Journal articles: 'Rwanda – Languages'

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Kayigema, Jacques Lwaboshi, and Davie E. Mutasa. "THE DYNAMISM OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE IN POST-GENOCIDE RWANDA." Indonesian EFL Journal 3, no. 1 (September 12, 2017): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.25134/ieflj.v3i1.659.

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English, as global language, has had great influence over most languages of the world for nearly two centuries now. The expansion of English is no exception in Rwanda, though. For the last two decades, the importance of English has been felt in the day to day activities of Rwanda. English became a third official language in Rwanda just after the 1994 genocide and a compulsory language of instruction since January 2009. This paper discusses the use of English in post-genocide Rwanda and its impact on French, over a borrowing one, Kinyarwanda and French. English has risen sharply for the last two decades because of the will of the Rwandan government to find ways of communicating with the external world in a more powerful language, English, than the previously predominant one, French. It also highlights major domains where English speaks of its strength and the factors that led to the spread of English.

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Eyssette, Jérémie. "The Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Linguistic Temptation: A Comparative Analysis with Rwanda’s Switch-to-English." Journal of Asian and African Studies 55, no. 4 (November 8, 2019): 522–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021909619885974.

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The aim of this article is to assess whether the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) is likely to upgrade the status of English by constitutional or educational means. Indeed, neighboring countries such as Rwanda and Burundi adopted English as their official language in 1996 and 2014, but less writing in English is devoted to a potential linguistic transition in DR Congo, the most populous French-speaking country. This article will gauge DR Congo and Rwanda against the four criteria that arguably triggered Rwanda’s switch-to-English: historical factors in current linguistic trends; the role of charismatic leaders in sudden language policy changes; language-in-education policies; and economic incentives. The results of this interdisciplinary investigation into the language dynamics of the Great Lakes region indicate that, reflecting the vehicles of DR Congo’s domestic and regional evolutions, its leaders might be tempted to enhance the status of English as an official language in a way that, contrary to Rwanda’s radical switch-to-English, is more compatible with other languages.

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Nassenstein, Nico. "Kinyarwanda and Kirundi: On Colonial Divisions, Discourses of National Belonging, and Language Boundaries." Modern Africa: Politics, History and Society 7, no. 1 (July 8, 2019): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.26806/modafr.v7i1.264.

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The development of the Bantu languages Kinyarwanda and Kirundi is entangled within the colonial histories of Rwanda and Burundi, first under German and then Belgian rule. From the turn of the twentieth century on, missionaries compiled grammars and dictionaries of the two mutually intelligible languages, contributing to the development and instrumentalisation of two prestigious varieties out of a larger dialect continuum. In this contribution, I trace the missionary and colonial activities of corpus planning and textualisation and summarise how Kinyarwanda and Kirundi turned into official languages with distinct linguistic boundaries. The central research question is how speakers of Kinyarwanda and Kirundi thereafter came to be identified as “Rwandans” or as “Burundians,” with each language indexing a specific national categorisation. Tentatively, I contrast these developments with contemporary fluid practices in multilingual neighbourhoods.

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Nkunzimana, Obed. "La langue française au Rwanda. Chronique d’une mort programmée." ALTERNATIVE FRANCOPHONE 1, no. 7 (September 15, 2014): 25–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.29173/af23071.

