Journal articles on the topic 'Russian Byzantine rite'

The article deals with an office found in the Old Russian liturgical tradition under the curious title The Rite at Cockrow or The Cockrow Prayers. The article contains a survey of existing scholarly studies of this office, the first publication of its full text based on a 14th-century codex, State Historical Museum (Moscow), Synodal collection, 325, and an analysis of the structure of this office. The authors come to a conclusion that the basic structure of The Rite at Cockrow consists of some introductory prayer texts, a couple of triadika troparia, and a morning prayer (or two or three morning prayers). This basic structure was intended for a private devotion of a monk in his cell; a variation of this structure is still found in the printed editions of the Horologion under the title “When one wakes up...” The core text of The Rite at Cockrow could be expanded by additional prayers, elements of ecclesiastical offices (of matins, probably also of compline), and a specific combination of psalms and prayers intended for private reading while a monk proceeds from his cell to a church. The authors managed to find the direct prototypes of both the basic structure and the ordinances from The Rite at Cockrow in the Byzantine sources. One of such sources is the Hypotyposis of Nicetas Stethatos, which describes private ascetic daily practices of the Studite monks in Constantinople. The Rite at Cockrow was well accepted by the Old Russian practice, since some specific prayers and hymns from this rite are still used even today, being included into the ordo of “Morning Prayers” according to the late printed editions of Russian Molitvoslov (Prayer-Book) and Kanonnik (Book of [hymnographical] Canons).

The discovery of a Byzantine bread stamp inscribed with the text of Ps 29:8 in the ruins of Mangup Basilica in Crimea allows the authors of this article to revise the entire tradition of the Byzantine magical and folk “recipes” for revealing a thief; it is this context in which this verse is used in combination with a special bread. Prototypes of these recipes and procedures are attested in the late antique syncretic (pagan-Judeo-Christian) magical papyri, in which private persons are advised to detect thieves by means of special spells, used either on their own or in combination with bread and cheese, an image of an eye, birds, bowls of water, and laurel leaves. In middle- and late-Byzantine manuscripts, these procedures are still present but in “Christianized” forms, even to the extent that a bread-and-cheese (or just bread) procedure is sometimes described as a regular liturgical rite, performed in a church. In the meantime, there is evidence indicating that the Byzantine hierarchy had been struggling with this and other instances of using magical procedures under the cloak of the Christian liturgy, and, in particular, bishops had been expelling priests who used bread sortilege to determine guilt. However, in Western Europe, especially in Germany and England, where spells against thieves had also been known since antiquity, the bread ordeal (English: Corsnaed, German: Bissprobe) became an accepted judicial practice, and even found its way into the official law codes of 11th-century England. Quite surprisingly, a similar phenomenon is attested in Russia (Novgorod) in the early 15th century. Taking into account the Crimean bread stamp studied in this article, one can conclude that bread ordeals, prohibited in Constantinople, could have been tolerated in the Byzantine periphery, including Crimea, and that it is from these areas that this practice could have come to some Russian regions as well.

The publication introduces into scientific circulation three documents of 1923, identified in the archive of the head of the Papal Mission to help the hungry in Russia, fr. Edmund Walsh, stored in the library of Georgetown University (USA). The central document of the published collection is a letter from the Catholic priest Leonid Fedorov, who in 1921-1935 was the head of the Apostolic Exarchate of Catholics of the Byzantine Rite in Russia. The example of the policy in relation to the Renovationist movement is used in the letter to characterize the policy of the Soviet government in relation to religion. Fedorov emphasizes the falsity of the authorities’ assurances about freedom of conscience in the USSR and concludes that the policy is aimed at eradicating all religion. He backs up his opinion with a letter from one of the leaders of the renovationism Mitr. Antonin (Granovsky) with complaints about the tax policy of the authorities. The documents are published for the first time in the original language and translated into Russian.

The article researches the problem of preserving the identity of the traditional confessional minorities in contemporary Russian society (for example, the Catholic community of Rostov region). Authors analyze the current status of its socio-cultural reproduction. Historically, the Catholic minority was always present in the confessional portrait of the Don region. It is confirmed by the pre-revolutionary census. Soviet period and the policy of state atheism have significantly reduced the demographic set of the Catholic community. Since 1990s. Catholic parishes began to revive. But this process is accompanied by a number of endogenous and exogenous complexities. The category of endogenous risk reproduction of Don Catholic community included a reduction of ethnic groups that traditionally profess Catholicism (Poles, Germans, Lithuanians) in the regional population. At the same time under the influence of migration flows increased presence in the region, Armenian Catholics and Catholics among Ukrainians that strengthens claims of members of the religious community to change the traditional (Latin) rite in favor of the Eastern Christian (Byzantine) rite. At the level of everyday life confessional community play ethnic and racial segregation, impeding the consolidation of the group, its demographic growth due to intra-marriages. The growth of the community by neophytes complicated by strict rules incorporating new members, as well as the official rejection of the Roman Catholic Church of proselytism in Russia. Exogenous factors socio-cultural reproduction of religious groups is the difficulty in resolving the legal status of the community, land and property issues in the places of worship, public perception of Catholics among the population and the authorities. Despite the convergence of the official position of the Roman Catholic Church and the Russian Orthodox Church on a number of issues, the legal status of the Catholic community in Russia is often marginal. This is due to including with the problems of presence on the territory of the Russian Catholic clergy, mainly consisting of a number of citizens of foreign countries (Poland, Ukraine, and others.). In such circumstances, and taking into account the total secularization of Russian society can predict a further reduction in the Catholic community and the replacement of religious identity of its members, especially among young people.

This article examines the life and work of the Russian thinker Vladimir Solov’ev (1853-1900) and his involvement in a circle of Catholics committed to the work of Catholic-Orthodox re-union in the late-nineteenth century. It analyses the intellectual influences on his thought in the early 1880s when he became an apologist for the Papacy and the work of reunion. Particular attention is given to the Catholic sources which helped shape Solov’ev’s views. Solov’ev’s own position on the reunion is considered, especially in the light of his relationship with Bishop Strossmayer. Other Catholic friendships are also examined, including those with the Jesuit priests Pirling and Martynov, the Russian convert Princess Volkonsky, and the French journalist Eugene Tavernier. In addition, the importance of lesser known figures such as the Barnabite Fr Tondini and the Polish Jesuit Marian Morawski is explored, as is Solov’ev’s reception of communion from the Byzantine-rite Catholic priest, Fr Nikolai Tolstoi. Far from being an isolated pioneer, Solov’ev emerges as one of a closely connected circle of Catholics committed to Catholic-Orthodox reunion.

