Academic literature on the topic 'Rural development projects – Social aspects – Bangladesh'

Abstract. This paper presents an overview of work in West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and SW Bangladesh through a series of projects from 2005 to the present, considering the impact of farming systems, water shed development and/or agricultural intensification on livelihoods in selected rural areas of India and Bangladesh. The projects spanned a range of scales spanning from the village scale (∼ 1 km2) to the meso-scale (∼ 100 km2), and considered social as well as biophysical aspects. They focused mainly on the food and water part of the food-water-energy nexus. These projects were in collaboration with a range of organisations in India and Bangladesh, including NGOs, universities, and government research organisations and departments. The projects were part funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, and built on other projects that have been undertaken within the region. An element of each of these projects was to understand how the hydrological cycle could be managed sustainably to improve agricultural systems and livelihoods of marginal groups. As such, they evaluated appropriate technology that is generally not dependent on high-energy inputs (mechanisation). This includes assessing the availability of water, and identifying potential water resources that have not been developed; understanding current agricultural systems and investigating ways of improving water use efficiency; and understanding social dynamics of the affected communities including the potential opportunities and negative impacts of watershed development and agricultural development.

Abstract A well-balanced relationship between economic and social progress is the main prerequisite of rural community stability. Economic development is influenced by many factors. Some of these are statistically discoverable and quantifiable, while others, which fall within the sphere of social relations and their identification, are more difficult to measure and interpret. Czech rural areas face many problems which arise from their specific features – socio-demographic structure, job possibility of various social groups, provision of the proper level of public services, transport accessibility, etc. However, there is no direct connection between economic factors and mutual relations within the rural community. Values, opinions and the behavioural patterns of people are immediately displayed in a locality, but their character is shaped by the regional and national assumptions of every stage of development. Contributions are drawn from the accessible literature and secondary data of empirical research projects.

English's elevated status within a global economy of languages means that English-language education is increasingly promoted in international development initiatives in countries such as Bangladesh. This is partly due to a growing conviction that English is able to play an important role in helping people participate in global economic markets from which they have previously been excluded (Seargeant & Erling, 2011). Despite the strong associations made between English-language ability and development, there is at present only limited evidence showing a causal relationship between the two (Erling, forthcoming), while a complex of other issues surrounding the cultural politics of the language also play a role in the social implications of its promotion in such contexts. The aim of this article is to examine how English is perceived in rural Bangladesh by the people at whom such international development programmes are targeted. A broad assumption of such programmes is that English is a positive and, in some sense, necessary resource for development. The article investigates whether this matches the perception of those at whom such projects are aimed, and what it is that these communities feel the language can offer both in practical and in socio-cultural terms for the developmental challenges they face. In order to examine these questions the article draws on results from an ethnographical survey of two rural areas in Bangladesh which investigated the attitudes and aspirations of local community members to the potential impact of English-language education on their social prospects and cultural identities.

In principle, there should be wide scope for anthropologists and other social scientists in the vast efforts for life-betterment in the South Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives, and possibly Afghanistan). This article points out a few areas where the anthropological perspective is critical. The latter part of the article presents some experiences of the author, who has worked for over 20 years directly in South Asian rural development.

The concept of sustainable rural development comprises three aspects - social, economical and ecological. They are supposed to act in synergy, but, at the same time, these aspects are supposed to be competitive. Agriculture, as a traditional activity of rural economy, contributes to the sustainable development of rural areas only if there is an adequate resources management. If not, there will be a significant degradation of rural environment. These are the reasons why sustainable agriculture development is emphasized since it maximizes productivity and minimizes negative effects on nature and human resources. In this context, one should observe the connection between agriculture and tourism existing in the EU, where the application of sustainable agricultural development concept produces external effects connected to biodiversity protection and environment in rural areas. These become a good foundation for the development of rural and ecotourism. EU enlargement induced diversification of support programmes that EU gives to the candidate countries, as well as to those who are just entering the process of stabilization and association to the EU. Through cross-border cooperation projects, many goals can be accomplished, among which aspiration for promotion of sustainable economical and social development in border regions is one of the leading. Knowing that these regions are usually passive and underdeveloped, the projects of cross-border cooperation could induce development of those activities in local economy, which could bring better living conditions and economic prosperity on the one hand, and protection of environment on the other. Examples of this kind of projects in Serbia can usually be found in rural and ecotourism development.

Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL) began with a mission to generate investment for infrastructure, renewable energy (RE) and energy-efficient projects in Bangladesh through public–private partnership initiatives. IDCOL started its RE activities in 2003 with a programme named solar home system (SHS). With an installed capacity of 185 MWp, SHSs are positioned in remote areas where grid expansion is difficult and costly. The aim is to ensure access to clean electricity for power-starved off-grid rural communities, which previously relied on kerosene lamps for lighting purposes. The case starts with a depiction of the energy sector in Bangladesh and an overview of IDCOL. The four dimensions of 4A framework are applied to the SHS business model to discuss how it has enriched the lives of more than 12 per cent of the population. IDCOL is expected to face a decline in investments in the RE sector as this flagship SHS Program is currently under threat of becoming non-existent. The case broaches the subject on how IDCOL plans to position itself amidst the dilemma of Bangladesh’s changing market. Dilemma Due the free distribution of SHS by the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) under its safety net programme, IDCOL is expected to face a decline in investments in the RE sector as this flagship SHS Program is currently under threat of becoming non-existent. The case broaches the subject on how IDCOL plans to position itself amidst the dilemma of Bangladesh’s changing market. Theory: 4A framework applied to the Solar Home System business model Type of the Case: Problem-solving, secondary data Protagonist: NA Options Softer financing, expansion in other use segments, developing newer products and exploring different projects, entering markets in other countries Discussions and Case Questions Should IDCOL enter a new market in Bangladesh? Should they invest primarily in grid-connected solar projects and roof-top solar projects under its RE program? Should the firm diversify its portfolio by including industrial energy efficiency, power generation, shipbuilding and shipyard, IT and telecommunication, ports, social and tourism infrastructure and infrastructure backward linkage projects? International advisory service and energy from waste are also lucrative options.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of microcredit on women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh using the latest primary data. Design/methodology/approach Primary data have been collected by a household survey in the four districts of Bangladesh. Logistic regression is used to estimate the odd of improving women empowerment after participating in microfinance. Findings The results show positive impacts of microfinance on most of the selected indicators for women’s empowerment. Research limitations/implications Lack of control groups and baseline data are the main limitation of this research. Future research can address this issue by selecting institutions with baseline data or control groups. Practical implications The findings of the study can help policy makers to adopt appropriate policies that integrate empowerment in development projects with women. Social implications The results of this research could encourage more women to participate in microfinance activities and development projects. Originality/value This research provides the most updated data from a primary survey in Bangladesh. The authors also mitigate the possible selection biases by using a fixed-effects estimator.

The topicality of raising the level of rural territories’ energy independence is substantiated in the article. Using the Ukrainian and foreign experience in creating and implementing the projects “energy efficient village”, the stages of its introduction have been determined. Taking into account the results of these projects in Ukraine, the conditions as to providing their efficiency have been defined. The peculiarities of creating the energy independent and effective village have been considered; its conceptual model has been created. Some aspects of using biomass and its effectiveness as an alternative source of energy have been presented. The factors of ecological, social, and economic efficacy of developing and implementing the projects of “energy efficient village” on the rural territories of Ukraine have been determined. The actuality of developing and introducing the projects in the creation of energy independent rural territories is put into practice on the territory of Ukraine.

Theoretical, methodological, scientific, methodical and applied principles of managing environmentally and socially oriented investments in sustainable development of rural areas have been developed and substantiated in the article. The model of investment process of ecologically and socially oriented economy has been developed. The analysis of corresponding existing models of investment process enabled to specify the management model, which corresponds to the environmentally and socially oriented economics. The block scheme of the system of analyzing and evaluating the efficiency of investment processes of sustainable rural development has been made. The determined methodological provisions and specified concepts enabled to ground the system of complex analyzing and assessing the effectiveness of investment processes in sustainable development of rural areas, including the evaluation of economic, social and environmental efficiency of investment projects. The mechanism of sustainable rural development, comprising consolidated elements and connections, has been grounded. The ecological aspects of investment policy as a component of the economic mechanism of sustainable rural development have been systematized. It has been determined that attracting investments in environmentally and socially oriented investment projects and programs has to be based on strengthening the ecological aspects of investment policy as part of stimulating sub-system of the economic mechanism of sustainable rural development.