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En 2009, le Rwanda, ancienne colonie belge et pays francophone, passe officiellement et sans états d’âme « de Voltaire à Shakespeare » ( Ouazani), en s’affiliant au Commonwealth, au terme d’ un intense lobbying auprès des membres influents de ce club réservé essentiellement aux anciennes colonies britanniques. L’anglais devient langue unique de formation du primaire à l’université, reléguant ainsi le français au rang de simple langue seconde parmi tant d’autres proposées dans les programmes de formation publique ou privée. Eu égard à cette quête de changement d’alliances, d’autres pays tels que le Gabon, le Burundi, le Madagascar seraient des exemples intéressants à examiner, mais nous proposons de nous concentrer sur le cas particulier et sans précédent du Rwanda. En jetant un regard critique sur certains aspects de l’entreprise coloniale belge notamment sa stratégie éducative, nous tenterons de montrer que le déclin du français, c’est-à-dire sa perte de statut de langue officielle et peut-être un jour sa disparition pure et simple comme langue d’usage par les Rwandais, était programmé d’avance, inscrit non seulement dans les gènes mêmes de son implantation par l’autorité coloniale belge, il y a environ un siècle de cela, mais surtout dans la singularité du contexte farouchement et exclusivement monolingue du Rwanda traditionnel ; que même si le rebond de la langue française n’est pas impossible, le chemin est parsemé d’obstacles presque infranchissables, en raison de la nouvelle donne géostratégique, linguistique du Rwanda et une politique économique axée sur les nouvelles technologies de l’information où l’anglais reste prédominant. Abstract In 2009, Rwanda, former belgian colony and francophone country, switches, in Ouazani’s terms, from Voltaire to Shakespeare, becoming officially and unapologetically affiliated with the Commonwealth, after intensely lobbying the influential members of that club, whose membership is essentially composed of former british colonies. English become the sole language of instruction from elementary school to university, while French joined the rank of other optional second languages taught in both public and private institutions. Although some other countries like Gabon, Burundi and Madagascar, which are apparently tempted by the same affiliation, are interesting cases in point, I will rather focus on this singular and unprecedented shift operated by Rwanda. By pointing out some aspects of the belgian colonial enterprise, particularly its instruction rationale and strategies, I will attempt to argue that the actual decline of French - its loss of the status of official language and, perhaps, its pure and simple disappearance in Rwanda one day- was programmed in advance, written not only in the very genes of its colonial inception a century ago, but also in the nationalistic context of traditional Rwanda with its prevailing and self-sufficent monolingualism. I shall also point out that even though the rebirth of French language is not impossible, the path remains mined by daunting obstacles, related to the new geostrategic and linguistic road Rwanda has taken, as well as the actual government’ economic plan, centered on information technologies in which English is predominant.

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Richmond, Edmun B. "Language-By-Radio in Sub-Saharan Africa." IALLT Journal of Language Learning Technologies 16, no. 2 (January 30, 2019): 20–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.17161/iallt.v16i2.9131.

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In the summer of 1981, the author was engaged in pedagogicalresearch in language program development for the governments of Senegaland The Gambia. During that period, he further participated in an eight countrylanguage teaching survey throughout West, Central, and EastAfrica, under the sponsorship of the United States International CommunicationsAgency. Included in that survey was an analysis of the useof radio broadcasts as a means to teach foreign languages. This articlewill describe the language-by-radio programs in four countries, i.e.,Senegal, Burundi, Rwanda, and Kenya. Of special interest is the use ofradio to teach English.

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Rosendal, Tove. "Languages in competition in Rwanda: Who is winning on the linguistic market?" Language Matters 41, no. 2 (November 2010): 238–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2010.516007.

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Kayigema, Jacques Lwaboshi, and Davie E. Mutasa. "The cohabitation of three official languages in Post-Genocide Rwanda: Kinyarwanda, English and French." South African Journal of African Languages 34, no. 2 (July 3, 2014): 235–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2014.997060.

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Pütz, Martin. "Exploring the linguistic landscape of Cameroon: Reflections on language policy and ideology." Russian Journal of Linguistics 24, no. 2 (December 15, 2020): 294–324. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-2-294-324.

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This contribution focuses on the study of Linguistic Landscapes in the Central/Western African state of Cameroon, with particular reference to its capital, Yaoundé. Linguistic landscapes is a relatively recent area of research, and can be broadly defined as the visual representation of languages in public space. This paper will show that the field of linguistic landscapes can act as a reflection of linguistic hierarchies, ideologies and acts of resistance in multilingual and multicultural communities. At the same time, the sociolinguistic situation in the country will be investigated, which is paramount to understanding the linguistic and ideological conflicts between the anglophone minority and the francophone government. Cameroon’s linguistic landscape will be explored via the various spaces that English, French, Pidgin English, Camfranglais and, to a minor degree, indigenous African languages occupy in its sociolinguistic composition. The methodological design is quantitative in nature, involving collecting more than 600 linguistic tokens (digital photos) in various public places mainly in and around the Cameroonian capital of Yaoundé. It will be demonstrated that the deployment of languages on signs and linguistic tokens, apart from serving informative and symbolic functions for the audiences or passers-by they target, also has social and political implications in an ethnically heterogeneous and linguistically hybrid society such as Cameroon. Whereas in some other former British colonies there are indications that the public space is being symbolically constructed in order to preserve some of Africa’s indigenous languages (e.g. in Botswana, Rwanda, Tanzania), in Cameroon the linguistic landscape almost exclusively focuses on the dominant status and role of one single language, i.e. French, and to a lesser extent English, whose speakers therefore feel marginalized and oppressed by the French government.

