nicky. "Boundaries and Change: The Examination of the Late Iron Age-Roman Transition." Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal, no. 2011 (March 29, 2012): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.16995/trac2011_91_104.
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Hodos, Tamar. "Stage settings for a connected scene. Globalization and material-culture studies in the early first-millennium B.C.E. Mediterranean." Archaeological Dialogues 21, no. 1 (May 16, 2014): 24–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1380203814000051.
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Miguel John Versluys has produced a stimulating and thought-provoking agenda to reinvigorate study of the Roman world, with its myriad social, political and economic connections between Rome and the diverse cultures and communities that fell within and beyond the boundaries of its empire. He teases out the explicitly anti-colonial nature in recent decades of specifically Anglo-Saxon discussions of Rome and its empire in response to Romanization. He also sets these particular understandings of what it meant to live within that empire in a comparative context with other scholarly traditions that engage with Roman studies. He advocates both globalization theories and material-culture perspectives to reconsider aspects addressed by Romanization as a means of pushing the discussion beyond Romans and Natives, where ultimately it still lingers in the guise of much more recent perspectives, which emphasize imperialism. The critical evaluation of Romanization of the 1990s in the Anglo-Saxon tradition was not a unique process for Anglo-Saxon scholarship engaged in study of colonizing cultures, however. Parallels can be seen in contemporary Anglo-Saxon scholarship of the Greek world as well. Does this mean that the potential Versluys sees for Roman studies in the marriage of globalization and material-culture approaches can apply to Greek studies too?
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Leigh, Matthew. "Seneca the Elder, the Controuersia Figurata, and the Political Discourse of the Early Empire." Classical Antiquity 40, no. 1 (April 1, 2021): 118–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ca.2021.40.1.118.
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This paper studies examples of how exponents of Roman declamation could insert into arguments on the trivial, even fantastic, cases known as controuersiae statements of striking relevance to the political culture of the triumviral and early imperial period. This is particularly apparent in the Controuersiae of Seneca the Elder but some traces remain in the Minor Declamations attributed to Quintilian. The boundaries separating Rome itself from the declamatory city referred to by modern scholars as Sophistopolis are significantly blurred even in those instances where the exercise does not turn on a specific event from Roman history, and there is much to be gained from how the declaimers deploy Roman historical examples. Some of the most sophisticated instances of mediated political comment exploit the employment of universalizing sententiae, which have considerable bite when they are related to contemporary Roman discourse and experience. The declamation schools are a forum for thinking through the implications of the transformation of the Roman state and deserve a place within any history of Roman political thought.
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Czajkowski, Kimberley. "Civil Strife, Power and Authority in the Judicial Sphere: A Case Study from Roman Palestine." Klio 99, no. 2 (February 7, 2018): 566–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/klio-2017-0038.
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Summary: This paper examines Josephus' account of a judicial incident that occurred in around 62 C.E., which involved both Judaean elites and the Roman imperial powers. While traditional readings of the passage have focussed on mining it for information about the nature of the Judaean council that is often referred to as the „sanhedrin“, it is here argued that this report sheds light on several other key issues related to the operation of law within the region: indigenous perspectives on loci of authority within a judicial context, the importance of judicial power within broader societal conflicts, and the role of Judaean-Roman interactions in maintaining and redefining jurisdictional boundaries. It thus constitutes a valuable testimony for understanding the operation of law in this particular part of the Roman Empire.
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Cardona, David. "Past, Present, Future: An Overview of Roman Malta." Open Archaeology 7, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 231–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opar-2020-0122.
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Abstract Roman Malta has been the subject of numerous historical and archaeological studies since the seventeenth century. However, the lack of documented excavations and the restricted number of sites – particularly those within the boundaries of the two main Roman towns – meant that numerous grey areas persist in our understanding of the islands under Roman rule, regardless of how many studies have been done so far. This article attempts to provide an overview of past works, studies and a discussion of the known consensus on knowledge of sites, populations and economies. This in an attempt to provide a clear picture of what we know (and what we do not) about Roman Malta. Finally, I will comment on current and new research and projects which are being carried out by various local entities and foreign institutions to enhance our knowledge of this very important historic era for the Maltese islands. This culminates into a proposal for the use of a predictive model that may help us identify new sites and, consequently, provide new data on this phase.
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Pitts, Martin. "Re-thinking the Southern British Oppida : Networks, Kingdoms and Material Culture." European Journal of Archaeology 13, no. 1 (2010): 32–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461957109355441.