Статья посвящена участию и роли греческой иерархии в развитии старообрядческого раскола на Руси. Начавшийся в середине XVII в. раскол стал одной из самых печальных страниц в истории Российского государства и Русской Православной Церкви. Это событие было вызвано церковной реформой и книжной справой, организованной патриархом Никоном с ориентацией на греческое православие. Противники данных преобразований, отказавшиеся признать новый русский обряд, учинили раскол и вошли в историю под названием старообрядцев. Тематика раскола Русской Церкви достаточно подробно исследована в отечественной историографии с акцентом на личностные характеристики патриарха Никона, царя Алексея Михайловича, а также лидеров старообрядчества. Однако, с учётом прогреческого характера церковной реформы патриарха Никона, в науке остаётся достаточно слабо освещённым вопрос участия непосредственно греческой иерархии в событиях раскола и роли, которую они в нём сыграли. Последнее особенно касается участия греческих патриархов в деяниях Большого Московского собора 1666-1667 гг., который под влиянием данных иерархов наложил на старый обряд церковную анафему, чем утвердил церковный раскол на многие столетия вперед. Кроме того, отдельное внимание в статье уделяется религиознополитическому контексту эпохи и состоянию греческого православия, оказавшегося после падения Византийской империи под властью турок-османов. The article is devoted to the participation and role of the Greek hierarchy in the development of the Old Believer schism in Russia. The schism that began in the middle of the 17th century became one of the saddest pages in the history of the Russian state and the Russian Orthodox Church. This event was caused by the Church reform and the bookends organized by Patriarch Nikon with an orientation towards Greek Orthodoxy. Opponents of these reforms, who refused to recognise the new Russian rite, caused a schism and went down in history under the name of Old Believers. The subject of the Russian Church schism has been studied in sufficient detail in domestic historiography, with emphasis on the personal characteristics of Patriarch Nikon, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and the leaders of Old Believers. However, given the progressive nature of Patriarch Nikon's church reforms, the question of the participation of the Greek hierarchy directly in the events of the schism and the role they played in it remains rather underreported in scholarship. The latter applies especially to the participation of the Greek Patriarchs in the acts of the Great Council of Moscow in 1666-1667, which under the influence of these hierarchs imposed a church anathema on the old rite and thereby confirmed the church schism for many centuries to come. In addition, special attention is given to the religious and political context of the era and the state of Greek Orthodoxy after the fall of the Byzantine Empire under the rule of the Ottoman Turks.

The article puts forward the suggestion that the mysterious last will of Metropolitan Constantine I of Kiev, in which he ordered that after his death his body should be torn to pieces by dogs instead of receiving a proper burial, was inspired by a very specific literary text. This text is still used in the Orthodox Christian tradition; it is known as the hymnographical kanon “At the Parting of the Soul from the Body.” While nowadays this kanon is used in the course of an ordinary liturgical rite, in the 12th century, when it first appeared, it was used among some Byzantine intellectual and ascetic circles as a particular element of personal piety. The 12th century is exactly the epoch of Constantine's activities, and the description of а funeral procedure given by this kanon is very close to the last will of Constantine. The kanon “At the Parting of the Soul from the Body” has close ties to another hymn of roughly the same epoch—the “Penitential” kanon written after the 5th chapter of the “Ladder” of John Climacus. Both kanons conceal a didactic story under the structure of a hymnographic pattern. What is more important, both are from the very beginning intertwined with a distinct illustrative program: each monostrophe is accompanied by a specific picture, which discloses the contents of the text. These “comics-like” stories have no parallel among other Byzantine kanons. Finally, both kanons witness the growth of the influence of Palestinian and, more generally, Eastern ascetic traditions on the monastic practices of Constantinople and its surrounding regions. This influence was associated, most of all, with the Evergetian movement, with its strict disciplinary and fasting rules, etc. Metropolitan Constantine, who was an outstanding representative of the Byzantine intellectual elite of those times, should have been acquainted—at the very least!—with this movement. Moreover, the conflicts of the bishops in his circle with the Russian princes concerning the fasting discipline suggest that Constantine was trying to introduce the new Evergetian ascetic standards among the Russians. Thus, the literal adherence to the provisions of the kanon “At the Parting of the Soul from the Body” at the funeral of Metropolitan Constantine Ι should be interpreted as a sign of his full confidence in his ideals.

The article elaborates on the basic linguistic features of the Macedonian redaction manuscripts. A survey of the characteristics is presented on different levels: orthographical, phonological, morphological, lexical, and the level of word formation. Linguistic features of these texts can contribute to their more precise localization, indicating that the manuscripts analyzed here are related to the wide zone of southern and western Macedonian dialects, a wider area in which the activities of the Ohrid Literary School took place. The lexicon of the manuscripts, especially the Greek loanwords present, leads to the conclusion that the place of their formation is a Slavic-Greek contact zone. Part of this paper is dedicated to the comparison of rare lexicon and productive word formation models present in a group of Church Slavonic manuscripts of Russian redaction. The comparative analysis of the lexicon and word formation models can help in establishing the corpus of books of the Byzantine rite that were created in the period of activity of Cyrillo-Methodian disciples, under the leadership of Clement of Ohrid. It is obvious that part of that corpus was the main liturgical book, the Gospel, and some previous works have verified that the Menaion was also translated in this literary center. Based on the analysis made in this work, it can be noted that the same rare lexicon and word formation models, in many cases verified in the hymnographic works of Clement of Ohrid, characterize the Apostle, Psalter with commentary, Triodion, Euchologium, and Prophetologion, leading to the conclusion that all these books were part of Clement’s corpus.

The article attempts to outline the trend of Russian scribes to perceive the Byzantine Church tradition. The author also builds a view that the movement goes from anticipating the inheritance of the traditions of the Christian Byzantine Church and statehood to the process of direct perception of the Byzantine Church state power and authority by the Russian Church. The Byzantine theologians interpreted the split of Christianity as the appearance, along with the true Orthodox Church of the Western Church, in which a person was the individual desacralization. After the fall of Byzantium, it was the destined Russian Orthodox Church that acted as the guardian of the canonical and dogmatic tradition of true Orthodoxy. And, first of all, this was expressed in the continuity of the tradition integrity of the spiritual and secular authorities. The author considers the way of expressing these processes in the theological and political treatises of the aborning Russian book tradition, which gave rise to the formation of a specific Russian ideocratic project. The ideology of Moscow as the Third Rome, launched by Russian scribes, became possible due to the fact that Orthodox Russia has assumed the most important sacred mission.