Introduction Social mobility is considered as an important indicator of the economic development of a country. However, it varies widely across geographical regions and social groups in developing countries like Bangladesh. This paper intends to evaluate the intergenerational mobility in Bangladesh across generations. Methods and materials This paper considers a nationally representative sample survey of 8,403 respondents (rural: 5,436 and urban: 2,967). The male and female respondents aged 23 years and above were included in the sample. The education attainment of a son or daughter as compared to their father’s education level was considered as the measure of intergenerational mobility. Transition probability matrix and different social mobility indices were used to find out the intergenerational education mobility in Bangladesh. Results The findings reveal that approximately three-fourth (74.5%) of the respondents attained formal education, while more than half (58.3%) of the respondents’ father was illiterate. The educational status of the respondents and their father who lived in urban areas was relatively better than who lived in rural areas. It is also observed that 91.2% and 81.6% of the intergenerational class movement was upward among sons and daughters respectively. The probability of a higher educated father will have a higher educated child is higher in urban areas than in rural areas of Bangladesh. The intergenerational mobility is higher in the primary, secondary, and higher secondary educational levels, though the illiterate and higher education levels are the least mobile classes. In addition, the limiting probabilities reveal that the chance of sending sons to schools by an illiterate father is less as compared to their daughters. Such difference is more obvious in the urban areas, i.e., it is highly likely that sons of the illiterate father are also illiterate. Conclusion Bangladesh has been progressing remarkably in recent years. To keep the pace of the ongoing economic development in the country, it is necessary to give more attention to the illiterate people especially the girls who live in rural areas. The authors anticipate that the findings will be helpful for the policymakers as the relationship between inequality and intergenerational mobility is vital for several aspects of the economic development of a country.

Rural development is a serious problem in Bangladesh, and so is the situation of women. This thesis assesses the programmes offered by a particular non-governmental organization, the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), which simultaneously promote rural development and improve the status of women. This assessment is achieved by examining the functioning and impact of these programmes in a single village. The study is exploratory and uses qualitative methods, employing principally unstructured but in-depth interviews. Results indicate that most village women were aware of the need for improvement in the position of women, but interest, and thus active participation, was greater among those who were widowed or divorced. For these women, the programmes did succeed in raising their income through better technical knowledge, and in some ways improved their position in the family and society. They did not, however, succeed in raising their administrative knowledge, confining them to "women's only" projects, and did little to increase political empowerment.

South Africa has less than 1 percent of the global land surface, yet it is ranked highly in terms of remaining mineral resources. Mineral wealth has not translated into a better life for all. Poverty, however, abounds; particularly in the rural areas and this study seeks to identify a solution or partial solution to this situation. The study combines two critical areas, Mineral Based Rural Development, and Mineral Based Enterprise Development and draws from it a model for Mineraldriven Rural Economic Development viable for all parts of South Africa. This study comprised research on a national scale and thus covered a section of each of South Africa‟s nine provinces. It investigated the conditions in rural and urban centres, and geologically, it traversed examples of Archaean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic formations. The field visits deliberately set out to look at some of the lowest value commodities; typically the only minerals available to the surrounding rural communities. This was done to see if a case could be made for even the lowest value commodities which are often found furthest from the large markets. This study indicates that for a rural area to be able to compete nationally or internationally, it is important to be competitive so that the area can participate in the economy. The creation of regional competitive areas allow for the focusing of strategies and funding for targeted rural projects. Enterprises, typically the product of entrepreneurial activity, are required to increase economic intensity and activity. xxvii The goal of poverty reduction, has been identified by government so that enterprises, as products of economic development, can be focused on the situation. Interviews conducted by the researcher indicated that part of the problem to overcome is the bureaucracy created by government which hinders enterprise development. Recommendations are made that government should exempt rural enterprises from some of the compliance hurdles. This will serve to accelerate rural development. An important aspect of urban enterprises is that they have access to labour without too many problems. Thirteen developed or developing corridors were visited of the five types of development corridors identified. It was found that those in areas of high poverty (for example the corridors of the Eastern Cape) are difficult to develop and make self-sustaining. The corridors linked to any point of Gauteng (Johannesburg or Pretoria) are more robust, although the relatively short length of the corridor is not an indicator of effectiveness. The key recommendations made include the completion of a national rural mineral-asset audit; the use of the information to demarcate rural-regions that can be developed as nationally and internationally competitive regions; the establishment of a rural Resource and Training Academy(ies) so that skills are developed close to areas where they will be deployed; provision of an easier way to launch mineral-based rural enterprises and incentivise these for accelerated development; and the development of an indigenous body of knowledge to mine small scale deposits