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This article examines the role of a range of large settlements in late Iron Age and early Roman southern Britain (c.100 BC–AD 70) conventionally described as oppida. After reviewing current perspectives on the function and chronology of British oppida, new insights are provided through the statistical analysis of assemblages of brooches and imported ceramics at a broad sample of sites. Analysis of material culture reveals distinct similarities and differences between several groups of sites, often transcending regional traditions and supposed tribal boundaries. This patterning is primarily explained by the emergence of new forms of political organization prior to Roman annexation, particularly the creation of the Southern and Eastern Kingdoms.
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Macumber, Heather. "The Threat of Empire: Monstrous Hybridity in Revelation 13." Biblical Interpretation 27, no. 1 (March 11, 2019): 107–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685152-00271p06.
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Abstract The Apocalypse of John is filled with monsters who threaten both spatial and cultural boundaries. They are generally understood as ciphers for the Roman Empire and its rulers. Rather than seeking the ancient Near Eastern origins of the monstrous imagery, the intent of this paper is to use monster theory to better understand why John employs monsters throughout the apocalypse. I argue that the author’s portrayal of the threat and punishment of hybrid monsters reveals his own insecurities and fears concerning his communities’ assimilation with Roman culture. John uses monsters specifically to target rival prophets in his communities that espouse a different vision of living under Rome rule.
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Pasco-Pranger, Molly. "With the Veil Removed: Women's Public Nudity in the Early Roman Empire." Classical Antiquity 38, no. 2 (October 1, 2019): 217–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ca.2019.38.2.217.
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This paper explores the dynamics of women's public nudity in the early Roman empire, centering particularly on two festival occasions—the rites of Venus Verticordia and Fortuna Virilis on April 1, and the Floralia in late April—and on the respective social and spatial contexts of those festivals: the baths and the theater. In the early empire, these two social spaces regularly remove or complicate some of the markers that divide Roman women by sociosexual status. The festivals and the ritual nudity within them focus attention on the negotiations of social boundaries within these spaces, and the occasions for cross-class identification among women they provide.
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Langlands, Rebecca. "Latin Literature." Greece and Rome 62, no. 2 (September 10, 2015): 224–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0017383515000091.
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James Uden's impressive new study of Juvenal's Satires opens up our understanding not only of the poetry itself but also of the world in which it was written, the confusing cosmopolitan world of the Roman Empire under Trajan and Hadrian, with its flourishing of Greek intellectualism, and its dissolution of old certainties about identity and values. Juvenal is revealed as very much a poet of his day, and while Uden is alert to the ‘affected timelessness’ and ‘ambiguous referentiality’ (203) of the Satires, he also shows how Juvenal's poetry resonates with the historical and cultural context of the second century ad, inhabiting different areas of contemporary anxiety at different stages of his career. The first book, for instance, engages with the issues surrounding free speech and punishment in the Trajanic period, as Rome recovers from the recent trauma of Domitian's reign and the devastation wrought by the informers, while satires written under Hadrian move beyond the urban melting pot of Rome into a decentralized empire, and respond to a world in which what it means to be Roman is less and less clear, boundaries and distinctions dissolve, and certainties about Roman superiority, virtue, hierarchies, and centrality are shaken from their anchorage. These later Satires are about the failure of boundaries (social, cultural, ethnic), as the final discussion of Satires 15 demonstrates. For Uden, Juvenal's satirical project lies not so much in asserting distinctions and critiquing those who are different, as in demonstrating over and again how impossible it is to draw such distinctions effectively in the context of second-century Rome, where ‘Romanness’ and ‘Greekness’ are revealed as rhetorical constructions, generated by performance rather than tied to origin: ‘the ties that once bound Romans and Rome have now irreparably dissolved’ (105). Looking beyond the literary space of this allegedly most Roman of genres, and alongside his acute discussions of Juvenal's own poetry, Uden reads Juvenal against his contemporaries – especially prose writers, Greek as well as Roman. Tacitus’ Dialogus is brought in to elucidate the first satire, and the complex bind in which Romans found themselves in a post-Domitianic world: yearning to denounce crime, fearing to be seen as informers, needing neither to allow wrongdoing to go unpunished nor to attract critical attention to themselves. The Letters of Pliny the Younger articulate the tensions within Roman society aroused by the competition between the new excitement of Greek sophistic performance and the waning tradition of Roman recitation. The self-fashioned ‘Greeks’ arriving in Rome from every corner of the empire are admired for their cultural prestige, but are also met by a Roman need to put them in their place, to assert political, administrative, and moral dominance. This picture help us to understand the subtleties of Juvenal's depiction of the literary scene at Rome; when the poet's satiric persona moans about the