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1
Miller, Peter M., Martin K. Scanlan, and Kate Phillippo. "Rural Cross-Sector Collaboration." American Educational Research Journal 54, no. 1_suppl (2017): 193S—215S. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0002831216665188.
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Schools throughout the United States apply comprehensive community partnership strategies to address students’ in- and out-of-school needs. Drawing from models like the Harlem Children’s Zone, Promise Neighborhoods, and full-service community schools, such strategies call for diverse professionals to reach beyond their own organizations to collaborate with complementary partners. Extant research on cross-sector collaboration focuses disproportionately on urban settings. This qualitative study examined three years of cross-sector collaboration in “Midvale,” a rural community in the western United States. Applying the conceptual framework of social frontiers, it illuminates how issues of difference, competition, and resource constraint impacted cross-sector collaboration in Midvale’s rural context.
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Chambers, Crystal, Loni Crumb, and Christie Harris. "A Call for Dreamkeepers in Rural United States." Theory & Practice in Rural Education 9, no. 1 (2019): 7–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3776/tpre.2019.v9n1p7-22.
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Highly effective teachers not only are the percolators of student dreams but also actively convey their hopes and dreams, catalyzing student dreams of further education. Within rural education contexts, there are not enough Dreamkeepers—teachers, counselors, and other school personnel who inspire student success. This article explores the college aspiration gap among ninth graders by population density. The authors posit that the college enrollment gap between urban/suburban and town/rural students is correlated with this aspiration gap, which in turn is fueled by a lack of Dreamkeepers. They explored this using the High School Longitudinal Survey of 2009, comparing student postsecondary aspirations by locale and connecting those to student perceptions of their teachers’ expectations for their success. Differences emerged between urban and rural students concerning the intensity with which ninth graders perceived teachers’ expectations for their future successes. This article begins with a contextual discussion of social perceptions of urbanicity compared to rurality and then turns to a discussion of rural students’ college aspirations and the role of families and schools therein. Implications for further research and practice are discussed.
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Willgerodt, Mayumi A., Douglas M. Brock, and Erin D. Maughan. "Public School Nursing Practice in the United States." Journal of School Nursing 34, no. 3 (2018): 232–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1059840517752456.
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School nursing practice has changed dramatically over the past 20 years, yet few nationally representative investigations describing the school nursing workforce have been conducted. The National School Nurse Workforce Study describes the demographic and school nursing practice patterns among self-reported public school nurses and the number and full-time equivalent (FTE) positions of all school nurses in the United States. Using a random sample stratified by public/private, region, school level, and urban/rural status from two large national data sets, we report on weighted survey responses of 1,062 public schools. Additional questions were administered to estimate the school nurse population and FTEs. Findings reported illustrate differences by strata in public school nurse demographics, practice patterns, and nursing activities and tasks. We estimate approximately 132,300 self-identified practicing public and private school nurses and 95,800 FTEs of school nurses in the United States. Research, policy, and school nursing practice implications are discussed.
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Stoddard, Christiana, and Eugenia F. Toma. "Introduction to Special Topic: Rural Education Finance and Policy." AERA Open 7 (January 2021): 233285842110116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23328584211011607.
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This special topic takes stock of the current state of rural education finance and policy research. Taken together the articles in this special topic highlight a major point. Rural districts and schools not only differ from those in urban areas but also differ from one another. This is perhaps not surprising given the heterogeneity of school size, community size, demographics, and the degree of rurality of schools across the United States. The articles pose a challenge for policymakers. Policies that serve one state or one rural community may not be relevant or helpful to another. Policy solutions must recognize the diversity of education challenges across and within states.
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Fogle, Lyn Wright, and Kelly Moser. "Language Teacher Identities in the Southern United States: Transforming Rural Schools." Journal of Language, Identity & Education 16, no. 2 (2017): 65–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2016.1277147.
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Mu, Lan, Yusi Liu, Donglan Zhang, et al. "Rurality and Origin–Destination Trajectories of Medical School Application and Matriculation in the United States." ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 10, no. 6 (2021): 417. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10060417.
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Physician shortages are more pronounced in rural than in urban areas. The geography of medical school application and matriculation could provide insights into geographic differences in physician availability. Using data from the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), we conducted geospatial analyses, and developed origin–destination (O–D) trajectories and conceptual graphs to understand the root cause of rural physician shortages. Geographic disparities exist at a significant level in medical school applications in the US. The total number of medical school applications increased by 38% from 2001 to 2015, but the number had decreased by 2% in completely rural counties. Most counties with no medical school applicants were in rural areas (88%). Rurality had a significant negative association with the application rate and explained 15.3% of the variation at the county level. The number of medical school applications in a county was disproportional to the population by rurality. Applicants from completely rural counties (2% of the US population) represented less than 1% of the total medical school applications. Our results can inform recruitment strategies for new medical school students, elucidate location decisions of new medical schools, provide recommendations to close the rural–urban gap in medical school applications, and reduce physician shortages in rural areas.
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Sarachan-Deily, Ann Beth. "Preparation of teachers to work with communicatively handicapped students in rural schools." Rural Special Education Quarterly 7, no. 3 (1986): 6–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/875687058600700303.
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There is a shortage of qualified speech-language pathologists in rural school districts throughout the United States. As a result, many communicatively handicapped students in rural areas are underserved. The need for information concerning communication disorders in rural areas, at both the preservice and in service levels, has become critical. The results of a three-year collaborative project between The College of Saint Rose and fifteen rural school districts in upstate New York are presented, with implications for other universities, rural school districts, and academic disciplines. Suggestions for using collaborative strategies in preparing communication disordered students to work in rural schools, and needs for the future are discussed.
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Mitchell, Robert, Allison Wynhoff Olsen, Patrick Hampton, James Hicks, Danette Long, and Kristofer Olsen. "Rural Exposures: An Examination of Three Initiatives to Introduce and Immerse Preservice Teachers into Rural Communities and Rural Schools in the U.S. and Australia." Rural Educator 40, no. 2 (2019): 12–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v40i2.847.