This thesis explores the contribution of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in rural development processes. Within the framework of social capital theory, and in the context of the information society, the study examines how the collaborative and innovative model of ICT for Development (ICT4D) can enhance social networks and information channels in rural communities, thereby enabling the active participation of rural community members in their own development processes. The study examines networks and information channels both within the rural communities under investigation and between these communities and other sectors in the society. The thesis studies the case of the Siyakhula Living Lab (SLL), an ICT4D initiative in the Mbashe Municipality of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. During the investigation, four types of networks were identified: local organisations, social institutions, collective community projects and social ties. It was found that the Living Lab has so far influenced the creation of new forms of networks through the common spaces (computer labs) which have been made available by the Living Lab. The study further showed that the use of computers has enabled other community members to partake in the wider community of online/virtual social networks, allowing them to communicate and share information with those outside their own communities. The study also showed that the Living Lab has enabled the networking of these communities with other sectors such as academia. It was, however, found that so far the existence of the Living Lab has not influenced the already existing local networks in these communities. Also, the study showed that the relationship between these rural communities and their government and industry partners as stakeholders in the Living Lab is currently ineffective. Nevertheless, this situation has a potential to change in the future as there are ICT applications which have been developed through collaboration with rural community members, which will assist in enhancing communication between these rural communities and other stakeholders. The study finally revealed that social networks do contribute to the functioning of communities by providing both monetary and social support to community members, even though, in effect, the monetary benefits are somewhat limited by a number of factors. It is revealed that the engagement of ICT could go a long way in improving social and economic activities, governance and service delivery, as well as education in these communities.