ubiquitous tedium of recitationes, this constitutes a nostalgic and defensive construction of the dying practice of recitatio as a Roman space from which to critique Greek ‘outsiders’, as much as an attack on the recitatio itself. Close analysis of Dio Chrysostom's orations helps Uden to explore themes of disguise, performance, and the construction of invisibility. Greek intellectual arguments about the universality of virtue are shown to challenge traditional Roman ideas about the moral prestige of the Roman nobility, a challenge to which Juvenal responds in Satires 8. Throughout his study, Uden's nuanced approach shows how the Satires work on several levels simultaneously. Thus Satires 8, in this compelling analysis, is not merely an attack on elite hypocrisy but itself enacts the problem facing the Roman elite: how to keep the values of the past alive without indulging in empty imitation. The Roman nobility boast about their lineage and cram their halls with ancestral busts, but this is very different from reproducing what is really valuable about their ancestors and cultivating real nobility – namely virtue. In addition, Uden shows how Juvenal teases readers with the possibility that this poem itself mirrors this elite hollowness, as it parades its own indebtedness to moralists of old such as Sallust, Cicero, and Seneca, without ever exposing its own moral centre. In this satire, Uden suggests, Juvenal explores ‘the notion that the link between a Roman present and a Roman past may be merely “irony” or “fiction”’ (120). Satires 3's xenophobic attack on Greeks can also be read as a more subtle critique of the erudite philhellenism of the Roman elite; furthermore, Umbricius’ Romanness is revealed in the poem to be as constructed and elusive as the Greekness against which he pits himself. Satires 10 is a Cynic attack upon Roman vice, but hard-line Cynicism itself is a target, as the satire reveals the harsh implications of its philosophical approach, so incompatible with Roman values and conventions, so that the poem can also be read as mocking the popularity of the softer form of Cynicism peddled in Hadrianic Rome by the likes of Epictetus and Dio Chrysostom (169). Both Juvenal's invisibility and the multiplicity of competing voices found in every poem are thematized as their own interpretative provocation that invites readers to question their own positions and self-identification. Ultimately Juvenal the satirist remains elusive, but Uden's sensitive, contextualized reading of the poems not only generates specific new insights but makes sense of Juvenal's whole satirical project, and of this very slipperiness.
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Merotto, Maria Federica. "Donʼt Ask Us for Lex. Body Exhibition and Forms of Exclusion." Pólemos 12, no. 2 (September 25, 2018): 313–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/pol-2018-0019.
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Abstract The essay deals with the many boundaries set and exceeded by Roman Law when human corporeality is involved. In particular, the focus is on the strict correlation between body expression and socio-juridical marginalization, clearly visible in the case of prostitution in ancient Rome, but also in acting and in fighting in the arenas, activities sharing the same goal as prostitution: they were designed to bring pleasure to the senses. These forms of marginalization differ from the inexorable limit, already decrypted by Roman Law, set by humankindʼs bodily nature to the action of Law: Law is not in the position to “have the last word” on matters concerning human life, on which nature alone can “lay down Law.”
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Burroughs, Charles. "Boundary Stones and the Rebellion of Nature." Paragone Past and Present 2, no. 1 (July 16, 2021): 30–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24761168-00201002.
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Abstract Boundaries demarcate property throughout European history, though the utopian dream of terrain without boundaries recurs, not least in association with the figure of the free-roaming god Pan. Ancient Rome had a god of boundaries, Terminus, associated by Horace with venerable, quasi-natural landscapes of human occupation. In Renaissance culture, Terminus is represented as a hybrid figure—part human; part lithic; often incorporated into architecture. This essay identifies a composite object in a Roman sculpture collection, noted for figures of Pan, as a model for Erasmus’s widely divulged emblem of Terminus, featured in images by major artists. Initially identifying himself with Terminus’s resistance to divine authority, Erasmus met with criticism for arrogance. In response, he drew on Horace’s ethically colored evocation of Terminus, now in connection with the ultimate boundary, that between life and death, as appears in Hans Holbein’s moving design for a monument to the humanist.
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LIEU, JUDITH. "‘Impregnable Ramparts and Walls Of Iron’: Boundary and Identity in Early ‘Judaism’ and ‘Christianity’." New Testament Studies 48, no. 3 (July 2002): 297–313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002868850200019x.
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The metaphor of a boundary as that which separates ‘us’ from ‘the other’ is central in modern discussion of identity as constructed, yet it is also recognized that such boundaries both articulate power and are permeable. The model is readily applicable to the Greco-Roman world where kinship, history, language, customs, and the gods supposedly separated ‘us’ from barbarians, but also enabled interaction; Jews and Christians engaged in the same strategies. At the textual level it is the different ways in which boundaries are constructed, particularly using diet and sexuality, that invite attention. This may offer a way of addressing questions of unity and diversity, of Judaism versus Judaisms, and of how ‘Christianity’ emerges as separate from ‘Judaism’.