Introduction. In 2018, the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences conducted excavations of a burial ground (Artek, Gurzuf, Yalta district). The first researcher of this monument was A.L. Jacobson, and he discovered ten inventory-free graves. In 2018, more than twenty graves both with funeral inventory and non-inventory ones were discovered at the burial ground. Analysis and Results. Among the archaeological material, metal crosses from grave 7A deserve special attention. One is a bronze breast cross with a circular decor, the second one is an iron cross with a curved, elongated lower branch. The wire earrings, small metal bells-buttons, small glass beads found in the grave are known at many archaeological sites in a wide time range. Fragments of tiles from the burial belong to technological groups 1, 2, 4 that can be dated from the 8th to the 12th (13th?) centuries. The search for analogies and the comparative analysis make it impossible to unambiguously determine the time of the bronze cross. It can be dated only in a wide chronological range – the 6th – 11th centuries, not excluding the 12th century, the iron cross most likely dates to the 9th – 10th centuries. In the aggregate of items, burial 7A can be tentatively dated broadly from the 8th century to the 11th century. Perhaps, using natural science methods that are currently being conducted, we will be able to clarify the date of burial 7A. The particular interest of the considered subjects of the Christian cult lies precisely in their ordinary and standard nature; they demonstrate the uniformization of the Byzantine material culture in the very wide territory from Egypt to Crimea. The burial ground of Gorzuvity demonstrates the byzantinization of the local barbarian population both in the material culture and in the burial rite. The finds of crosses in burial 7A fit well into the Byzantine context and are another clear confirmation of the evolution and chronology of the spread of Christianity in Crimea.

Pochaivska Lavra was one of the largest cultural centers in the XVIII - the first third of the XIX century. Pochaivs’ka Lavra Printing house, after the printing house of the Kyiv-Pechers’k Monastery, was one of most powerful publishing center in the Ukrainian lands. Until the end of the XVIII century it published about 250 editions in Cyrillic and about 200 editions in Latin and others languages. At present, relevant is unbiased and objective coverage of all aspects of the activity of the Pochayivs’ka Lavra at the period of the Basilians as the least studied and on the other hand as the most productive period, especially in the book publishing process. The purpose of this article is an attempt to determine the role of the Pochayiv monastery as the center of the unification of Ukrainians, analyzing the repertoire of the Pochayiv publishing house at the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, the language of publications, their design and contacts with other publishing houses. It is concluded that the most productive activity of the Pochayiv printing house was Uniate period - XVIII - beginning of the XIX century. The typical features of the printing industry of this time were: a diverse repertoire of books that included the spiritual and secular literature of various Christian confessions, original and translated works of religious moralistic content, multilingual editions, and their high artistic level. The activity of the Pochayiv Assumption printing house extending beyond narrow confessional boundaries. Like the Kyiv editions were used not only by the Orthodox, but also by the Catholics of the Byzantine rite, the Pochaiv books and engravings spread among the Orthodox population of Ukraine. The undoubted merit of this cultural and spiritual center was that it continued the tradition of printing Ukrainian-language publications in conditions where the Kyiv- Pechers’ka printing house was deprived of such a possibility under the pressure of decrees of Russian secular and church authorities. The Pochayiv printing house maintained close contacts with other publishing centers - both Uniate and Orthodox. This is evidenced by the active using and reprint of their publications in Pochaiv. Despite the different denominations, there were close contacts between the Pochayiv Uniate and Kyiv-Pechers’k Orthodox printing houses. This testified to the spiritual unity of Ukrainian lands besides state borders, religious and administrative barriers of secular and church authorities.

Pochaivska Lavra was one of the largest cultural centers in the XVIII - the first third of the XIX century. Pochaivs’ka Lavra Printing house, after the printing house of the Kyiv-Pechers’k Monastery, was one of most powerful publishing center in the Ukrainian lands. Until the end of the XVIII century it published about 250 editions in Cyrillic and about 200 editions in Latin and others languages. At present, relevant is unbiased and objective coverage of all aspects of the activity of the Pochayivs’ka Lavra at the period of the Basilians as the least studied and on the other hand as the most productive period, especially in the book publishing process. The purpose of this article is an attempt to determine the role of the Pochayiv monastery as the center of the unification of Ukrainians, analyzing the repertoire of the Pochayiv publishing house at the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, the language of publications, their design and contacts with other publishing houses. It is concluded that the most productive activity of the Pochayiv printing house was Uniate period - XVIII - beginning of the XIX century. The typical features of the printing industry of this time were: a diverse repertoire of books that included the spiritual and secular literature of various Christian confessions, original and translated works of religious moralistic content, multilingual editions, and their high artistic level. The activity of the Pochayiv Assumption printing house extending beyond narrow confessional boundaries. Like the Kyiv editions were used not only by the Orthodox, but also by the Catholics of the Byzantine rite, the Pochaiv books and engravings spread among the Orthodox population of Ukraine. The undoubted merit of this cultural and spiritual center was that it continued the tradition of printing Ukrainian-language publications in conditions where the Kyiv- Pechers’ka printing house was deprived of such a possibility under the pressure of decrees of Russian secular and church authorities. The Pochayiv printing house maintained close contacts with other publishing centers - both Uniate and Orthodox. This is evidenced by the active using and reprint of their publications in Pochaiv. Despite the different denominations, there were close contacts between the Pochayiv Uniate and Kyiv-Pechers’k Orthodox printing houses. This testified to the spiritual unity of Ukrainian lands besides state borders, religious and administrative barriers of secular and church authorities.