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One ongoing challenge that educator preparation programs frequently encounter is their limited ability to authentically expose preservice teachers (PSTs) to rural schools and potential careers in rural school districts. To remedy this concern, faculty at three institutions in both the United States and Australia have developed targeted initiatives designed to provide initial exposure to rural schools, build a rural-intensive element within a practicum course, and establish rural immersion experiences for PSTs. A detailed look at the structure of these programs, a comparison of these three diverse approaches, and recommendations for the expansion and sustainability of these efforts are highlighted within this narrative. Through this comparison of activities being advanced in both countries, the authors provide a better understanding of the options and effectiveness related to initial rural school exposure.
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McLeskey, James, E. Scott Huebner, and Jack A. Cummings. "Rural School Psychology in the United States." School Psychology International 7, no. 1 (1986): 20–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014303438600700103.
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The unique ecology of rural settings results in difficulty with regard to the delivery of psychological services. The investigation reported herein was designed to determine the particular problems which are perceived as most extreme by school psychologists from the United States practising in rural areas of four selected states. Psychologists were asked to rank ten problem statements from most to least severe in relation to their job setting. Results reveal that limited accessibility to community resources, lack of understanding of exceptional children by parents or school staff, heavy caseload, and limited availability of alternative special education programme options were the most severe problems faced by school psychologists in the settings surveyed. The implications of these problems for the training of school psychologists and for professional practice are discussed.
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Shankar, P. Ravi, Arun K. Dubey, Atanu Nandy, Burton L. Herz, and Brian W. Little. "Student perception about working in rural United States/Canada after graduation: a study in an offshore Caribbean medical school." F1000Research 3 (December 10, 2014): 301. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.5927.1.
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Introduction: Rural residents of the United States (US) and Canada face problems in accessing healthcare. International medical graduates (IMGs) play an important role in delivering rural healthcare. IMGs from Caribbean medical schools have the highest proportion of physicians in primary care. Xavier University School of Medicines admits students from the US, Canada and other countries to the undergraduate medical (MD) course and also offers a premedical program. The present study was conducted to obtain student perception about working in rural US/Canada after graduation. Methods: The study was conducted among premedical and preclinical undergraduate medical (MD) students during October 2014. The questionnaire used was modified from a previous study. Semester of study, gender, nationality, place of residence and occupation of parents were noted. Information about whether students plan to work in rural US/Canada after graduation, possible reasons why doctors are reluctant to work in rural areas, how the government can encourage rural practice, possible problems respondents anticipate while working in rural areas were among the topics studied.Results: Ninety nine of the 108 students (91.7%) participated. Forty respondents were in favor of working in rural US/Canada after graduation. Respondents mentioned good housing, regular electricity, water supply, telecommunication facilities, and schools for education of children as important conditions to be fulfilled. The government should provide higher salaries to rural doctors, help with loan repayment, and provide opportunities for professional growth. Potential problems mentioned were difficulty in being accepted by the rural community, problems in convincing patients to follow medical advice, lack of exposure to rural life among the respondents, and cultural issues.Conclusions: About 40% of respondents would consider working in rural US/Canada. Conditions required to be fulfilled have been mentioned above. Graduates from Caribbean medical schools have a role in addressing rural physician shortage. Similar studies in other offshore Caribbean medical schools are required as Caribbean IMGs make an important contribution to the rural US and Canadian health workforce.
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Shankar, P. Ravi, Arun K. Dubey, Atanu Nandy, Burton L. Herz, and Brian W. Little. "Student perception about working in rural United States/Canada after graduation: a study in an offshore Caribbean medical school." F1000Research 3 (April 23, 2015): 301. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.5927.2.
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Introduction: Rural residents of the United States (US) and Canada face problems in accessing healthcare. International medical graduates (IMGs) play an important role in delivering rural healthcare. IMGs from Caribbean medical schools have the highest proportion of physicians in primary care. Xavier University School of Medicines admits students from the US, Canada and other countries to the undergraduate medical (MD) course and also offers a premedical program. The present study was conducted to obtain student perception about working in rural US/Canada after graduation. Methods: The study was conducted among premedical and preclinical undergraduate medical (MD) students during October 2014. The questionnaire used was modified from a previous study. Semester of study, gender, nationality, place of residence and occupation of parents were noted. Information about whether students plan to work in rural US/Canada after graduation, possible reasons why doctors are reluctant to work in rural areas, how the government can encourage rural practice, possible problems respondents anticipate while working in rural areas were among the topics studied.Results: Ninety nine of the 108 students (91.7%) participated. Forty respondents were in favor of working in rural US/Canada after graduation. Respondents mentioned good housing, regular electricity, water supply, telecommunication facilities, and schools for education of children as important conditions to be fulfilled. The government should provide higher salaries to rural doctors, help with loan repayment, and provide opportunities for professional growth. Potential problems mentioned were difficulty in being accepted by the rural community, problems in convincing patients to follow medical advice, lack of exposure to rural life among the respondents, and cultural issues.Conclusions: About 40% of respondents would consider working in rural US/Canada. Conditions required to be fulfilled have been mentioned above. Graduates from Caribbean medical schools have a role in addressing rural physician shortage. Similar studies in other offshore Caribbean medical schools are required as Caribbean IMGs make an important contribution to the rural US and Canadian health workforce.
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Blinn‐Pike, Lynn. "Sex education in rural schools in the United States: impact of rural educators' community identities." Sex Education 8, no. 1 (2008): 77–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14681810701811845.
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Cobb, Casey D., and Gene V. Glass. "Ethnic Segregation in Arizona Charter Schools." education policy analysis archives 7 (January 14, 1999): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v7n1.1999.
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Among the criticisms of charter schools is their potential to further stratify schools along ethnic and class lines. This study addressed whether Arizona charter schools are more ethnically segregated than traditional public schools. In 1996-97, Arizona had nearly one in four of all charter schools in the United States. The analysis involved a series of comparisons between the ethnic compositions of adjacent charter and public schools in Arizona's most populated region and its rural towns. This methodology differed from the approach of many evaluations of charter schools and ethnic stratification in that it incorporated the use of geographic maps to compare schools' ethnic make-ups. The ethnic compositions of 55 urban and 57 rural charter schools were inspected relative to their traditional public school neighbors.
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Zuckerman, Sarah. "The Role of Rural School Leaders in a School-Community Partnership." Theory & Practice in Rural Education 10, no. 1 (2020): 73–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.3776/tpre.2020.v10n1p73-91.