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Aldhouse-Green, Miranda. "Connective Tissue: Embracing Fluidity and Subverting Boundaries in European Iron Age and Roman Provincial Images." Religions 12, no. 5 (May 14, 2021): 351. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12050351.
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There is a mounting body of evidence for somatic exchange in burial practices within later British prehistory. The title of the present paper was sparked by a recent article in The Times (Tuesday 1 September 2020), which contained a description of human bone curation and body mingling clearly present in certain Bronze Age funerary depositional rituals. The practice of mixing up bodies has been identified at several broadly coeval sites, a prime example being Cladh Hallan in the Scottish Hebrides, where body parts from different individuals were deliberately mingled, not just somatically but also chronologically. This paper’s arguments rest upon the premise that somatic boundary crossing is reflected in Iron Age and later art, especially in the blending of human and animal imagery and of one animal species with another. Such themes are endemic in La Tène decorative metalwork and in western Roman provincial sacred imagery. It is possible, indeed likely, that such fluidity is associated with deliberate subversion of nature and with the presentation of ‘shamanism’ in its broadest sense. Breaking ‘natural’ rules and orders introduces edge blurring between material and spiritual worlds, representing, perhaps, the ability of certain individuals (shamans) to break free from human-scapes and to wander within the realms of the divine.
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Takala-Roszczenko, Maria. "Contemporary Ecumenical Challenges of Historically Charged Liturgical Cult: The Services for Josafat Kuntsevych, Afanasiy Filippovych, and Andrzej Bobola." Review of Ecumenical Studies Sibiu 12, no. 1 (April 1, 2020): 13–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ress-2020-0002.
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AbstractThe seventeenth century was a period of political and religious turmoil in the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania. The confessional conflicts produced martyrs whose cults consolidated the confessional boundaries of the Roman Catholic, the Orthodox, and the Greek Catholic Church. In my article, I compare three such saints: Josafat Kuntsevych (1580-1623, Greek Catholic), Afanasiy Filippovych (c. 1595–1648, Orthodox), and Andrzej Bobola (1591-1657, Roman Catholic), who were martyred in the hands of their Christian neighbours. For material, I use the hymnographical services composed for the saints. I argue that, in quest of genuine ecumenism, certain content in these services, such as exclusive concepts of the true faith and church unity, may actually induce rather than prevent hostility between the Churches.
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Gradl, Hans-Georg. "Kaisertum und Kaiserkult: Ein Vergleich zwischen PhilosLegatio ad Gaiumund derOffenbarung des Johannes." New Testament Studies 56, no. 1 (December 2, 2009): 116–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0028688509990208.
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In face of the religious and cultic claims of the Roman emperors, Philo (Legatio ad Gaium) and Revelation develop contrasting perspectives in positioning their respective religious communities within the cultural majority of their day. The Alexandrian Jew Philo opts for critical integration and social cohabitation—a solution that is conventionally ascribed to early Christianity. John pleads strongly for the self-isolation of the Christian minority groups in the Province of Asia—a solution conventionally ascribed to Jewish self-definition in the Tannaitic period. The article illustrates this remarkable exchange of religious and social self-conceptualisations in both authors. Social rather than religious boundaries determine the framework in which the Roman Empire and its ruler are conceptualised, literary reactions are developed, and strategic alternatives are formed.
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Massey, Richard, Matt Nichol, Dana Challinor, Sharon Clough, Matilda Holmes, E. R. McSloy, Katie Marsden, et al. "Iron Age and Roman Enclosed Settlement at Winchester Road, Basingstoke." Hampshire Studies 74, no. 1 (December 1, 2019): 36–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.24202/hs2019003.
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Excavation in Area 1 identified an enclosed settlement of Middle–Late Iron Age and Early Roman date, which included a roundhouse gully and deep storage pits with complex fills. A group of undated four-post structures, situated in the east of Area 1, appeared to represent a specialised area of storage or crop processing of probable Middle Iron Age date. A sequence of re-cutting and reorganisation of ditches and boundaries in the Late Iron Age/Early Roman period was followed, possibly after a considerable hiatus, by a phase of later Roman activity, Late Iron Age reorganisation appeared to be associated with the abandonment of a roundhouse, and a number of structured pit deposits may also relate to this period of change. Seven Late Iron Age cremation burials were associated with a contemporary boundary ditch which crossed Area 1. Two partly-exposed, L-shaped ditches may represent a later Roman phase of enclosed settlement and a slight shift in settlement focus. An isolated inhumation burial within the northern margins of Area 1 was tentatively dated by grave goods to the Early Saxon period.<br/> Area 2 contained a possible trackway and field boundary ditches, of which one was of confirmed Late Iron Age/Early Roman date. A short posthole alignment in Area 2 was undated, and may be an earlier prehistoric feature.