Many Information and Communication Technologies for Development (ICTD) projects are established with the overall aim of positively developing the communities they are implemented in. However, the solutions that are provided are often commonly developed without the needs of these communities being sufficiently investigated beforehand. As a result the ICTD strategy of the project ends up not well aligned with the aims and targets of the needs of the community. As a result of this, an appropriate programme theory for the project and relevant impact indicators fail to be adequately developed. Consequently, when an impact assessment is conducted it is often found that the intended effects are not directly linked to the needs of the community or what the community had hoped to gain from the ICTD initiative. The purpose of this research serves to develop a needs-ICTD strategy alignment foundation that supports the identification and formulation of impact assessment indicators. Through this research, a framework is developed to support the alignment of ICTD strategy, the development and the promotion of contextual needs of rural communities and other frequently marginalized areas. The Needs-ICTD strategy alignment framework is composed of eight main components that describe the process that can be used to align ICTD strategy with community needs. These components include: collaboration between the internal and external stakeholders, the development of the community, conducting baseline studies, the needs assessment, the ICTD strategy, linking of the needs-ICTD strategy, and lastly the identification of impact indicators. An interpretive research approach is used to explore and inform the framework through a multi-case study investigation of the Siyakhula Living Lab and two projects in the Systems Application Products (SAP) Living Lab. Two main case study questions drive the exploration of the framework, that being: 1) How are the needs of the community elicited and how is the ICTD strategy aligned to the needs of the community? 2) And, why were the selected approaches chosen for aligning the needs of the community and ICTD strategy? Data for this research was collected qualitatively through interviews, document analysis and participant observation. Key findings indicate that the involvement of internal (local) stakeholders in the development and alignment of ICTD strategy to the needs of the community is still lacking. As a consequence, many community members end up not fully understanding the project objectives and how these objectives aims are to be achieved. The research also finds that ‘solution specific’ projects also fail communities as they focus specifically on one target group and repeatedly fail to assist the community holistically in supporting their information and their community development needs.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to assess the extent of the relevance and success of the empowerment model in facilitating and promoting rural development in South Africa. The assumption was that through active participation communities are able to gain control over their lives and are empowered to promote development successfully. In undertaking this study, the researcher initially reviewed literature on rural development, and thereafter presented and discussed various development methodologies used for realising community development, participation and empowerment. Three case studies selected for an indepth study were distinguishable as follows: the first case that could be regarded as "finished and unsuccessful", the second one that could be classified as "finished and successful", and the third one that could be labelled as "new and ongoing" with respect to rural development projects in the respective communities. A comparative analysis of the three case studies was undertaken with the purpose of establishing the "success" and "failure" in the projects designed to enhance community development and participation. The study shows quite clearly that development projects do not operate in a vacuum but are components of national, social and economic development policies, strategies and programmes for which governments often bear some degree of final responsibility. The success of development projects depends to a large extent on a number of issues, of which community participation and empowerment are the most important. Unless the community actively identifies itself with the project or at the least is involved from day one, in the decisionmaking process of the proposed project, it will be very difficult, if not impossible to achieve the project's developmental objectives. On the basis of the empirical findings, it was revealed that the prerequisites for a successful community development project depend on: a) the encouragement of active involvement, community participation and empowerment of communities for the purpose of enabling them to meet their needs, problems and aspirations; b) the completion in full of the cycle of the development methodology; c) the identification and handling of obstacles in the development cycle as the project unfolds to successful completion; d) the promotion of a facilitative role with regard to capacity building and skills transfer by development personnel; and e) the development of capacity for communities to take control over events influencing their lives (e.g. knowledge, skills, information, networks and support structures to mention a few). In conclusion, it is stressed that the development of people as individuals and as collective groups was central to community development. In doing so, a shift which placed heavy emphasis on resource management and service delivery to capacity building and skills transfer has to take place in order to promote development and social change, making communities progressively minded, desirous of improving their living conditions and capable of doing so through adopting a co-operative way of life for promoting group interests of the community as a whole. From the lessons learned in this study it was shown that the process of rural development can be promoted in a successful manner through the empowerment model which stresses community involvement and participation.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie navorsingsprojek was om vas te stel wat die omvang van toepaslikheid en sukses van die bemagtigingsmodel is, in die fasilitering en bevordering van plattelandse ontwikkeling in Suid-Afrika. Die veronderstelling was dat deur aktiewe deelname gemeenskappe in staat sal wees om beheer oor hulle lewe te verkry, en bemagtig sal wees om ontwikkeling suksesvol te promoveer. Met die aanvang van die navorsing, het die navorser eerstens relevante literatuur oor die plattelandse ontwikkeling nagegaan en daarna is verskeie ontwikkelingsmetodes (nasionaal en internasionaal), wat gebruik word vir die realisering van gemeenskapsontwikkeling, betrokkenheid en bemagtiging, aangebied en bespreek. Die drie gevallestudies wat gekies is vir die indiepte ondersoek, word as volg onderskei: die eerste geval kan beskou word as "voltooid en onsuksesvol", die tweede een kan geklassifiseer word as "voltooid en suksesvol", en die derde een kan beskou word as "nuut en in proses" met verwysing na plattelandse ontwikkelingsprojekte in onderskeie gemeenskappe. 'n Vergelykende analise van bogenoemde gevallestudies is onderneem met die doelom die sukses en mislukking van projekte wat ontwerp is om die gemeenskapsontwikkeling en deelname vas te stel. Dit is gevind dat ontwikkelingsprojekte nie in 'n lugleegte geskied nie, maar komponente is van nasionale, sosiale en ekonomiese ontwikkelingsbeleid, strategiee en programme waarvoor die regering meestal 'n mate van finale verantwoordelikheid dra. Die sukses van ontwikkelingsprojekte hang tot 'n groot mate af van 'n aantal kwessies, waarvan gemeenskapsbetrokkenheid en bemagtiging waarskynlik die belangrikste is, tensy die gemeenskap aktief identifiseer met die projek, of ten minste betrokke is van die begin af in die besluitnemingsproses van die betrokke projek, sal dit baie moeilik indien nie onmoontlik, wees om die projek se ontwikkelingstellings te bereik. Die literatuuroorsig het getoon dat die gebruik van ingevoerde westerse norme, standaarde, ontwerpe, regulasies, ens. In die fasilitering van gemeenskapsontwikkeling, in die besonder in plattelandse gebiede, dikwels tot gevolg het dat die projek vervreemding by die plaaslike omgewing veroorsaak. Vir die sukses van die fasiliteringsproses, was vasgestel dat klem op die aanmoediging van, betrokkenheid en deelname by die gebruikers van 'n gevestigde fasiliteit, bekwaamheid oordra en die onderskraging van die projekte inisieer. Op grond van die empiriese bevindings is vasgestel dat vereistes vir 'n suksesvolle gemeenskapsontwikkelingsprojek afhang van: a) die aanmoediging van aktiewe betrokkenheid, gemeenskapsdeelname en bemagtiging van gemeenskappe ten einde hulle in staat te stelom hul behoeftes, probleme en aspirasies te volvoer; b) die voltooiing van die siklus van die ontwikelingsmetodologie; c) die identifisering en hantering van slaggate in die ontwikkelingsiklus soos die projek ontvou tot die suksesvolle voltooiing daarvan; d) die promovering van 'n raadgewende rol ten opsigte van die kapsiteit uitbouing en bemagtigingsoorplasing by die ontwikkelingspersoneel; en e) die ontwikkeling van kapasiteit vir gemeenskappe om beheer uit te oefen oor gebeure wat hul lewens beinvloed (bv. kennis, bemagtiging, inligtingnetwerke en ondersteuningstrukture, om maar 'n paar te noem). Ten slotte is beklemtoon dat sentraal tot gemeenskapsontwikkeling, die ontwikkeling van mense as individue en as kollektiewe groepe is. Daardeur vind 'n groot klemverskuiwing plaas vanaf hulpbronbestuur en dienslewering tot kapasiteituitbouing en bemagtigingsoorplasing. Dit moet plaasvind ten einde ontwikkeling en sosiale verandering te promoveer en gemeenskappe in 'n vooruitstrewende gesindheid te plaas, begeerte na verbeterde lewensomstandighede, en die vaardigheid om dit te doen deur aanvaarding van 'n gemeenskaplike lewenswyse, vir bevordering van die groepsbelange van die gemeenskap as 'n geheel. Wat uit hierdie studie geleer is, bevestig dat deur die bemagtigingsmodel wat gemeenskapsbetrokkenheid en deelname beklemtoon, landelike ontwikkeling wel ontwikkeling suksesvol kan promoveer.