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Rural schools play central roles in their communities, and rural education scholars advocate for rural school-community partnerships to support school and community renewal. Across the United States, including in rural areas, formal models for school-community partnerships have been scaled up. The literature on rural principals highlights their roles in developing school-community partnerships, yet questions remain as to how school leaders engage in such partnerships. Using boundary-spanning leadership as a theoretical lens, this descriptive study examines the role of district and school leaders in a regional school-community partnership, including as founding members, champions of collaboration, cheerleaders for the partnership, and amplifiers of often excluded voices.
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Love, Hayley, Nirmita Panchal, John Schlitt, Caroline Behr, and Samira Soleimanpour. "The Use of Telehealth in School-Based Health Centers." Global Pediatric Health 6 (January 2019): 2333794X1988419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2333794x19884194.
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Telehealth is a growing model of delivering health care. School-based health centers (SBHCs) provide access to health care for youth in schools and increasingly use telehealth in care delivery. This article examines the recent growth of telehealth use in SBHCs, and characteristics of SBHCs using telehealth, including provider types, operational characteristics, and schools and students served. The percentage of SBHCs using telehealth grew from 7% in 2007-2008 to 19% in 2016-2017. Over 1 million students in over 1800 public schools have access to an SBHC using telehealth, which represents 2% of students and nearly 2% of public schools in the United States. These SBHCs are primarily in rural communities and sponsored by hospitals. This growing model presents an opportunity to expand health care access to youth, particularly in underserved areas in the United States and globally. Further research is needed to fully describe how telehealth programs are implemented in school settings and their potential impacts.
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Kimbrel, Laurie A. "Understanding Teacher Hiring Practices in Rural, Urban, Suburban Schools in the United States." International Journal of Education 11, no. 3 (2019): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ije.v11i3.14925.
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The link between student success and teacher quality has been made clear by decades of research; therefore, it is imperative that principals hire the teachers most likely to impact student outcomes positively. Hiring high-quality teachers is especially important in urban and rural schools where students are more likely to face a variety of family and community-based barriers to learning. This study was designed to examine the actual hiring processes utilized in schools located in urban, rural, and suburban communities in the USA to determine the extent to which differences exist and whether those differences are likely to impact teacher quality. Data were gathered using a survey e-mailed to principals in ten states in the southern and western regions of the United States. Analysis indicated that differences in application, hiring processes, and the criteria used for decision making exist and may result in unequal teacher quality.
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Klar, Hans W., Peter Moyi, Rose M. Ylimaki, et al. "Getting Off the List: Leadership, Learning, and Context in Two Rural, High-Needs Schools." Journal of School Leadership 30, no. 1 (2019): 62–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1052684619867474.
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In this article, we report findings from two cases of rural, high-needs elementary schools in the Southeastern United States that successfully improved learning outcomes for their students. As illustrated by our findings, a combination of effective teacher professional development, focused student learning initiatives, and enhanced community and family involvement contributed to the removal of the schools from priority and below average designations. In addition to illustrating the leadership practices that positively influenced improvement efforts in these two schools, and expanding the nascent body of scholarship on context-responsive leadership, our findings serve as a starting point for a larger project centered on the nexus of school leader agency in increasingly diverse cultural contexts.
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Trotman, Janina. "Women Teachers in Western Australian “Bush” Schools, 1900-1939: Passive Victims of Oppressive Structures?" History of Education Quarterly 46, no. 2 (2006): 248–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2006.tb00067.x.
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Demography, distance, and die expansion of settlements created problems for the State Department of Education in Western Australia and other Australian states in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Educational administration in Canada and parts of the United States faced similar issues with regard to the provision of schools. A common response was the establishment of one-teacher rural schools, frequently run by young, and sometimes unclassified, female teachers. In the United States locally elected school boards were the primary source of regulation, but in late nineteenth-century Western Australia such local boards had been stripped of their powers and were answerable to the newly established, highly centralized Education Department. Formal regulated teachers. The masculinized system of the Department and its inspectorate. All the same, however, the local community still exerted informal controls over the lives of teachers working and living in small settlements.
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Tieken, Mara Casey, and Trevor Ray Auldridge-Reveles. "Rethinking the School Closure Research: School Closure as Spatial Injustice." Review of Educational Research 89, no. 6 (2019): 917–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0034654319877151.
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Recent mass closings of schools have rocked cities across the United States. Though these urban closures—and widespread community protests—have made headlines, rural schools have also long experienced and opposed the closure of their schools. A large body of research examines these urban and rural closures from a variety of perspectives, including their economic motivations and policy implications. This review reexamines this literature, looking across context to show how school closure can produce spatial injustice. Advocates argue that closures further academic opportunity, efficiency, and equality. But our analysis shows that closures are unevenly distributed, disproportionately affecting places where poor communities and communities of color live, and they can bring negative effects, harming students and adults and reducing their access to an important educational and community institution. We conclude with recommendations for research and practice.
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Kraemer, Bonnie R., Samuel L. Odom, Brianne Tomaszewski, et al. "Quality of high school programs for students with autism spectrum disorder." Autism 24, no. 3 (2019): 707–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362361319887280.
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The purpose of the study was to examine the quality of high school programs for students with autism spectrum disorder in the United States. The Autism Program Environment Rating Scale–Middle/High School was used to rate the quality of programs for students with autism spectrum disorder in 60 high schools located in three geographic locations in the United States (CA, NC, and WI). Findings indicated that the total quality rating across schools was slightly above the adequate criterion. Higher quality ratings occurred for program environment, learning climate, family participation, and teaming domains. However, quality ratings for intervention domains related to the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (e.g. communication, social, independence, functional behavior, and transition) were below the adequate quality rating level. Also, quality ratings for transition were significantly higher for modified (primarily self-contained) programs than standard diploma (primarily served in general education) programs. School urbanicity was a significant predictor of program quality, with suburban schools having higher quality ratings than urban or rural schools, controlling for race, school enrollment size, and Title 1 eligibility status. Implications for working with teachers and school teams that support high school students with autism spectrum disorder should include a targeted focus on transition programming that includes a breadth of work-based learning experiences and activities that support social-communication domains.
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Fisher, Molly, and Ben Crawford. "“From School of Crisis to Distinguished”." Rural Educator 41, no. 1 (2020): 8–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v41i1.831.