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Metcalfe, Alex. "ORIENTATION IN THREE SPHERES: MEDIEVAL MEDITERRANEAN BOUNDARY CLAUSES IN LATIN, GREEK AND ARABIC." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 22 (December 2012): 37–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0080440112000059.
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ABSTRACTThis paper investigates the development of land registry traditions in the medieval Mediterranean by examining a distinctive aspect of Latin, Greek and Arabic formularies used in boundary clauses. The paper makes particular reference to Islamic and Norman Sicily. The argument begins by recalling that the archetypal way of defining limits according to Classical Roman land surveyors was to begin ab oriente. Many practices from Antiquity were discontinued in the Latin West, but the idea of starting with or from the East endured in many cases where boundaries were assigned cardinal directions. In the Byzantine Empire, the ‘Roman’ model was prescribed and emulated by Greek surveyors and scribes too. But in the Arab-Muslim Mediterranean, lands were defined with the southern limit first. This contrast forms the basis of a typology that can be tested against charter evidence in frontier zones – for example, in twelfth-century Sicily, which had been under Byzantine, Muslim and Norman rulers. It concludes that, under the Normans, private documents drawn up in Arabic began mainly with the southern limit following the ‘Islamic’ model. However, Arabic descriptions of crown lands started mainly in the ‘Romano-Byzantine’ way. These findings offer a higher resolution view of early Norman governance and suggest that such boundary definitions of the royal chancery could not have been based on older ones written in the Islamic period.
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Derbew, Sarah. "(Re)membering Sara Baartman, Venus, and Aphrodite." Classical Receptions Journal 11, no. 3 (July 1, 2019): 336–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/crj/clz008.
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Abstract This article analyses the Black diasporic reception of Venus in the figure of Sara Baartman, a South African woman who performed under the name ‘Hottentot Venus’ in the early nineteenth century, and her theatrical persona in Suzan-Lori Parks’s play Venus [1990] (1997). Through her sophisticated characterization of Sara Baartman, Parks provides insight into the complex performativity of Black femalehood in conjunction with an overwritten Greco-Roman divinity. Parks’s play presents Sara Baartman as a person who forces her audiences, both theatrical and historical, to contend with their own complicit role in her objectification. More broadly, this cross-cultural dialogue attempts to recuperate the Black female subject from lopsided archives. It also contributes to a larger dismantling of the perceived boundaries between Greco-Roman art, African history, and African American literature.
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Gardner, Andrew. "Brexit, boundaries and imperial identities: A comparative view." Journal of Social Archaeology 17, no. 1 (January 17, 2017): 3–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1469605316686875.
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The year 2016 will be marked as a year in which identity politics reached new levels of significance. Among numerous dramatic events, the UK referendum on membership of the European Union has brought many issues of interest to archaeologists to the fore. These range from entirely contemporary concerns, such as the future of research funding in Britain, to topics of more longitudinal significance, including the interactions between different identity groups in particular economic and political circumstances. In this paper, I wish to explore aspects of the distinctive position of Britain as an illustration of identity dynamics in the long term, focussing on the relationship between imperialism and identities and viewed through the lens of recent work in Border Studies. Brexit can be seen as the culmination of the collapse of the British empire, and transformation of British identity, in the post-Second World War era and the particular dynamics of this process invite comparison with Britain’s earlier position as one of the frontier provinces of the Roman empire, especially in the 4th and 5th centuries AD. This comparison reveals two paradoxical dimensions of imperial identities, the first being that so-called ‘peripheries’ can be more important than ‘cores’ in the creation of imperial identities and the second that such identities can be simultaneously ideologically powerful yet practically fragile in the circumstances which follow imperial collapse. Such insights are important because, at a time of apparently resurgent nationalism in many countries, archaeologists need to work harder than ever to understand identity dynamics with the benefit of time depth.
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Simon, Bence. "Rural Society, Agriculture and Settlement Territory in the Roman, Medieval and Modern Period Pilis Landscape." Dissertationes Archaeologicae 3, no. 7 (October 16, 2020): 205–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.17204/dissarch.2019.205.