The problem that is researched in this study relates to the effectiveness of the extension model applied in the High Value Crop programme in improving rural livelihoods in the Eastern Cape. The extent of poverty in rural areas in the Eastern Cape motivated for the intervention of the Is‘Baya through the introduction of Integrated Village Renewal Programme (IVRP). The need to improve the quality of life of rural households through the promotion of agriculture and industry gave rise to the collaborative effort between the Is‘Baya Development Trust and Agricultural Research Council (ARC) in South Africa. The HVC programme was established to mitigate the effects of food shortage and poverty through the production of fruit trees, herbs and vegetables at household level. Evaluation of the effectiveness of this collaborative effort was carried out in four local municipalities of the OR Tambo District and these included: King Sabata Dalindyebo municipality (Zangci); Nyadeni municipality (Hluleka); Port St Johns municipality (Noqhekwana) and Ngquza Hill municipality (Hombe). An equal number of villages where Siyazondla was implemented by DRDAR were visited for the survey to relate the extension model applied with HVC. The villages visited included: OR Tambo (Mhlontlo local municipality) Xhokonxa village; Amathole (Amahlathi local municipality) Ndakana village, (Ngqushwa local municipality) Mgababa village and (Mbhashe local municipality) Mbanyana village. The broad objective of the study therefore, was to evaluate the effectiveness of the extension model applied on the HVC programme as well as to identify the roles and responsibilities of different stakeholders involved in the model. The specific objectives of the study were to describe the HVC based extension model as it is currently organized and implemented in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa in relation to the erstwhile Siyazondla programme, to establish the effectiveness of the extension model in terms of skills transfer and capacity development, to determine the socio-economic impact of the extension model on the livelihood of involved households, to establish the extent to which the extension model has empowered women and youths and to study the factors that has contributed to the sustainability of the extension model. In carrying out this research and in line with the practice of Agricultural Research for Development (ARD), qualitative and quantitative methods of information gathering were applied. Group approach such as the Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA) and the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods of data collection were used. These tools include semi-structured interviews, focus-group discussions, transect walks, seasonal calendars, key-informant interviews, resource maps and secondary data. A sample of 149 respondents was selected from eight villages in the OR Tambo and Amathole districts. The HVC model was analysed using qualitative approach, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. The Is‘Baya/ARC extension model is thus said to be effective in meeting the objectives of the HVC programme due to the efficient transfer of skills and technology and its positive impact on the livelihood of the people. There was also an improvement of the income and food security status of the rural dwellers in O.R Tambo district. The regression analysis model was applied and the results of the model were significant to the highest income earned. Out of 22 explanatory variables fitted in the regression model, 12 were significant. The R² and adjusted R² are 73 percent and 68 percent respectively which shows the significance of the fitted variables in the model. The very high F value of 15.427 shows strong significance of the fitted variables to the model. The study therefore concluded that the HVC based extension model implemented by Is‘Baya and ARC was very effective in improving rural livelihoods. The study further recommended investment in infrastructure, market linkages, value adding, public-private partnerships, creation of tenure security, investigation of different funding sources, investment on agricultural research, extension of skills provided and implementation of similar model by the public sector.