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Despite conditions that would work against a small and rural school in an impoverish rural area of the United States, Fairway Elementary School has managed to excel in its accountability measures. Through interviews with faculty, staff, teachers, students, and parents of children at Fairway Elementary School a model was developed through the lens of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. It was found that a new administrator at the school started with the physiological needs of the children and are now working within the esteem stage of Maslow’s Hierarchy. Details from each stage of the hierarchy are provided as a promising practice for other rural schools. Fairway Elementary continues to succeed in their efforts to improve not only student achievement, but the culture of their school within an impoverished community.
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DiMartino, Nicholas A., and Susan M. Schultz. "Students and Perceived Screen Time: How Often Are Students in a Rural School District Looking at Screened Devices?" Rural Special Education Quarterly 39, no. 3 (2020): 128–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/8756870520921638.
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As technology advances across the United States, schools should consider not only the benefits of using screened devices but also the short- and long-term effects on student health. Both the positive and negative effects of using devices are often intensified for students in rural schools, as online learning and the use of e-therapy becomes more prevalent. The purpose of this study was to investigate stakeholders’ perceptions of device use in one eighth-grade cohort in a rural school, differences between device use by students with and without disabilities, and to provide an awareness of student screen time exposure and its potential consequences. Basic qualitative methods were used to assess student, teacher, and parent perceptions of screen time use and perceptions of the recommended daily allowance of screen time in an eighth-grade cohort in a rural western New York school. Findings suggest that students, parents, and teachers perceive screen time as “excessive.” Implications for practice and future inquiry are reported.
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Monteiro-Leitner, Julieta, Kimberly K. Asner-Self, Cheryl Milde, Dennis W. Leitner, and Doris Skelton. "The Role of the Rural School Counselor: Counselor, Counselor-in-Training, and Principal Perceptions." Professional School Counseling 9, no. 3 (2006): 2156759X0500900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2156759x0500900307.
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The American School Counselor Association developed a comprehensive set of school counseling guidelines to enhance the school counselor's role within schools in the United States. This study looks at counselors’ and principals’ perceptions of the school counselor's role in a Midwestern, regional rural educational environment. Results suggest that the perceptions of school counselors, counselors-in-training, and principals are, for the most part, similar. Differences occur in relation to addressing student (i.e., special education program versus student guidance) and administrative (i.e., clerical, secretarial, disciplinary duties) needs given limited personnel and economic resources. Limitations are discussed and suggestions for future research and advocacy are presented.
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Steffes, Tracy L. "Solving the “Rural School Problem”: New State Aid, Standards, and Supervision of Local Schools, 1900–1933." History of Education Quarterly 48, no. 2 (2008): 181–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2008.00140.x.
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“The greatest educational problem now facing the American people is the Rural School Problem,” argued Minnesota county superintendent Julius Arp in 1918. “There is no defect more glaring today than the inequality that exists between the educational facilities of the urban and rural communities. Rural education in the United States has been so far outstripped by the education of our urban centers, that from an educational standpoint, the country child is left far behind in the struggles of life.” This conceptualization of the Rural School Problem, framed within a larger national discussion about the growing disparity between urban and rural life wrought by industrialization, galvanized a broad based coalition of educators, ministers, farmers, agro-businessmen, sociologists, and social reformers into a robust campaign for rural school reform in the early twentieth century. Often lost in recent education histories which have paid much greater attention to urban school reform, this rural school movement had far-reaching consequences, not only for local school governance in the countryside, but for emerging state administration of education. The Rural School Problem, this article argues, helped to stimulate and legitimate significant new state interventions into local schools and define the forms of state aid, regulation, and bureaucracy in a formative period of state development.
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Vollrath, Dietrich. "Inequality and school funding in the rural United States, 1890." Explorations in Economic History 50, no. 2 (2013): 267–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2012.11.003.
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Farmer, Thomas W., Robert Petrin, Debbie Sprott Brooks, Jill V. Hamm, Kerrylin Lambert, and Maggie Gravelle. "Bullying Involvement and the School Adjustment of Rural Students With and Without Disabilities." Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 20, no. 1 (2010): 19–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1063426610392039.
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Bullying involvement status (i.e., bully, victim, bully–victim) and school adjustment were examined in a sample of 1,389 fifth graders (745 female, 644 male) including 145 special education students who were served in general education classrooms for at least 50% of the day. The sample was drawn from 35 rural schools in seven states across all geographic areas of the United States. School adjustment difficulties including internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were most pronounced in students who were identified as bully–victims (students who were identified as both victims and perpetrators of bullying). In contrast, bullies tended to have more positive interpersonal characteristics and fewer negative ones than youth who were identified as victims or bully–victims. Furthermore, compared to their nondisabled peers, students who received special education services had elevated rates of involvement as victims and bully–victims, but not as bullies. Implications for intervention are discussed.
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Johnson, James E., Allison K. Manwell, and Beau F. Scott. "An Examination of Competitive Balance within Interscholastic Football." Journal of Amateur Sport 5, no. 1 (2019): 21–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.17161/jas.v5i1.6708.
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Interscholastic football has the highest participation rates among high school students in the United States. The popularity and nostalgic connection of football is widespread, but competitive balance is often challenged due to differing characteristics of high schools. This study utilized the theory of distributive justice and data from high school athletic associations in all 50 states and District of Columbia to consider which variables (public/private status, school population, rural/urban location, geographical region, and policies) may impact competitive balance at the state-championship level of interscholastic football. The results confirmed that traditionally strong private schools generally located in the Midwest and Northeast win state titles at disproportionately high rates. No other variable was as powerful or significant as the public/private variable. The findings of the study also challenged the effectiveness of existing policies designed to curb private school success. These results can serve pragmatic efforts to ensure competitive balance within interscholastic football.
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McClain, Margy. "Mexican Immigrant Students in Southern Wisconsin: Creating Dialogue Between Parents and Schools." Practicing Anthropology 24, no. 3 (2002): 9–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17730/praa.24.3.l072260h7662861v.
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Current immigration to the U. S. consists mostly of individuals from Latin America, Asia, and Africa, and brings new kinds of cultural and linguistic diversity to the U. S. The demographic transformation of the United States is already visible in such states as California, which has become a "majority minority" state. This "new immigration" is changing the face of the U. S. in new ways as well, not only in established urban "first ports of entry," but also in smaller towns and semi-rural areas throughout the country.
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Go, Sun, and Peter Lindert. "The Uneven Rise of American Public Schools to 1850." Journal of Economic History 70, no. 1 (2010): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050710000033.