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This study presents how the scientific results of economic geography can be useful in explaining and deepening our understanding of the settlement pattern, village territory or land-use regarding the Roman, Medieval and Modern period Pilis landscape. Through ordinary comparison and GIS-based investigations the relationship of the studied periods is at the paper’s focus. In the last part, the study introduces a method with which the origins of the present-day administrative boundaries can be explored in a new way.
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Bragantini, Irene. "Towards a cultural biography of Roman painting." Journal of Roman Archaeology 32 (2019): 129–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1047759419000084.
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Using a term drawn from economic anthropology1 and pushing the boundaries of this type of analysis, I would like to describe an attempt to trace in time and space the roots of the technical, stylistic and iconographic know-how that gave form to Roman painting. Considering the fragmentary nature of the evidence at our disposal, the argumentation set forth here cannot follow a linear path containing various steps that can all be neatly demonstrated. I believe that the time is right, however, to tackle Roman painting — and particularly painting in the domestic setting — with more conviction. Although understanding the rôle and nature of the patrons and painters remains an objective that is still far off, it is probably worth investigating the traditions that enjoyed some level of continuity in Roman painting and the concrete ways and contexts in which the process unfolded. The aim is to achieve a deeper understanding of the rôle that this artistic technique played in a society that made ample use of it during a fundamental phase of its history. In the 1st c. B.C. and 1st c. A.D., in the brief period that saw the transition from Republic to Empire, the domestic ideology of Roman society found expression in a decorative system marked by a continuous stream of innovations with respect to themes, schemes and ornament that were adopted consistently by a broad spectrum of patrons. Indeed, beyond simply protecting and covering the walls of dwellings, figurative painting — especially of such a complex nature as we are dealing with here — added a wide range of elements which I believe it is useful to investigate.
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Parkinson, Gavin. "The Delvaux Mystery: Painting, the Nouveau Roman, and Art History." Nottingham French Studies 51, no. 3 (December 2012): 298–313. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/nfs.2012.0029.
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Meant to signal in its parodic title both the causal, deductive conventions of academic art history and those of the detective story, this essay looks at the work of the Belgian artist Paul Delvaux (1897–1994), and discusses the uses to which that œuvre has been put by several of the pioneers of the twentieth-century novel, such as Michel Butor, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Claude Simon, Julio Cortázar, and J.G. Ballard. It goes on to speculate as to why so many French novelists from the 1950s who interrogated specifically narrative form, together with those inspired by their example, responded to Delvaux's work in their writing. Asking whether any gain can be made in art history's knowledge and understanding of art by viewing it back through the fiction or poetry generated by it, the essay suggests that fiction and poetry might inflect academic art history at the level of style, asking what the genre implications of such writing might be for a discipline in which writing and style have had such well-defined boundaries and limitations.
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Cohn, Naftali S. "Heresiology in the Third-Century Mishnah: Arguments for Rabbinic Legal Authority and the Complications of a Simple Concept." Harvard Theological Review 108, no. 4 (September 29, 2015): 508–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s001781601500036x.
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When members of the early rabbinic group created the Jewish legal text known as the Mishnah in the late second or early third century, the concept of heresy was relatively common in the wider cultural discourse of the Roman world. Christian apologists, among others, frequently employed the Greek termhairesis(“heresy”/“heretic,” originally meaning “school of thought”/“adherent”) as part of their larger projects of drawing boundaries, defining identities, and making an argument for the authority of their own ideas and practices.
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Hezser, Catherine. "Crossing Enemy Lines: Network Connections Between Palestinian and Babylonian Sages in Late Antiquity." Journal for the Study of Judaism 46, no. 2 (May 25, 2015): 224–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700631-12340420.
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The Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds transmit stories about sages who crossed the boundaries between the Roman and Persian empires in late antiquity to sojourn in the “enemy” territory for a certain amount of time. These sages, who were members of local rabbinic networks, established inter-regional network connections among Palestinian and Babylonian scholars which reached across political boundaries. This paper will investigate how these connections were established and maintained. What was the role of place and mobility in an intellectual network “without propinquity”?1 Which segments of the respective local rabbinic networks maintained inter-regional contacts? Or more specifically: which sages are presented as the main nodal points within these networks and what were their roles within Palestinian and Babylonian Jewish society? How did network centrality and power shift from Palestine to Babylonia between the fourth and sixth centuries c.e.?
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Rieger, Anna-Katharina. "Loose Bonds and Porous Boundaries among Mobile People as Religious Agents in the Greco-Roman Arabian Desert." Religion in the Roman Empire 3, no. 1 (2017): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1628/219944617x14860387744186.