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Eboe-Osuji, Chile. "Murder as a Crime against Humanity at the Ad Hoc Tribunals: Reconciling Differing Languages." Canadian Yearbook of international Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 43 (2006): 145–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0069005800008766.

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SummaryThe statutes of the International Criminal Tribunals for Rwanda and for the Former Yugoslavia give these tribunals jurisdiction over murder as a crime against humanity. Yet the judges of these tribunals have often found themselves disagreeing as to the level means rea required for conviction. The controversy results from the French text that employs the term “assassinat” in the place where the English text speaks of “murder.” Assassinat is equivalent only to the premeditated kind of murder. This has led some of the judges to insist that no mens rea lower than premeditation is sufficient for conviction for murder as a crime against humanity under the statutes of the ICTR and the ICTY. It is suggested in this article that neither the requirements of international criminal law nor a contextual reading of the statutes truly favours such a strict view of murder as a crime against humanity, which effectively excludes a wide range means rea, which will, but for the use of the term “assassinat” in the French text, properly anchor a conviction for murder.

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Desrosiers, Marie-Eve, and Aidan Russell. "Histories of authority in the African Great Lakes: trajectories and transactions." Africa 90, no. 5 (November 2020): 952–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0001972020000601.

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AbstractThis article reflects on how scholars have engaged with the past and with notions of authority in the African Great Lakes. A dominant ‘presentist’ perspective on the region mobilizes historical knowledge in an uncritical fashion, reducing authority to a set of historical clichés and building on a familiar focus on crises and the state. Bridging history and political science, we propose two concepts to analyse histories of political authority to unsettle presentist biases: trajectories and transactions. To illustrate the contribution these alternative lenses make, we present two historical vignettes. First, we revisit the 1973 coup in Rwanda as an ambiguous trajectory of authority-making and unmaking. Then, we consider languages of praise and petitioning in Burundi in the 1960s, to show how authority is lived, manifested and challenged through local transactional relations.

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Vansina, Jan. "Linguistic Evidence for the Introduction of Ironworking into Bantu-Speaking Africa." History in Africa 33 (2006): 321–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hia.2006.0022.

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Did Africans once independently invent the smelting of metals or did they obtain this technology from Europe or the Middle East? This continues to be an unresolved and hotly disputed issue, mainly because the dates for the earliest appearance of smelting in Africa south of the Sahara remain inconclusive. All the earliest sites in Western and West-Central Africa from Walalde in Senegal to the Tigidit cliffs and Termit in Niger, the firki plains south of lake Chad, Taruga, and perhaps Nsukka in Nigeria, Ghwa Kiva (Nigeria), and Doulo (Cameroon) in the Mandara mountains, Gbabiri (Ndio district) in the Central African Republic, and a few sites in Rwanda, Burundi, and Buhaya cannot be dated more closely than between 840 and 420 BCE. Greater precision is impossible because the C14 curve runs flat during these four centuries, hence all these sites yield the same date. (Alpern, Killick, Me Eachern, Holl, Jézégou/Clist, Kanimba Misago). If the earliest “real” dates fell before 800 BCE, they would support independent invention, while later dates strengthen the case for borrowing. Still, this information does tell us that ironworking was adopted in the northern parts of West and West -Central Africa and in the region of the Great Lakes within the span of a mere four centuries.The emergence of ironworking must have left linguistic traces in the relevant terminology irrespective of whether it spread by borrowing or by independent invention—hence historical linguistics can contribute to this debate. That approach is best tested by an examination of the relevant vocabulary in Bantu languages because the historical study of those languages is further advanced than that of any other language family in Africa (Nurse/Phillipson). Moreover Bantu-speakers occupy a large portion of the continent.

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Mugirase, Gloriose, and Speciose N. Ndimurugero. "Did the 2019 One and Half-Month Boot Camp Training Enhance Rwanda Development Board (RDB) Interns’ English Proficiency?" European Journal of Teaching and Education 2, no. 4 (December 30, 2020): 22–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.33422/ejte.v2i4.523.