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Three factors help to explain why school enrollments in the Northern United States were higher than those in the South and in most of Europe by 1850. One was affordability: the northern schools had lower direct costs relative to income. The second was the greater autonomy of local governments. The third was the greater diffusion of voting power among the citizenry in much of the North, especially in rural communities. The distribution of local political voice appears to be a robust predictor of tax support and enrollments, both within and between regions. Extra local voice raised tax support without crowding out private support for education.
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Yajun, Jiang. "English as a Chinese language." English Today 19, no. 2 (2003): 3–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266078403002013.
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Some observations on the possible indigenization of English in mainland China. China boasts the largest English-learning population in the world. ‘It seems there are more people learning to speak English in China than there are English speakers in the whole of the United States’. Over 200 million children, about 20% of the total in the world, are learning English in schools, and about 13 million young people at university. The Chinese government has decided to offer English as a compulsory course nationwide from the third year at primary school. While schools in rural areas are trying to find qualified English teachers, those in large cities like Beijing and Shanghai have begun to do so as soon as the children start school at the age of six.
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Shiffman, Catherine Dunn. "Supporting Immigrant Families and Rural Schools: The Boundary-Spanning Possibilities of an Adult ESL Program." Educational Administration Quarterly 55, no. 4 (2018): 537–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013161x18809344.
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Purpose: There has been a significant increase in the number of immigrant families moving to rural communities across the United States. Yet limited research exists that explores relationships between immigrant families and schools in these communities. Rural school districts are often challenged by insufficient resources, expertise, and infrastructure to respond. Adult English as a second language (ESL) programs can be valuable partners. This article explores how instructors in a regional adult ESL program supported relationships between immigrant families and schools in a rural Virginia school district. Research Methods: A case study was conducted between 2014 and 2015. Data collection included observations of adult ESL classes; semistructured interviews with adult ESL instructors, parents of school-age children, and school district leaders and teachers; open-ended questions on a parent survey; and documents. Findings: Four interrelated practices of the adult ESL instructors facilitated understanding and communication between immigrant families and K-12 educators. Adult ESL instructors disseminated information, explained cultural norms and expectations, coached family-school interactions, and created opportunities to connect families and educators. Supporting conditions included characteristics of the adult ESL classes, district leadership and sense of urgency, and multilayered relationships of professionals and actions of the adult ESL coordinator. Implications for Practice: Given the right conditions, adult ESL programs can be valuable partners for rural education leaders seeking to strengthen engagement with immigrant families. These programs can facilitate linkages between schools and adult ESL learners who are parents or caregivers and can be a professional development resource for building district capacity to engage with immigrant families.
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Running Bear, Candi, William P. A. Terrill, Adriana Frates, Patricia Peterson, and Judith Ulrich. "Challenges for Rural Native American Students With Disabilities During COVID-19." Rural Special Education Quarterly 40, no. 2 (2021): 60–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/8756870520982294.
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The COVID-19 pandemic unexpectedly changed almost all aspects of people’s everyday lives. This included new challenges in the education of Native American students with disabilities who live in rural and remote areas of the United States. Native American students with disabilities living on reservations are served by local schools, tribally controlled schools, and Bureau of Indian Education schools under the provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. In rural reservation communities during COVID-19, special education services for students with disabilities were significantly disrupted. Contributing factors were high rates of poverty, lack of adequate funding and staffing for health care, populations with higher rates of chronic illness, high percentages of homes with no running water or electricity, shortages of certified special educators, and barriers to alternative forms of education due to lack of access to high-speed internet and technology.
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Turner, Jon Scott, Kim Finch, and Ximena Uribe-Zarain. "The Economics of a Four-Day School Week: Community and Business Leaders’ Perspectives." Applied Economics and Finance 5, no. 2 (2018): 168. http://dx.doi.org/10.11114/aef.v5i2.2947.
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The four-day school week is a concept that has been utilized in rural schools in the United States for decades and the number of schools moving to the four-day school week is growing. In many rural communities, the school district is the largest regional employer which provides a region with permanent, high paying jobs that support the local economy. This study collects data from 71 community and business leaders in three rural school districts that have transitioned to the four-day school week within the last year. Quantitative statistical analysis is used to investigate the perceptions of community and business leaders related to the economic impact upon their businesses and the community and the impact the four-day school week has had upon perception of quality of the school district. Significant differences were identified between community/business leaders that currently have no children in school as compared to community/business leaders with children currently enrolled in four-day school week schools. Overall, community/business leaders were evenly divided concerning the economic impact on their businesses and the community. Community/business leaders’ perceptions of the impact the four-day school week was also evenly divided concerning the impact on the quality of the school district. Slightly more negative opinions were identified related to the economic impact on the profitability of their personal businesses which may impact considerations by school leaders. Overall, community/business leaders were evenly divided when asked if they would prefer their school district return to the traditional five-day week school calendar.
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Cervone, Jason A. "The reproduction of rural spaces through education: Abstraction of the rural and the creation of new differential spaces." Policy Futures in Education 15, no. 4 (2017): 427–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1478210316688356.
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This paper examines the situating of rural communities in the United States within the neoliberal global context. It will focus on Henri Lefebvre's concept of abstract space, as well as additional theories on the ways space is produced and understood. The paper will use these theories to create an understanding of the ways rural communities are shaped and the role education plays in reproducing neoliberal ideology specifically through rural school consolidation. Abstracted rural space and schools are leading rural youth to internalize neoliberal ideology wherein they see themselves as economic actors rather than active engaged members of their community, and the best way to be successful is to gain the mobility to move to an urban center. Under this line of thought, rural exists only to serve capital as a site of resource extraction and low wage labor. The paper will conclude with a discussion on the way rural education can provide rural youth with the knowledge in which to produce rural spaces that represent what a modern rural community should be, focusing on improving the quality of life for residents, rather than what neoliberal capitalism needs it to be through the creation of common schools. This type of education can lead to the development of a right to the rural, a play off of Lefebvre's right to the city, wherein rural youth can critically examine their place and the place of rural communities in the world.
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Hesbol, Kristina A., Jennifer Sparkman Bartee, and Fayaz Amiri. "Activism in Practice: The Influence of a Rural School Leader’s Beliefs and Practices in Disrupting Historical Patterns of Underachievement in Traditionally Marginalized Students." Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice 5, no. 2 (2020): 33–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/ie.2020.134.