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Oguz, Cem, Fikret Turker, and Niyazi Ugur Kockal. "Construction Materials Used in the Historical Roman Era Bath in Myra." Scientific World Journal 2014 (2014): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/536105.
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The physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of mortars and bricks used in the historical building that was erected at Myra within the boundaries of Antalya Province during the Roman time were investigated. The sample picked points were marked on the air photographs and plans of the buildings and samples were photographed. Then petrographic evaluation was made by stereo microscope on the polished surfaces of construction materials (mortar, brick) taken from such historical buildings in laboratory condition. Also, microstructural analyses (SEM/EDX, XRD), physical analyses (unit volume, water absorption by mass, water absorption by volume, specific mass, compacity, and porosity), chemical analyses (acid loss and sieve analysis, salt analyses, pH, protein, fat, pozzolanic activity, and conductivity analyses), and mechanical experiments (compressive strength, point loading test, and tensile strength at bending) were applied and the obtained results were evaluated. It was observed that good adherence was provided between the binder and the aggregate in mortars. It was also detected that bricks have preserved their originality against environmental, atmospheric, and physicochemical effects and their mechanical properties showed that they were produced by appropriate techniques.
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Eng, Daniel K. "The Widening Circle: Honour, Shame, and Collectivism in the Parable of the Prodigal Son." Expository Times 130, no. 5 (July 24, 2018): 193–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0014524618792177.
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This study presents a reading of Jesus’ parable of the Prodigal Son through the context of collectivism. After a brief survey of how honour and shame function in a collectivistic society, the essay examines the parable using Luke’s expressed occasion of the story as a starting point. The three characters are examined, as each display behaviour that is outside the accepted norms of Jewish and Greco-Roman society. The study reveals that a major element of the message of Jesus lies in the re-definition of boundaries. The Lukan Jesus remarkably does not abolish the community-first value of the Pharisees and scribes, but upholds the priority of the collective through expanding the boundaries of those who are honoured. The parable is then situated into the grand Lukan narrative, showing how the Jesus movement as described in Luke-Acts widens the circle of the collective.
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Goldhill, Simon, and Helen Morales. "Introduction." Ramus 36, no. 1 (2007): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0048671x00000758.
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Josephus, cultural critic and chronicler of the Jewish revolt against Rome (66-73/4 CE), is one of the most polemical and compelling writers of the Roman Empire. He writes in Greek, as a Jewish leader of a revolt against Rome, who came over to the Romans. His extraordinary prose combines an extended self-justification, an explanation of Jewish culture to the Romans, through the medium of a culturally privileged Greek, and the riveting story of a failed rebellion against the dominant Empire of the Mediterranean, written now as an awkward insider of the corridors of power, recalling his own opposition to that power. Josephus, that is, writes on and through the boundaries of culture; if all history is written by victors, he writes as a defeated leader now with the triumphant new emperor: he crosses the boundary between victor and victim, insider and outsider. For the scholar interested in post-colonial writing, in cultural identity, in the rhetoric of self-fashioning, Josephus is a remarkable gift. What is more, the history he tells has powerful resonances today in the Middle East: it is he who gives us the authoritative account of Masada, the rocky desert fortress destroyed by the Romans and now a central icon of the state of Israel. The destruction of the Temple is a founding moment in the Jewish imagination, still rehearsed in ritual and political rhetoric. What more could one want from an ancient source? In 2003, Mary Beard invited us to imagine the euphoric reception classicists would give his work were it to be newly discovered today:This is the kind of text that ancient historians and literary critics would die for. It is the kind of text that makes the study of Greco-Roman antiquity so much richer than that of almost any other ancient society. The kind of text we just can't get enough of.
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Aristova, Alla. "Dialogue of the Catholic Church with the Muslim world: achievements and problems." Ukrainian Religious Studies, no. 66 (February 26, 2013): 77–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.32420/2013.66.252.
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Half a century has passed since the time of the Second Vatican Council - half a century for which a significant part of the world has unrecognizably changed - many-sided and trivial global processes have unfolded; new outlines of world civilization have emerged, geographic boundaries and demographic scales of religions have changed - but because of this, the Roman Catholic Church by the mouths of its head and the highest spiritual pastor of Pope Benedict XVI defines the Second Vatican Council as "the most important ecclesiastical event of the 20th century"
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da Costa e Silva, Tiago. "Overcoming Dyadic Boundaries: Reading Poetic Experience after the Semiotics and Pragmatism of Charles S. Peirce." Linguistic Frontiers 9, no. 1 (March 1, 2018): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/lf-2018-0004.