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Employers in Rwanda have been expressing their dissatisfaction with university graduates’ low English proficiency affirming that it hindered their performance at work. Rwanda Development Board (RDB) also noticed that the English proficiency and work readiness skills of university graduates on internship in 2019 left a lot to be desired, which was an impediment to the completion of the internship and to the development of their professional skills. To enhance these graduates’ communication and work readiness skills, the Rwandan Government, through RDB, sent them to a one and half-month employability boot camp at the University of Rwanda. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating factors that hindered these interns’ development of English proficiency and at exploring whether the course helped improve their skills in this language. For the sake of validity and reliability, both qualitative and quantitative research paradigms were applied to collect and analyse the research data. Themes emerging from classroom observations and interviews were analysed inductively and figures used to interpret the trainees’ results in the entry and exit English proficiency tests. Research findings revealed that unfavorable linguistic environment, teachers limited English proficiency, and regular shifts in the medium of instruction were major impediments to the trainees' improvement of English proficiency. Findings also disclosed that the training had helped the majority of participants boost the four language macro modalities, but that more time was required for slow learners. In agreement with the findings, some recommendations were made on how to effectively support Rwandan students’ learning of English.

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Gafaranga, Joseph. "Translinguistic apposition in a multilingual media blog in Rwanda: Towards an interpretive perspective in language policy research." Language in Society 44, no. 1 (January 26, 2015): 87–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s004740451400075x.

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AbstractResearchers have called for studies that link the macro and the micro in language policy research. In turn, the notion of ‘micro’ has been theorised as referring either to the micro implementation of macro policies or to micro policies. In this article, a third way of thinking about the relationship between the macro and the micro in language policy—referred to as the interpretive perspective—is proposed. In this perspective, macro language policies and micro language choice practices are seen as interdependent, as shaping each other. The article substantiates this view drawing on a practice I call translinguistic apposition and that I have observed in a variety of ‘most highly regulated’ texts in Rwanda. However, for an in- depth understanding, the practice is described drawing on data from a single source, namely the Rwandan multilingual media blog www.igihe.com. The article demonstrates how this practice can be seen as shaped by the Rwandan macro language policy and, conversely, how the same macro policy can be seen as written into being through the same micro level practice. (Language policy, micro language policy, micro implementation of macro policy, translanguaging, translinguistic apposition, interpretive perspective)

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Chiluwa, Innocent, Rotimi Taiwo, and Esther Ajiboye. "Hate speech and political media discourse in Nigeria: The case of the Indigenous People of Biafra." International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics 16, no. 2 (June 1, 2020): 191–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/macp_00024_1.

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The study adopts approaches in linguistics and critical discourse analysis to interpret media speeches and public statements of the Biafra secessionist movement leader, Nnamdi Kanu, as hate speech. The study shows that hate speech in discourses produced by the separatist Indigenous People of Biafra appears as language aggression, such as insults and verbal attacks, as well as threats. Discourse structures such as the use of interrogation and metaphor also appear in the hate narratives. Compared with the Rwandan case, the study argues that hate speech could result in similar incitement and violence. While hate speech caused genocide in Rwanda, it did not work in Nigeria, largely because of the division among the Biafra campaigners and the Igbo political elite about the Biafra independence campaign.

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Viebach, Julia. "The Evidence of What Cannot Be Heard: Reading Trauma into and Testimony against the Witness Stand at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda." International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 6, no. 1 (March 1, 2017): 51–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v6i1.352.

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This paper explores the silences and the gaps that cut through witness testimonies at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by applying a trauma lens to the narratives that emerge on the witness stand and by contrasting those with a survivor testimony. It compares the recollection of a traumatic experience with the production of legal meaning. To do so, it focuses specifically on a survivor testimony shared with the author at the Rwandan Nyange memorial in 2014 where the crimes in question happened, and the ICTR The Prosecutor vs Athanase Seromba trial that relates to the events at that particular site. This paper shows that the experience of trauma not only challenges the language of law but also blurs the legal narratives and functions of tribunals like the ICTR.

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Van Bockhaven, Vicky. "Decolonising the Royal Museum for Central Africa in Belgium's Second Museum Age." Antiquity 93, no. 370 (July 8, 2019): 1082–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.83.