Robert Ousterhout, the author of a magnificent book “Eastern Medieval Architecture. The Building Traditions of Bizantium and Neighboring Lands”, published by Oxford University Press in 2019, the remarkable scholar and generous friend, was so kind to mention in his C. V. on the sight of Penn University (Philadelphia, USA) that he had been the Visiting professor of the Moscow architectural Institute (State Academy), as well as simulteniously of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, but he did not say that he had been awarded the degree of professor honoris causa by the academic council of MARHI. Unfortunately, his life in muscovite hostel, nevertheless we tried to do our best to provide the best possible accommodation in a “suit” with two rooms with a bathroom, had been radically different from the wonderful dwelling chosen for the visiting teaching stuff from MARHI in the University of Illinois. And Robert called our hostel “Gulag”. He had been joking probably. It is impossible to overestimate the role of professor Robert Ousterhaut in the studies of the history of Byzantine art. At the present day he is the leader in the world studies of the architecture of Byzantium, the real heir of the great Rihard Krauthaimer and Slobodan Curcic, whom he had left behind in his works. His books are known very well in Russia. R. Ousterhaut graduated in the history of art and architecture at the University of Oregon, the Institute of European Studies in Vienna, Universities of Cincinati and Illinois. Не worked at the department of history of art at the University of Oregon, department of history of architecture at the University of Illinois, had the chair of the history of architecture and preservation at the University of Illinois, which is considered, as we know, one of the twenty best American universities. He always worked hard and with success. When I had finished reading my course of the history of Russian architecture at Illinois, he said: “Yes, next term the students are to be treated well…” Now he is professor emeritus of the history of art in the famous Penn University. He taught the courses of the “History of architecture from Prehistory to 1400” and “Eastern medieval architecture” as well as led remarkable seminars devoted to the different problem of the history of architecture of the Eastern Meditarenian, including the art of Constantinopole, Cappadoce, meaning and identity in medieval art. His remarkable 4-years field work at Cappadoce, which he described in several books, and his efforts of the preservation of the architectural monuments of Constantinopole are very valuable, Among his books one certainly must cite Holy Apostels: Lost Monument and Forgotten Project, (Washingtone, D. C., 2020); Visualizing Community: Art Material Culture, and Settlement in Byzantine Cappadocia, Dumbarton Oaks Studies 46 (Washington, D. C., 2017); Carie Camii (Istambul, 2011); Architecture of the Sacred: Space, Ritual, and Experience from Classical Greece to Byzantium (Cambridge University Press, 2012), ed. with Bonna D. Wescoat; Palmyra 1885: The Wolfe Expedition and the Photographs of John Henry Haynes, with B. Anderson (Istanbul: Cornucopia, 2016) John Henry Haynes: Archaeologist and Photographer in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1900 (2nd revised edition, Istanbul: Cornucopia, 2016). Several of his books were reprinted. He edited Approaches to Architecture and Its Decoration: Festschrift for Slobodan Ćurčić (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2012), with M. Johnson and A. Papalexandrou. His outstanding book Мaster Builders of Byzantium (2nd paperback edition, University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications, 2008) was translated into Russian and Turkish. In this work Robert Ousterhaut for the first time in English speaking tradition is regarding the architecture of Bazantium from the point of view of building art and technology. On the base of the analysis of primary written sources, contemporary archeology data, and careful study of existing monuments the author concludes that the Byzantine architecture was not only exploiting the traditions, but was trying to find new ways of the development of typology and construction techniques, which led to transformation of artistique features. Professor R. Ousterhaut discusses the choice of building materials, structure from foundations to vaults, theoretical problems which solved the master masons of Byzantium. In his recent book Eastern Medieval Architecture: The Building Traditions of Byzantium and Neighboring Lands, (Oxford University Press, 2019) Robert Ousterhaut is going further. He writes in the introduction: “I succeded my mentor at the University of Illinois… I had the privilege and challenge of teaching “Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture” to generations of the architecture students inspired my 1999 book, Master Builders of Byzantium. The work of Robert Ousterhaut, published 2019, is the new and full interpretation of the architectural heritage of Byzantine Commonwealth. The author devoted the first part of his book to Late Antiquity (3–7 centuries), beginning with the relations of Domus Ecclesiastae and Church Basilica, then speaking of Konstantinopole and Jerusalem of the times of St. Constantine the Great, liturgy, inspiration, commemoration and pilgrimage, adoration of relics as ritual factors which influenced the formation of sacred space, methods and materials, chosen by the Bizantine builders with their interaction of the mentality of the East and West. Special attention is given to dwelling, urban planning and fortification Naturally a chapter is devoted to Hagia Sophia and the building programs of Emperor Justinian. The second part speaks of the transition to what is called Middle Byzantine architecture both in the capital and at the edges of the Empire. The third part tells the story of the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries and includes the rise of the monasteries, once more secular and urban architecture, the craft of church builders. Churches of Greece and Macedonia, Anatolia, Armenia and Georgia, as well as of the West of Byzantium – Venice, Southern Italy and Sicily. The chapter is devoted to Slavonic Balkans – Bulgaria and Serbia and Kievan Rus. The last fourth part of the book describes the times of the Latin Empire, difficult for Byzantium, to the novelty of the architecture of Palewologos and the development of Byzantine ideas in the Balkans and especially in the building programs of the great powers of the epoch Ottoman Empire and Russia. There is a lot more to say about the book of professor Robert Ousterhaut, but we have to leave this to the next issue of this magazine, and better give the space to the words of the author – his text on the architecture of Kievan Rus.

In this article, an attempt was made to make a preliminary religious analysis of the phenomenon of foolishness from the perspective of the modern methodology of the Dutch researcher J. Waardenburg. It was noted that earlier in the Russian science of religion, this phenomenon practically did not become an independent object of study. The systematic concept of J. Waardenburg assumes a consistent consideration of religious facts from the perspective of four approaches of equal importance: historical, comparative, contextual and hermeneutic. The collection and primary analysis of empirical data is a necessary and preliminary condition for a full-fledged study of the phenomenon of foolishness. Foolishness arises in Byzantine society and is perceived ambiguously by the contemporaries. The article indicates the sources of the phenomenon of foolishness in the Byzantine tradition: ancient cynicism in the person of Diogenes Laertius, healed the demoniacs who spend a lot of time near temples, Old Testament prophets. This work also reflects the historical process of the gradual separation of foolishness as an independent rank of holiness. Its biblical justification is the multiple references on the pages of the Gospel to the madness of the world and the wisdom of the unwise. The fact that the foolishness was known to the culture of the Romans is evidenced by the fact of the spread of the phenomenon of false ugliness, which the official Church tried to fight. The reason for the appearance of foolishness in Byzantium can be called the extinction of spiritual life after its rise in the first centuries of the spread of Christianity. The tradition of honoring extraordinary ascetics, as well as the formation of iconography, was slow. Only at the end of the VIII century the process began to gain momentum, which was connected with the approval at the Seventh Ecumenical Council of the veneration of saints as a necessary element of Christian dogmatics. In the Byzantine Church, six holy fools were canonized. Despite their small number, the hagiographic literature of Christian ascetics of the first centuries often offers examples of episodic foolishness. The article concludes that the genesis of foolishness in the Byzantine tradition required a long time for its development. In Russian culture the phenomenon of foolishness has found its full-fledged development, becoming an integral part of Russian culture. The author assumes, that this phenomenon requires its further empirical study as an objective religious fact.