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Despite the fact that rural communities across the United States are rapidly diversifying (Fusarelli & Militello, 2012), little research has examined the beliefs and practices of successful rural educational leaders, specifically in high poverty schools and districts where traditionally marginalized students demonstrate improving learning outcomes. The purpose of this study was to examine the beliefs and practices of a rural educational leader whose school or district met established study criteria for a high poverty, high performing school, in which traditionally marginalized students demonstrate increasingly productive learning outcomes. Interviews with the leader were conducted, and the data were coded and analyzed using a constant comparative method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).The following research question guided the study:What impact do the beliefs and practices of a rural school district leader have on the learning outcomes of traditionally marginalized students in the Rocky Mountain West?The findings from this study contribute to the paucity of research on culturally responsive rural superintendent-principals. Identifying the rural leader’s beliefs and practices provides support for educational leaders who serve in that uniquely rural dual role, about which very little has been written. It informs leadership preparation programs, graduate students, researchers, and policy makers about the need for nuanced culturally responsive training for rural educational leaders.
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Harris, Carmen D., Prabasaj Paul, Xingyou Zhang, and Janet E. Fulton. "Park Access among School-Age Youth in the United States." Journal of Physical Activity and Health 12, s1 (2015): S94—S101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2015-0119.
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Background:Fewer than 30% of U.S. youth meet the recommendation to be active > 60 minutes/day. Access to parks may encourage higher levels of physical activity.Purpose:To examine differences in park access among U.S. school-age youth, by demographic characteristics and urbanicity of block group.Methods:Park data from 2012 were obtained from TomTom, Incorporated. Population data were obtained from the 2010 U.S. Census and American Community Survey 2006–2010. Using a park access score for each block group based on the number of national, state or local parks within one-half mile, we examined park access among youth by majority race/ethnicity, median household income, median education, and urbanicity of block groups.Results:Overall, 61.3% of school-age youth had park access—64.3% in urban, 36.5% in large rural, 37.8% in small rural, and 35.8% in isolated block groups. Park access was higher among youth in block groups with higher median household income and higher median education.Conclusion:Urban youth are more likely to have park access. However, park access also varies by race/ethnicity, median education, and median household. Considering both the demographics and urbanicity may lead to better characterization of park access and its association with physical activity among youth.
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Yu, Hyeonho, Pamela H. Kulinna, and Shannon C. Mulhearn. "The Effectiveness of Equipment Provisions on Rural Middle School Students’ Physical Activity During Lunch Recess." Journal of Physical Activity and Health 18, no. 3 (2021): 287–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2019-0661.
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Background: Environmental provisions can boost students’ discretionary participation in physical activity (PA) during lunchtime at school. This study investigated the effectiveness of providing PA equipment as an environmental intervention on middle school students’ PA levels and stakeholders’ perceptions of the effectiveness of equipment provisions during school lunch recess. Methods: A baseline–intervention research design was used in this study with a first baseline phase followed by an intervention phase (ie, equipment provision phase). A total of 514 students at 2 middle schools (school 1 and school 2) in a rural area of the western United States were observed directly using the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth instrument. Interviews were conducted with stakeholders. Paired-sample t tests and visual analysis were conducted to explore differences in PA levels by gender, and common comparison (with trustworthiness measures) was used with the interview data. Results: The overall percentage of moderate to vigorous PA levels was increased in both schools (ranging from 8.0% to 24.0%). In school 2, there was a significant difference in seventh- and eighth-grade students’ moderate to vigorous PA levels from the baseline. Three major themes were identified: (1) unmotivated, (2) unequipped, and (3) unquestionable changes (with students becoming more active). Conclusions: Environmental supports (access, equipment, and supervision) significantly and positively influenced middle school students’ lunchtime PA levels.
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Piekarz-Porter, Elizabeth, Julien Leider, Lindsey Turner, and Jamie F. Chriqui. "District Wellness Policy Nutrition Standards Are Associated with Healthier District Food Procurement Practices in the United States." Nutrients 12, no. 11 (2020): 3417. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12113417.
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Food procurement policies often exist to require that schools purchase foods with specific nutrient standards. Such policies are increasingly being used with the hope of improving access to healthier foods and beverages. Local wellness policies, required in any school district that participates in Federal Child Nutrition Programs, often contain specific nutrition standards that detail what can be sold to students during the school day. This study investigated the extent to which nutrition standards in wellness policies may be associated with healthier nutrition standards in district-level purchasing specifications. Cross-sectional data from the 2014–2015 school year for 490 school food authorities from 46 states and the District of Columbia were collected as part of the School Nutrition and Meal Cost Study and the National Wellness Policy Study. Survey-adjusted multivariable logistic regression models were computed to examine the association between district wellness policy nutrition standards and corresponding district food purchasing specifications. Results show that having a district wellness policy with corresponding nutrition standards and being in a rural area were associated with district food purchasing specifications for specific nutrients. These findings contribute to the literature to suggest that having a wellness policy with detailed nutrition standards may help to increase access to healthier foods and beverages.
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Thach, Sarah B., Bryan Hodge, Misty Cox, Anna Beth Parlier-Ahmad, and Shelley L. Galvin. "Cultivating Country Doctors: Preparing Learners for Rural Life and Community Leadership." Family Medicine 50, no. 9 (2018): 685–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.22454/fammed.2018.972692.
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Background and Objectives: Rural health disparities are growing, and medical schools and residency programs need new approaches to encourage learners to enter and stay in rural practice. Top correlates of rural practice are rural upbringing and rurally located training, yet preparation for rural practice plays a role. The authors sought to explore how selected programs develop learners’ competencies associated with rural placement and retention: rural life, community engagement, and community leadership. Methods: Qualitative, semistructured phone interviews (n=20) were conducted with faculty of medical schools or family medicine residencies across the United States, Canada, Australia, and South Africa in which success in training rural practitioners was identified in the literature or by leaders of the National Rural Health Association’s Rural Medical Educators Group. Participants included 18 physician program directors, one nonphysician program administrator, and one PhD researcher who had studied rural preparation. Interview transcripts were read twice using an inductive process: first to identify themes, and then to identify specific strategies and quotes to exemplify each theme. Results: Participants’ recommendations for rural preparation were: (1) Be intentional about strategies to prepare learners for rural practice; (2) Identify and cultivate rural interest; (3) Develop confidence and competence to meet rural community needs; (4) Teach skills in negotiating dual relationships, leading, and improving community health; and (5) Fully engage rural host communities throughout the training process. Conclusions: Medical schools and residencies may increase the likelihood of producing rural physicians by implementing these experts’ strategies. Educators may select strategies that mesh with the structure and location of their training program.