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AbstractThe aim of this article is to offer a reading of the poetic experience through the scope of the semiotics and pragmatism of Chares S. Peirce. Such a reading through semiotics and pragmatism unveils deeper levels of the process of interpretation involving abduction, an inference through which new meanings implied in the semantic tensions arise. Methodologically, the article begins with Roman Jakobson’s realisation that only a broader semiotical context, which breaches the boundaries of the dyadic components of significant and signified scope of structuralism, enables the access to deeper levels of poetic events. The article’s author then discusses the limitations of the dyadic relations of structuralism and, as a broader processual framework to assess poeticity, sets out to discuss the poetic experience from the perspective of pragmatism and its all-encompassing logic of abduction.
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Roselezam Wan Yahya, Wan, Kamelia Talebian Sedehi, and Tay Lai Kit. "Gothic and Grotesque in James Hogg’s The Mysterious Bride." International Journal of Comparative Literature and Translation Studies 5, no. 1 (January 31, 2017): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijclts.v.5n.1p.27.
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The word Gothic refers back to the Dark ages in England. The Roman civilization was ruined by the Goths who were the barbarians at that time. As a result of the destruction of Roman Empire, the whole civilization underwent ignorance and darkness. Nowadays, the word Gothic has a variety of meaning and applications. Gothic novels portray exaggerated scenes, haunted castles, monsters and vampires. Scottish Gothic literature started after 1800. This paper will focus on one of the Scottish short stories by James Hogg, “The Mysterious Bride”. Some elements of Gothic and grotesque such as transgression of boundaries, suspense, uncanny and supernatural being are discussed within this short story in order to indicate Hogg’s main intention to use Gothic and grotesque elements in “The Mysterious Bride”. Among all the elemnts in Gothic and grotesque, this paper will mainly apply the presence of the opposites, uncanny, abnormal beings and supernatural events to James Hogg’s “The Mysterious Bride”.
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McCormick, Michael, Ulf Büntgen, Mark A. Cane, Edward R. Cook, Kyle Harper, Peter Huybers, Thomas Litt, et al. "Climate Change during and after the Roman Empire: Reconstructing the Past from Scientific and Historical Evidence." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 43, no. 2 (August 2012): 169–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jinh_a_00379.
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Growing scientific evidence from modern climate science is loaded with implications for the environmental history of the Roman Empire and its successor societies. The written and archaeological evidence, although richer than commonly realized, is unevenly distributed over time and space. A first synthesis of what the written records and multiple natural archives (multi-proxy data) indicate about climate change and variability across western Eurasia from c. 100 b.c. to 800 a.d. confirms that the Roman Empire rose during a period of stable and favorable climatic conditions, which deteriorated during the Empire's third-century crisis. A second, briefer period of favorable conditions coincided with the Empire's recovery in the fourth century; regional differences in climate conditions parallel the diverging fates of the eastern and western Empires in subsequent centuries. Climate conditions beyond the Empire's boundaries also played an important role by affecting food production in the Nile valley, and by encouraging two major migrations and invasions of pastoral peoples from Central Asia.
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Neis, Rachel. "Religious Lives of Image-Things, Avodah Zarah, and Rabbis in Late Antique Palestine." Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 17, no. 1 (December 1, 2016): 91–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/arege-2015-0006.
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Abstract Drawing on rabbinic sources redacted in the early third and late fourth/ early fifth centuries, this paper tracks the intertwined lives of divine image-things and rabbis living in late Roman and Byzantine period Palestine. The paper argues that the religious image-things of others (or avodah zarah, in rabbinic terms) pressed in different ways on rabbinic notions of animation, materiality, agency, and representation, as well as on the boundaries between the thing, the human, and the divine. Additionally, the paper argues that while rabbis attempted to neutralize the claims of such image-things, in part by exposing their materiality, their excess nonetheless escaped such rabbinic efforts. Finally, the paper argues that in the fourth century, along with the “material turn” in the Roman world inspired by Christian engagement, we find not only a greater sense of the excess in the things of avodah zarah, but also a concomitant thingification of the rabbinic sage.
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Anderson, Fred R. "Protestant Worship Today." Theology Today 43, no. 1 (April 1986): 63–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004057368604300107.
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“It is not unusual to find cities where Protestant churches of varying demoninations as well as Roman Catholic churches are using the same lessons in worship. As these Christians interact and converse in their day-to-day lives, they are discovering a unity in their worship that transcends historic boundaries and divisions, a unity of commitment to the centrality of Jesus Christ as witnessed to in Scripture. … Those responsible for liturgical renewal are asking two questions: ‘Is it Christian?’ and ‘Is it equipping the saints for their ministry?’ These are the questions by which worship reforms should be evaluated.”