Andreas Palaiologos (1453–1502), the nephew of Emperor Constantine XI and claimant to the Byzantine imperial title from exile in Rome, has been dismissed by historians as an insignificant person who spent most of his life in poverty thanks to his own improvidence. This article exploits documentation from the Archivio Segreto Vaticano, the Archivio di Stato di Venezia and other archive collections to demonstrate that many of the charges made against him by contemporaries cannot be substantiated. There were other reasons behind his financial difficulties, such as the constant curtailment of his pension and his need to support other émigré Byzantines who formed his household. In view of that, his activities need to be reassessed. Looked at dispassionately, they can be seen as a continuation of a policy pursued by Byzantine emperors and their advisers since the second half of the fourteenth century. They had consistently sought to enrol the assistance of Russia and the Christian West against the Ottoman Turks. Three of them, John V, Manuel II and John VIII had travelled to Italy and beyond to negotiate this assistance in person and their envoys had ranged much further afield. Their appeals did give rise to two crusades against the Ottomans in 1395 and 1443 but they were unable to save Constantinople in 1453. Nevertheless, Andreas’ travels to Western courts and to Russia should be seen in the light of those made by his forebears. Similarly, his attempts to organise armed incursions into Ottoman territory and his adoption of the imperial title were not the products of delusion or mere affectation but a claim to leadership among Balkan exiles in the West.

The subject of this research is the origins of Russian Opera and its evolution. The grounds of Russian Opera can be observed in folk and Church rites of the Ancient Rus’. The origins of Russian Opera stem from the Middle Ages, when the cantatory tradition formed under the impact of Byzantine and Russian folk traditions. The folk-Church events of the XVI – XVII centuries contained the theatrical elements, which later on were incorporated by the professional musical theater. Until the XVIII century, theatrical performances were open only to royalty and upper class society. The first theatre in Russia was built in 1672 for the Tsar and received a name “The Comedy Mansion”. It staged operas on the Biblical themes. The first secular operas appeared in the second half of the XVIII century. In 1756, the Empress Elizabeth of Russia turned the theater into a state and public institution. Russian operas of that time mirrored the Western models to a large extent. The emergence of truly national operas is related to the name of M. I. Glinka (1804-1857). The conclusion is made that modern Opera borrowed the principles of nationalism and humanism from its precursors. The author draws parallels between the first operas, classical Russian Opera on the one hand, and modern Russian Opera on the other. Analysis is carried out on the origin of the plots and libretto of the operas. P. I. Tchaikovsky, M. P. Mussorgsky, A. P. Borodin, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, S. V. S. V. Rachmaninoff, S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich and others, same as the inventors of the opera, wrote their operas based on literary and historical storylines.

The Church schism of the mid- and second half of the XVII century was associated with a number of acute issues and problems of a historical, liturgical and theological nature, which were subjected to detailed research and gave rise to extensive polemics, which were not outlived for centuries. The patristic heritage, mainly of Byzantine church authors, played a key role in the “ideological” struggle between the defenders of “ancient piety” and their irreconcilable opponents from the official Church. With the beginning of the schism the names of one of the greatest representatives of Antiochian theology, Sts. Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus, and Meletius of Antioch, also John Chrysostom, Simeon of Thessalonica and others thoroughly entered the manuscript and old-printed book tradition, associated with the Church split. The “Skrizhal” compendium, initiated for compilation and publication by Patriarch Nikon, was intended to be a kind of summary of information about the ecclesiastical practice of the Eastern Church with interpretations as well as a source of correction of various church “disorders”. During the development of the controversy many topics came under such close attention for the first time in Russian church history. The issues of the “visible image” of God, of the time of the coming of the Kingdom of Christ and one of the most controversial ones throughout the second half of the XVII century, and not only within the church schism — the topic of the transubstantiation of the consecrated elements and etc. Patristic heritage and the art of its interpretation became the main “tool” in unprecedented disputes, when both parties of the conflict — Archpriest Avvakum, Simeon Polotsky, Priest Lazar, Nikita Suzdalets and others, were in search of some universal and authoritative sources to prove their right.

Theophanes the Greek was one of the well-known artists of exceptional personality who lived in the second half of the 14th century. His talent stood out on account of the expressionist manner in which he portrayed his art creations and their impact on the school of Russian religious painting. His artistic talent, “swift brush” painting manner and life adventure can be compared with those of Doménikos Theotokópoulos (El Greco), another famous Greek painter, who brought the Cretan dramatic and expressionistic style to the West, influencing the Spanish Renaissance two hundred years after Theophanes. The artistic heritage of Theophanes stands between the short vibrant period of the Palaeologan Renaissance when the Byzantine Empire went through a terminal crisis, and the European Proto-Italian Renaissance. The artist seized the opportunity to unleash his creative work in the ancient Russian cities, unfolding his talent in the creation of large mural paintings. Characterized by his contemporaries as “Theophanes the Greek, icon painter and philosopher”, he enjoyed a high reputation in medieval Russian society. Present article questions Theophanes’ belonging to the hesychast movement and the attribution of the Muscovite icons and manuscripts to the painter. Considering the impact of Theophanes on Russian visual art, D. Talbot Rice stated: “It was thanks to the teaching of Greek immigrants like Theophanes that a sound foundation was established Russian painting, and it was on this basis that local styles were founded.” And it was in the Russian principalities that Theophanes developed his very distinctive style, enjoying carte blanche from the princes and boyars (aristocracy) to apply his creativity in various domains.

The article focuses on the analysis of glazed ware imported into the southern regions of Russia from the Early Middle Ages to the Golden Horde period. The author studied most common types of glazed ware and their sources. In order to compare, the paper considers the groups of ware brought to the Pontic and the Volga River regions. From the 7th century in the northern Pontic region, vessels produced in Constantinople appeared. Various groups of Byzantine pottery were recorded there till the beginning of the Golden Horde period. In the Caspian region, glazed ware appeared not earlier than the middle-late 9th – early 10th century coming there from Central Asia and the Middle East. In the 11th century, there were no significant changes in the sources and number of imported products in the Pontic, while the Volga River region falls under the influence of the North-Eastern Caucasus, Transcaucasia and the Middle East (mainly Iran). In the second half – end of the 12th century, the Volga region was becoming one of the key areas points in the trade of kashi ware of Middle Eastern origin. In the 14th century, Byzantine ware first appeared there. The same period was marked with the rise in local pottery production in the Pontic and Azov littoral which contributed to the spread of these products throughout Eastern Europe.