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Kardonsky, Kimberly, David V. Evans, Jay Erickson, and Amanda Kost. "Impact of a Targeted Rural and Underserved Track on Medical Student Match Into Family Medicine and Other Needed Workforce Specialties." Family Medicine 53, no. 2 (2021): 111–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.22454/fammed.2021.351484.
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Background and Objectives: There is a shortage of physicians in rural communities in the United States. More than other types of primary care physicians, family physicians are the foundation for care in rural areas.1 There are also critical shortages of other specialties such as general surgery, pediatrics, internal medicine, and psychiatry in rural America.2-7 This study assessed student participation in the University of Washington School of Medicine’s (UWSOM) Targeted Rural Underserved Track (TRUST) program as a predictor for family medicine (FM) and needed workforce specialty residency match. Methods: The study group was 156 medical students from 2009-2014; 102 were accepted to the TRUST program compared to a control group of 54 who were not accepted into the TRUST program but did matriculate to UWSOM. Student characteristics for the two groups were compared using t tests. Logistic regression analysis determined whether acceptance in TRUST predicted the outcomes measures of FM residency match or residency match into a needed rural physician workforce specialty; t tests compared match rates to family medicine for TRUST applicants and graduates, UWSOM graduates, and US allopathic seniors. Results: TRUST program graduates had the same FM residency match rate and match rate in needed workforce specialties as the control group. The FM match rate for TRUST graduates was 29.1% compared to UWSOM at 16.9% and US seniors at 8.7% (P<.001). Conclusions: Although match rates in FM and needed workforce specialties were not different in accepted versus not accepted groups, all TRUST applicants had an FM match rate that approaches 30%, which is higher than the general UWSOM class and the United States. In order to help reach the goal of 25% of medical students matching into FM by 2030, medical schools should consider having a rural program and using rural-focused admissions widely.
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Campbell, Kendall M., Jhojana L. Infante Linares, Dmitry Tumin, Keia Faison, and Miranda N. Heath. "The Role of North Carolina Medical Schools in Producing Primary Care Physicians for the State." Journal of Primary Care & Community Health 11 (January 2020): 215013272092426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2150132720924263.
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Introduction: Primary care physicians serve on the front lines of care and provide comprehensive care to patients who may have difficulty accessing subspecialists. However, not enough students are entering residency in primary care fields to meet the primary care physician shortage. The authors sought to compare primary care match rates among graduates of medical schools in the state of North Carolina from 2014 to 2018. Methods: The 4 allopathic medical schools in the state of North Carolina were selected for this study: East Carolina University (ECU) Brody School of Medicine, University of North Carolina (UNC) Chapel Hill, Duke School of Medicine, and Wake Forest School of Medicine. Primary care specialties were defined as family medicine, internal medicine, pediatrics, and internal medicine/pediatrics. The proportion of students matching to a residency in any of these fields, and in each specific field, was compared across schools. Results: Over 2014-2018, 214 ECU Brody School of Medicine graduates, 386 UNC graduates, 165 Duke graduates, and 196 Wake Forest graduates matched to a primary care specialty. ECU had the highest proportion of its graduates match in a primary care specialty (53%, compared with 34% to 45% at other schools; P < .001), and was particularly distinguished by having the highest proportions of graduates match to residencies in family medicine (18%) and pediatrics (16%). Conclusion: During the study period of 2014-2018, the ECU Brody School of Medicine matched more medical students into primary care specialties than the other medical schools in the state. This school’s community-driven mission and rural location, among other characteristics facilitating sustained student commitment to primary care careers, can inform the development of new medical schools in the United States to overcome the primary care physician shortage.
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Eddowes, E. Anne, Jerry Aldridge, and Susan Culpepper. "Primary Teachers' Classroom Practices and Their Perceptions of Children's Attention Problems." Perceptual and Motor Skills 79, no. 2 (1994): 787–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1994.79.2.787.
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15 teachers of Kindergarten through Grade 2 in two schools from a rural southeastern United States community completed the Philosophy of Teaching Scale and indicated on the Child Behavior Checklist their perceptions of 309 children in their classrooms who might show problems of attention. A difference was found between teachers of structured and unstructured orientations in the number of children they reported to be hyperactive. The former group perceived significantly more children in their classrooms to be hyperactive.
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Sutters, Justin P. "Locales of learning and teaching art in pre-service education." Visual Inquiry 10, no. 1 (2021): 89–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/vi_00027_1.
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Social ontology addresses assertions of the entities’ existence and social scientists bring into question whether particular conventions applied to the entities being studied can subsequently affect them. This study explores existing spatial classifications enacted by federal bodies to identify areas surrounding public schools in the United States. Over a three-year period, participants in a Midwestern university art education programme engaged in field practices that used the school locale codes as a mechanism to critically reflect on how labels such as urban, suburban and rural are understood in relation to their own positionality and pedagogy. Through Manuel DeLanda’s Assemblage Theory, the author analyses participant responses through a framework wherein schools are theorized as assemblages in order to identify the constitutive subcomponents of both material and expressive components in order to bracket perceptions of the locales. Implications are provided related to fieldwork practices in the field of art education.
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Umstattd, M. Renée, Stephanie L. Baller, Erin Hennessy, et al. "Development of the Rural Active Living Perceived Environmental Support Scale (RALPESS)." Journal of Physical Activity and Health 9, no. 5 (2012): 724–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.9.5.724.
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Background:Evidence supports the role of physical and social environments in active living, including perception of environment. However, measurement of perceived environments in rural settings is lacking. This study describes the development of the Rural Active Living Perceived Environmental Support Scale (RALPESS).Methods:Premised on social ecological and cognitive perspectives, 85 initial items were generated through a literature review and a mixed-methods investigation of “activity-friendly” environments. Items were organized by resource areas—town center, indoor and outdoor physical activity areas, schools, churches, and areas around the home/neighborhood—and submitted for expert panel review. In 2009, a revised questionnaire was disseminated to adolescents, parents, public school staff, and older adults in 2 rural southeastern United States counties. Principal component analysis with varimax rotation was used to explore factor structure (n = 542).Results:The final analysis yielded 33 items with 7 factors: 1) church facilities, 2) town center connectivity, 3) indoor areas, 4) around the home/neighborhood, 5) town center physical activity resources, 6) school grounds, and 7) outdoor areas.Conclusions:The RALPESS is a valid, internally consistent, and practically useful instrument to measure perceptions of rural environments in the context of physical activity across the lifespan. Confirmatory factor analysis is recommended to validate factor structure.