The de-industrialisation process that was a common feature of North America and Western Europe in the 1970s, through into the 1980s has become an observable feature in African countries and South Africa in particular in the last two decades. Globally, hard hit areas include those associated with the early Industrial Revolution characterised by mass production and the agglomeration of iron and steel, coal and textile industries. General changes in the global market, especially the falling demand for extractive heavy minerals like coal and gold have also affected many countries region and localities. In the case of South Mrica, the previous high economic dependence on mined minerals like coal and gold has resulted in many once prosperous mining regions of the country being reduced to a shadow of their former selves. The worst affected areas in South Africa are those of the Klerksdorp Goldfields in the North West Province and Free State Goldfields, with the latter alone losing 100,000 jobs during the 1990s. This trend has also been acute in the coal-mining industry of the KwaZulu-Natal province since the late 1970s. The firms that had grown in the shadow of the major mining company supplyipg machinery, or who processed the semi-manufactured product are also severely affected by the closing down and restructuring in the mining and iron industries. These industries have often been forced to close down because of a break in the vital connections they developed with these mining industries. Such localised economic crisis has encouraged the universal trend towards the devolution of developmental responsibilities to the local governments and other local stakeholders to - empower them to respond to these changes. This study investigated the local economic initiatives which have been undertaken in the three municipalities of north-western KwaZulu Natal i.e. Utrecht, Dundee and Dannhauser to respond to the closures which have taken place in the mining industry of this region, which used to be among the most prosperous coal mining regions of South Africa. Using their new developmental mandate the local governments, in partnership with the communities and other external interveners have tried to respond to these localised economic crisis and also indirectly to the general poverty and underdevelopment, which characterises this region of KwaZulu-Natal. The effects of apartheid policies, and previous discriminatory rural development policies in, particular, and the Regional Industrial Development policy, which was intensively applied in the 1980s by the pre-1994 government regime, have further compounded the magnitude of the challenge. The lack of capacity in some municipalities has constrained successful implementation of Local Economic Development has led to some communities acting alone to face their situation with or without external intervention.

Text in English
Sustainable development empowers poverty-affected people and communities by strengthening their capabilities. HRDP, a Bangladeshi development agency aims to achieve this goal by offering literacy classes and primary school edu-cation. In recent years, they have encountered obstacles to their empowerment strategy. Socio-cultural mediated expectations and moral obligations impeded the capability approach. This case study seeks to research the effects of entitlement and patronage on the empowerment of people in one of their projects. To be able to understand these structures and to determine possible implications for the asset-based ap-proach, 14 interviews and two focus-group discussions with local stakeholders have been conducted in the village of Gabtali, Bangladesh. Findings revealed that people desire to invest their own assets to increase their well-being, but expect assistance for this to happen. The study suggests align-ing expectations and obligations with the capability approach and also suggests a few ideas how this could be accomplished.
Development Studies
M.A. (Development studies)

Communal forests occupy one million hectares in the Northern of Portugal and Galicia. Since centuries ago, “Baldios” and “Montes Veciñais en Man Común” (MVMC) played an essential function in the economy of their owner communities. This role was lost all through the last century due to the enormous afforestation and the decrease of agriculture. The restitution of democratic regimes returned the communal forests tenure to the communities. Given the extension and high average area, our paper aims to research its potentialities and limitations of contribution to rural development. Two case studies, one in North Portugal and another one in Galicia, allow identifying the individual and collective traditional uses and the achievements made with revenues linked. Both Galician and Portuguese realities exhibit similarities and complementary benefits, and needing social and economic innovation to make a better use of rural resilience. Communal lands and small-scale business projects could maintain the network of local produce markets with attractive aesthetic values as well as biodiversity conservation. The comparison of the different criteria shows economic aspects are the most valorised by the stakeholders. The management decision of collective forests was the alternative mixed by the communities and the Forestry Services as the best one to complete the main objective of sustainable rural development. As a final conclusion of our work, remarking that the communities owning these forests currently seem to have the conditions to successfully manage their properties if the commoners are able to mobilize and adequate organize the communities.