The influence of Grand Princess Euphrosyne (second wife of Prince Roman Mstislavovitch) explains the appearance among the Galician-Volhynian princes of Christian names which were unusual and unique for the Rurikides. This is the name Daniel, which was later included into the name list of the Moscow princes. This name spread among the princes due to the expansion of the cult of St Daniel the Stylite and the rising interest in the attributes of Stylitism. This can be seen in sphragistics and in the numerous architectural monuments of Galician-Volhynian Rus' of the 13th–early 14th century. Thanks to the family links between the Galician-Volhynian and the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, this cult spread in the North-Eastern Rus' and later to Moscow. The fact that Euphrosyne of Galicia was the daughter of Basileus Isaak II explains the unexpected rise of interest in Stylitism among the princes of Rus' and their milieu. According to Niketas Choniates, Emperor Isaak II especially sympathized with the Stylites and the ascetics and patronized them. Thus he astonished his contemporaries, since the Stylites had lost the influence over the emperors that they had exerted at the time of iconoclasm. The Byzantine hagiography concerning Sts. Daniel the Stylite and Leo the Great Tsar explains the connection between the names of Daniel and Leo among the descendants of Roman Mstislavich. Daniel the Stylite was the spiritual father and the main adviser of Emperor Leo I. Apparently this relationship was reflected in the names of the father and the son, the Galician-Volhynian princes Daniel Romanovich and Lev Danilovich.

The emergence of Islam influenced the revolution and made a wave of culture toward a new world when experiencing an era of darkness. The progress of Greek civilization in the West could not be continued by the Roman empire and Roman domination in the classical era until the middle ages; which was then the rise of the West in the era of renaissance in the 14-16th century. This paper will reveal the influence of Islam on the development of the Western world, since the emergence of contact between Islam with the West in the Classical era until the middle ages. There are different opinions among historians about who and when the first contact between Islam and the West took place. The first contact, however, occurred when the areas of East Roman government (Byzantium), Syria (638) and Egypt (640) fell into the hands of the Islamic government during the reign of Caliph 'Umar bin Khaţţāb. The Second contact, at the beginning of the eighth and ninth centuries occurred when the kings of Islam were able to rule Spain (711-1472), Portugal (716-1147), and important Mediterranean islands such as Sardinia (740-1050), Cicilia (827-1091), Malta (870-1090) as well as several small areas in Southern Italy and French Southern France. The third contact, took place in Eastern Europe from the fourteenth to early twentieth century when the Ottoman empire ruled the Balkan peninsula (Eastern Europe) and Southern Russia. The Ottoman empire's powers in Europe covered Yunāni, Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, parts of Rhode, Cyprus, Austria and parts of Russia. Of the three periods of contact, the greatest influence was in the second contact period, where the decline of Western science in the dark era, while in the Islamic world developed advanced and produces scientists, thinkers and intellectuals in various sciences. This influence can be seen from the sending of students studying to the university of Islamic area, the establishment of the university, the translation and copying of various scientific literature such as natural science (Science of astronomy, Mathematics, Chemistry, Pharmacy, medicine, architecture etc) and Social Science history, philosophy, politics, economics, earth sciences, sociology, law, culture, language, literature, art, etc.). The Historians recognize that the influence of Islamic civilization is very great on the development of the West, which culminated in the renaissance or rise of Western civilization in Europe after the dark era.

The emergence of Islam influenced the revolution and made a wave of culture toward a new world when experiencing an era of darkness. The progress of Greek civilization in the Westcould not be continued by the Roman empire and Roman domination in the classical era until the middle ages; which was then therise of the West in the era of renaissance in the 14-16th century.This paper will reveal the influence of Islam on the development of the Western world, since the emergence of contact between Islam with the West in the Classical era until the middle ages. There are different opinions among historians about who and when the first contact between Islam and the West took place. The first contact, however, occurred when the areas of East Roman government (Byzantium), Syria (638) and Egypt (640) fell into the hands of the Islamic government during the reign of Caliph 'Umar bin Khaţţāb. The Second contact, at the beginning of the eighth and ninth centuries occurred when the kings of Islam were able to rule Spain (711-1472), Portugal (716-1147), and important Mediterranean islands such as Sardinia (740-1050), Cicilia (827-1091), Malta (870-1090) as well as several small areas in Southern Italy and French Southern France. The third contact, took place in Eastern Europe from the fourteenth to early twentieth century when the Ottoman empire ruled the Balkan peninsula (Eastern Europe) and Southern Russia. The Ottoman empire's powers in Europe covered Yunāni, Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, parts of Rhode, Cyprus, Austria and parts of Russia. Of the three periods of contact, the greatest influence was in the second contact period, where the decline of Western science in the dark era, while in the Islamic world developed advanced and produces scientists, thinkers and intellectuals in various sciences. This influence can be seen from the sending of students studying to the university of Islamic area, the establishment of the university, the translation and copying of various scientific literature such as natural science (Science of astronomy, Mathematics, Chemistry, Pharmacy, medicine, architecture etc) and Social Science history, philosophy, politics, economics, earth sciences, sociology, law, culture, language, literature, art, etc.). The Historians recognize that the influence of Islamic civilization is very great on the development of the West, which culminated in the renaissance or rise of Western civilization in Europe after the dark era.