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Harger, Brent. "On the margins of friendship: Aggression in an elementary school peer group." Childhood 26, no. 4 (2019): 476–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0907568219869432.
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This article uses qualitative data from a larger study of two elementary schools in a rural city of about 15,000 people in the Midwestern United States. Here, I focus on a single peer group and those who are on its margins to provide insight into the intersection of friendship, aggression, and masculinity. In doing so, I address the lack of research examining how aggression functions within peer groups and why those who are victimized choose to remain in these groups.
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Saleh, Ilhamdaniah. "Longitudinal Study of the Vocational and High School Graduation Rate from 2011 to 2016 in Erie County, New York." Jurnal Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan 24, no. 2 (2018): 229–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/jptk.v24i2.20019.
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This study highlighted the discrepancies of education outcomes in urban-suburban settings and the differences between the graduates of vocational high schools and general high schools from 2011 to 2016 in Erie County, New York State, United States. Erie was infamous for racial segregation and the discrepancy of school quality between urban, suburban, and rural areas. New York State Department of Education has invested efforts to improve the education outcomes of vocational and high school education in the region. However, the education outcome gap still existed between those schools. The data source was derived from the School Report Card from 2011 to 2016 published by New York State Department of Education. The outcome variable was the percentage of high school graduates who attained Regent diploma (New York State standard) or the graduation rate. Methods utilized were an independent sample t-test, an analysis of variance, and a hierarchical linear model to measure the difference in longitudinal growth of graduation rate from 2011 to 2016. The results showed that there was a significant difference in the means of the graduation rate between vocational and general high schools. Teacher academic qualifications and certifications had a positive relationship with the graduation rate. The implication of this study called for tremendous efforts to improve the educational outcome, leverage teacher competencies, and close the gap.
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Jameson, J. Matt, Sondra M. Stegenga, Joanna Ryan, and Ambra Green. "Free Appropriate Public Education in the Time of COVID-19." Rural Special Education Quarterly 39, no. 4 (2020): 181–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/8756870520959659.
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In the spring of 2020, public schools across the United States were forced to close their campuses due to an emerging public health crisis caused by the detection of the first cases of the COVID-19 virus. Although schools closed their buildings, the delivery of educational services did not stop. This included the ongoing provision of services mandated by federal law under the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which establish educational protections, processes, and rights for students with disabilities and their families to ensure educational equity. In this article, we describe the potential legal implications of COVID-19 for schools, students with disabilities, and their families with a focus on challenges faced in rural areas. Strategies for mitigating legal impacts are described.
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Thomas, Erik R. "A rural/metropolitan split in the speech of Texas Anglos." Language Variation and Change 9, no. 3 (1997): 309–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954394500001940.
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ABSTRACTThe migration of people to the Sunbelt in the United States constitutes a major demographic shift, but has received little attention from language variationists. In Texas, this migration has led to a split of the Anglo population of the state into two dialects, a rural dialect and a metropolitan dialect. Evidence from a random-sample survey of Texas and from a systematic set of surveys of high schools in the state shows that young rural Anglos preserve two stereotypical features of the Texas accent, monophthongal /ai/, as in night, and lowered onsets of /e/, as in day, while young Anglos from metropolitan centers lack these features. This difference, which is absent among middle-aged and older native Texan Anglos, appears to have resulted from the fact that in-migration from other parts of the country is concentrated in metropolitan centers, especially suburbs.
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Töpper, Daniel, and Fanny Isensee. "From «School Buildings» to «School Architecture» – School Technicians, Grand School Buildings and Educational Architecture in Prussia and the USA in the Nineteenth Century." Historia y Memoria de la Educación, no. 13 (December 14, 2020): 375. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/hme.13.2021.27537.
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The history of school buildings is commonly written as a history of architecture, focusing on outstanding architects and buildings. However, the connection between pedagogical-administrative prescriptions and educational architecture has been studied less, particularly in the nineteenth century. This article highlights the often-overlooked agency of school technicians and proposes to interpret the nineteenth-century history of building schools as a history of implementing pedagogical-administrative objectives. The design of schools followed the inner differentiation of school curricula, at the same time being affected by the growth of school sizes prompted by school management structures and their efficiency aims. We will show how in larger cities the initial one-classroom schools developed into multiple-classroom buildings, taking on their final form in “grand school buildings”. The organizational developments tried and tested here would later become the national standard, with rural schools following with a certain delay. In order to grasp the emergence of the phenomena of these “grand school buildings” we combine the Prussian and US-American cases in their transatlantic connection in order to comprehend the transnational dimension of school building norms. Being closely connected through mutual observation, the US and Prussian contexts established two decisive aspects: in the Prussian case, the division into separate classrooms as functional units of school construction was implemented, while in the United States additional school rooms such as the assembly hall and specific subject-related rooms were introduced. “Grand school buildings” initiated the interest of the architectural profession, leading to negotiations between school technicians and architects.
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Peguero, Anthony A., Edwardo L. Portillos, Jun S. Hong, Juan Carlos González, Lindsay L. Kahle, and Zahra Shekarkhar. "Victimization, Urbanicity, and the Relevance of Context: School Routines, Race and Ethnicity, and Adolescent Violence." Journal of Criminology 2013 (July 14, 2013): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/240637.
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The United States is undergoing a historical racial and ethnic demographic shift. There is limited criminological research exploring if and how these changes influence variation in the relationship between routine activity theory and adolescent violence. Although the link between routine activities and victimization has been tested and well established, criminologists have questioned if routine activities can explain adolescent violence across different social contexts. Prior research demonstrates that there are potential nuances in the theoretical connections between routine activities and victimization, particularly when considering race and ethnicity. This study builds on previous research by questioning if the elements of routine activities predict victimization across predominately urban, rural, and suburban schools. The implications of the relevance of school context in the relationships between routine activities and adolescent victimization will also be discussed more generally.