A Rooted Man and a Sacred PoetBy Viggo MortensenA Review of A.M. Allchin: N.F.S. Grundtvig. An Introduction to his Life and Work. With an afterword by Nicholas Lossky. 338 pp. Writings published by the Grundtvig Society, Århus University Press, 1997.Canon Arthur Macdonald Allchin’s services to Grundtvig research are wellknown to the readers of Grundtvig Studier, so I shall not attempt to enumerate them. But he has now presented us and the world with a brilliant synthesis of his studies of Grundtvig, a comprehensive, thorough and fundamental introduction to Grundtvig, designed for the English-speaking world. Fortunately, the rest of us are free to read as well.It has always been a topic of discussion in Denmark whether Grundtvig can be translated, whether he can be understood by anyone except Danes who have imbibed him with their mother’s milk, so to speak. Allchin is an eloquent proof that it can be done. Grundtvig can be translated and he can be made comprehensible to people who do not belong in Danish culture only, and Allchin spells out a recipe for how it can be done. What is required is for one to enter Grundtvig’s universe, but to enter it as who one is, rooted in one’s own tradition. That is what makes Allchin’s book so exciting and innovative - that he poses questions to Grundtvig’s familiar work from the vantage point of the tradition he comes from, thus opening it up in new and surprising ways.The terms of the headline, »a rooted man« and »a sacred poet« are used about Grundtvig in the book, but they may in many ways be said to describe Allchin, too. He, too, is rooted in a tradition, the Anglican tradition, but also to a large extent the tradition taken over from the Church Fathers as it lives on in the Orthodox Church. Calling him a sacred poet may be going too far.Allchin does not write poetry, but he translates Grundtvig’s prose and poetry empathetically, even poetically, and writes a beautiful and easily understood English.Allchin combines the empathy with the distance necessary to make a renewed and renewing reading so rewarding: »Necessarily things are seen in a different perspective when they are seen from further away. It may be useful for those whose acquaintance with Grundtvig is much closer, to catch a glimpse of his figure as seen from a greater distance« (p. 5). Indeed, it is not only useful, it is inspiring and capable of opening our eyes to new aspects of Grundtvig.The book falls into three main sections. In the first section an overview of Grundtvig’s life and work is given. It does not claim to be complete which is why Allchin only speaks about »Glimpses of a Life«, the main emphasis being on the decisive moments of Grundtvig’s journey to himself. In five chapters, Grundtvig’s way from birth to death is depicted. The five chapters cover: Childhood to Ordination 1783-1811; Conflict and Vision 1811-29; New Directions, Inner and Outer 1829-39; Unexpected Fulfilment 1839-58; and Last Impressions 1858-72. As it will have appeared, Allchin does not follow the traditional division, centred around the familiar years. On the contrary, he is critical of the attempts to focus everything on such »matchless discoveries«; rather than that he tends to emphasize the continuity in the person’s life as well as in his writings. Thus, about Thaning’s attempt to make 1832 the absolute pivotal year it is said: »to see this change as an about turn is mistaken« (p. 61).In the second main section of the book Allchin identifies five main themes in Grundtvig’s work: Discovering the Church; The Historic Ministry; Trinity in Unity; The Earth made in God’s Image; A simple, cheerful, active Life on Earth. It does not quite do Allchin justice to say that he deals with such subjects as the Church, the Office, the Holy Trinity, and Creation theology.His own subtitles, mentioned above, are much more adequate indications of the content of the section, since they suggest the slight but significant differences of meaning that Allchin masters, and which are immensely enlightening.It also becomes clear that it is Grundtvig as a theologian that is the centre of interest, though this does not mean that his work as educator of the people, politician, (history) scholar, and poet is neglected. It adds a wholeness to the presentation which I find valuable.The third and longest section of the book, The Celebration of Faith, gives a comprehensive introduction to Grundtvig’s understanding of Christianity, as it finds expression in his sermons and hymns. The intention here is to let Grundtvig speak for himself. This is achieved through translations of many of his hymns and long extracts from his sermons. Allchin says himself that if there is anything original about his book, it depends on the extensive use of the sermons to illustrate Grundtvig’s understanding of Christianity. After an introduction, Eternity in Time, the exposition is arranged in the pattern of the church year: Advent, Christmas, Annunciation, Easter and Whitsun.In the section about the Annunciation there is a detailed description of the role played by the Virgin Mary and women as a whole in Grundtvig’s understanding of Christianity. He finishes the section by quoting exhaustively from the Catholic theologian Charles Moeller and his views on the Virgin Mary, bearing the impress of the Second Vatican Council, and he concludes that in all probability Grundtvig would not have found it necessary to disagree with such a Reformist Catholic view. Finally there are two sections about The Sign of the Cross and The Ministry of Angels. The book ends with an epilogue, where Allchin sums up in 7 points what modem features he sees in Gmndtvig.Against the fragmented individualism of modem times, he sets Gmndtvig’s sense of cooperation and interdependence. In a world plagued with nationalism, Gmndtvig is seen as an example of one who takes national identity seriously without lapsing into national chauvinism. As one who values differences, Grundtvig appeals to a time that cherishes special traditions.Furthermore Gmndtvig is one of the very greatest ecumenical prophets of the 19th century. In conclusion Allchin translates »Alle mine Kilder« (All my springs shall be in you), »Øjne I var lykkelige« (Eyes you were blessed indeed) and »Lyksaligt det Folk, som har Øre for Klang« (How blest are that people who have an ear for the sound). Thus, in a sense, these hymns become the conclusion of the Gmndtvig introduction. The point has been reached when they can be sung with understanding.While reading Allchin’s book it has been my experience that it is from his interpretation of the best known passages and poems that I have learned most. The familiar stanzas which one has sung hundreds of times are those which one is quite suddenly able to see new aspects in. When, for example, Allchin interprets »Langt højere Bjerge« (Far Higher Mountains), involving Biblical notions of the year of jubilee, it became a new and enlightening experience for me. But the Biblical reference is characteristic. A Biblical theologian is at work here.Or when he interprets »Et jævnt og muntert virksomt Liv paa Jord« (A Simple Cheerful Active Life on Earth), bringing Holger Kjær’s memorial article for Ingeborg Appel into the interpretation. In less than no time we are told indirectly that the most precise understanding of what a simple, cheerful, active life on earth is is to be found in Benedict of Nursia’s monastic mle.That, says Allchin, leads us to the question »where we are to place the Gmndtvigian movement in the whole spectmm of Christian movements of revival which are characteristic of Protestantism« (p. 172). Then - in a comparison with revival movements of a Pietistic and Evangelical nature – Allchin proceeds to give a description of a Grundtvigianism which is culturally open, but nevertheless has close affinities with a medieval, classical, Western monastic tradition: a theocentric humanism. »It is one particular way of knitting together the clashing archetypes of male and female, human and divine, in a renunciation of evil and an embracing of all which is good and on the side of life, a way of making real in the frailties and imperfections of flesh and blood a deeply theocentric humanism« (p. 173).Now, there is a magnificent English sentence. And there are many of them. Occasionally some of the English translations make the reader prick up his ears, such as when Danish »gudelige forsamlinger« becomes »meetings of the godly«. I learnt a few new words, too (»niggardliness« and »esemplastic«) the meaning of which I had to look up; but that is only to be expected from a man of learning like Allchin. But otherwise the book is written in an easily understood and beautiful English. This is also true of the large number of translations, about which Allchin himself says that he has been »tantalised and at times tormented« by the problems connected with translating Grundtvig, particularly, of course, his poetry. Naturally Allchin is fully aware that translation always involves interpretation. When for example he translates Danish »forklaret« into »transfigured«, that choice pulls Grundtvig theologically in the direction that Allchin himself inclines towards. This gives the reader occasion to reflect. It is Allchin’s hope that his work on translating Grundtvig will be followed up by others. »To translate Grundtvig in any adequate way would be the work of not one person but of many, not of one effort but of many. I hope that this preliminary study may set in train a process of Grundtvig assimilation and affirmation« (p. 310)Besides being an introduction to Grundtvig, the book also becomes an introduction to past and contemporary Danish theology and culture. But contemporary Danish art, golden age painting etc. are also brought in and interpreted.As a matter of course, Allchin draws on the whole of the great Anglo-Saxon tradition: Blake, Constable, Eliot, etc., indeed, there are even quite frequent references to Allchin’s own Welsh tradition. In his use of previous secondary literature, Allchin is very generous, quoting it frequently, often concurring with it, and sometimes bringing in half forgotten contributions to the literature on Grundtvig, such as Edvard Lehmann’s book from 1929. However, he may also be quite sharp at times. Martin Marty, for example, must endure being told that he has not understood Grundtvig’s use of the term folkelig.Towards the end of the book, Allchin discusses the reductionist tactics of the Reformers. Anything that is not absolutely necessary can be done away with. Thus, what remains is Faith alone, Grace alone, Christ alone. The result was a radical Christ monism, which ended up with undermining everything that it had originally been the intention to defend. But, says Allchin, Grundtvig goes the opposite way. He does not question justification by faith alone, but he interprets it inclusively. The world in all its plenitude is created in order that joy may grow. There is an extravagance and an exuberance in the divine activity. In a theology that wants to take this seriously, themes like wonder, growth and joy must be crucial.Thus, connections are also established back to the great church tradition. It is well-known how Grundtvig received decisive inspiration from the Fathers of the Eastern Church. Allchin’s contribution is to show that it grows out of a need by Grundtvig himself, and he demonstrates how it manifests itself concretely in Grundtvig’s writings. »Perhaps he had a deep personal need to draw on the wisdom and insight of earlier ages, on the qualities which he finds in the sacred poetry of the Anglo-Saxons, in the liturgical hymns of the Byzantine Church, in the monastic theology of the early medieval West. He needs these resources for his own life, and he is able to transpose them into his world of the nineteenth century, which if it is no longer our world is yet a world in which we can still feel at home. He can be for us a vital link, a point of connection with these older worlds whose riches he had deciphered and transcribed with such love and labour« (p. 60).Thus the book gives us a discussion - more detailed than seen before – of Grundtvig’s relationship to the Apostolic Succession, the sacramental character of the Church and Ordination, and the phenomenon transfiguration which is expounded, partly by bringing in Jakob Knudsen. On the background of the often observed emphasis laid by Grundtvig on the descent into Hell and the transfiguration, his closeness to the orthodox form of Christianity is established. Though Grundtvig does not directly use the word »theosis« or deification, the heart of the matter is there, the matter that has been given emphasis first and foremost in the bilateral talks between the Finnish Lutheran Church and the Russian Orthodox Church. But Grundtvig’s contribution is also seen in the context of other contemporaries and reforming efforts, Khomiakov in Russia, Johann Adam Möhler in Germany, and Keble, Pusey and Newman in England. It is one of Allchin’s major regrets that it did not come to an understanding between the leaders of the Oxford Movement and Grundtvig. If an actual meeting and a fruitful dialogue had materialized, it might have exerted some influence also on the ecumenical situation of today.Allchin shows how the question of the unity of the Church and its universality as God’s Church on earth acquired extreme importance to Grundtvig. »The question of rediscovering Christian unity became a matter of life and death« (p. 108). It is clear that in Allchin’s opinion there has been too little attention on this aspect of Grundtvig. Among other things he attributes it to a tendency in the Danish Church to cut itself off from the rest of the Christian world, because it thinks of itself as so special. And this in a sense is the case, says Allchin. »Where else, at the end of the twentieth century, is there a Church which is willing that a large part of its administration should be carried on by a government department? Where else is there a state which is still willing to take so much responsibility for the administration of the Church’s life?« (p. 68). As will be seen: Allchin is a highly sympathetic, but far from uncritical observer of Danish affairs.When Allchin sees Grundtvig as an ecumenical theologian, it is because he keeps crossing borders between Protestantism and Catholicism, between eastern and western Christianity. His view of Christianity is thus »highly unitive« (p. 310). Grundtvig did pioneer work to break through the stagnation brought on by the church schisms of the Reformation. »If we can see his efforts in that way, then the unfinished business of 1843 might still give rise to fruitful consequences one hundred and fifty years later. That would be a matter of some significance for the growth of the Christian faith into the twentyfirst century, and not only in England and Denmark« (p. 126).In Nicholas Lossky’s Afterword it is likewise Grundtvig’s effort as a bridge builder between the different church groupings that is emphasized. Grundtvig’s theology is seen as a »truly patristic approach to the Christian mystery« (p. 316). Thus Grundtvig becomes a true all-church, universal, »catholic« theologian, for »Catholicity is by definition unity in diversity or diversity in unity« (p. 317).With views like those presented here, Allchin has not only introduced Grundtvig and seen him in relation to present-day issues, but has also fruitfully challenged a Danish Grundtvig tradition and Grundtvigianism. It would be a pity if no one were to take up that challenge.

В статье публикуется поперечно ориентированная (по оси север – юг) гробница из плинфы, пристроенная к западной стене недавно открытого в Смоленске древнерусского храма второй половины XII в., названного храмом на Пятницком ручье. Редкая ориентация этой гробницы и погребений в ней связана с тем, что гробница примыкала к западной стене храма, то есть архитектура здесь преобладала над погребениями. В статье приводятся сведения о десятках погребений в аркосолиях и гробницах, расположенных в западных стенах самих храмов и их галерей, имеющих ориентацию по оси север – юг. В древнерусской архитектуре такие погребения датируются XII – началом XIII в. Эти поперечно ориентированные погребения и их саркофаги и аркосолии связаны с византийской традицией. Погребения, саркофаги и аркосолии с ориентацией север – юг датируются на византийском материале X – началом XIV в. Такие погребения представляют собой особую линию, в которой архитектура возобладала над обрядом. The paper reports on the laterally oriented (along the north–south axis) tomb made from plinth bricks attached to the western wall of a recently discovered 12th century medieval Russian church known as the Church-upon-Pyatnitsky Stream. A rare orientation of the tomb and the burials it contains is explained by the fact that the tomb abutted upon the western wall of the church, which means that architecture was more important than burials. The paper provides information on dozens of burials in arcosolia and tombs located in the western walls of churches and their galleries oriented to the north–south. In medieval Russian architecture such burials are dated to the 12th – early 13th centuries. Based on Byzantine materials, such laterally oriented burials, their sarcophagi and arcosolia are dated to the 10th – early 14th centuries. These burials demonstrate a special trend where architecture turned out to be more important than the rite.

Abstract The author presents a list of all of the Greek and Slavonic Byzantine Rite prayers associated with childbirth that have been edited so far. Then, the author provides a description of a 16th century manuscript Greek Euchologion preserved at the National Library of Russia (Rossijskaja Nactional′naja Biblioteka, RNB) in St. Petersburg, shelfmark Greek 617. The manuscript’s contents are described, providing the rubrics and incipits of the prayers of Christian Initiation, marriage, adelphopoiesis, and the reception of the lapsed. A previously unedited prayer for a woman who has suffered a miscarriage and two previously unedited prayers for midwives are edited and commented. The author concludes with some remarks about postpartum purification prayers in the late-Byzantine and post-Byzantine sources.