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In December 2018, the Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) in Tervuren, Belgium, reopened its doors after a renovation project that started nearly 20 years ago. Founded by the infamous King Leopold II, the RMCA contains cultural and natural history collections from Belgium's former colonies of Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, as well as other parts of Africa and beyond. Today, a new ‘Welcome pavilion’ leads the visitor through a monumental subterranean corridor to the historic building's basement and to an introduction to the history of the collections. The exhibition halls on the ground level have been refurbished, including the old colonial maps painted on the walls, while in the Crocodile Room, the original display has been retained as a reminder of the museum's own history. The largest halls now present displays linked to the scientific disciplines and themes within the museum's research remit (Figure 1): ‘Rituals and Ceremonies’ (anthropology), ‘Languages and Music’ (linguistics and ethnomusicology), ‘Unrivalled art’, ‘Natural History’ (biology), ‘Natural resources’ (biology, geology) and ‘Colonial History and Independence’ (history, political science). Eye-catching developments include: a room featuring some of the statues of a racist style and subject matter, which were formerly exhibited throughout the museum, and are now collected together in a kind of ‘graveyard’ (although this symbolic rejection is not properly explained); a new Afropea room focusing on diaspora history; a section on ‘Propaganda and representation’ (Imagery), a Rumba studio and a Taxolab. In place of racist statues, and occupying a central position in the Rotunda, is a new sculpture by Aimé Mpane named ‘New breath, or burgeoning Congo’. The accompanying label states that this piece “provides a firm answer” to the remaining allegorical colonial sculptures in the Rotunda by “looking at a prosperous future”. Alas, this answer is not as clear as is claimed and its message may be lost on many visitors.

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Samuelson, Beth Lewis, and Sarah Warshauer Freedman. "Language policy, multilingual education, and power in Rwanda." Language Policy 9, no. 3 (June 8, 2010): 191–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10993-010-9170-7.

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Lee, Min-Joo. "Language policy in Rwanda: from genocide to development." World History and Culture 55 (June 30, 2020): 313–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.32961/jwhc.2020.06.55.313.

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Manirakiza, A. "The Role of Childhood Cancer Civil Society on Cancer Control on Low-Income Countries." Journal of Global Oncology 4, Supplement 2 (October 1, 2018): 136s. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jgo.18.71600.

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Background and context: Over 250,000 new pediatric cancer cases are diagnosed yearly worldwide. In the developing countries, the childhood cancer burden is estimated to increase even more. Rwanda Children's Cancer Relief (RCCR) is a nonprofit organization with a mission to ensure that children with cancers access high standards of treatment and support. After realizing that majority in our community lack information on childhood cancers, our efforts since 2014 has been concentrated on raising awareness of childhood cancers. Aim: Raise awareness on childhood cancer among community members. Strategy/Tactics: During a massive walk, trained volunteers with informative brochures, posters in both local and international languages comprising information on early symptoms of childhood cancers, ways to navigate referral system among others are used during community outreaches. These activities are aired on national radios and TVs, newspapers and social media are also used to spread information. Program/Policy process: Many activities are carried out in September during the RCCR Annual Childhood Cancers Awareness Month. We involve community health workers, private sectors and academic institutions. We focus on talks, community outreaches and childhood cancers awareness activities. Outcomes: 2017 campaign included the aforementioned activities and was concluded by a walk dubbed (#KidsCancerWalk2016) which attracted more than 600 participants. Two local TVs, 6 radios and 7 online diaries covered the campaign in its different phases. More than 1000 posters, 1100 brochures and 500 flyers were distributed followed by intensive online campaign with more than 100 Facebook posts, 350 Tweets, and 700 Retweets. Strong partnerships with private, public sectors were created and Ministry of Health approved September as the national childhood cancer awareness month following RCCR campaigns. What was learned: Childhood cancers are fatal when left untreated but treatable when they are detected at an early stage. Activities that RCCR carry out on annual basis increase the general population knowledge about childhood cancers. Civil societies like RCCR play a crucial role in addressing the growing burden of childhood cancers and the disparities in access to and quality of care. They can also influence policy changes and address the specific patients' and community needs.

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Mukara, Kaitesi Batamuliza, David K. Tumusiime, Helen Barrett, Segerien R. Donner, Jeanne N. Kagwiza, and Joyce Murenzi. "Development of a Communicative Disorders Training Program for Rwanda: Joining the Dots." Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups 2, no. 17 (January 2017): 96–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/persp2.sig17.96.

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Communication disabilities remain a challenge worldwide but more especially in the developing world. Unpublished data from the recently concluded categorization of persons with disabilities (PWDs) conducted in Rwanda estimated that approximately 40% of PWDs have a disorder of speech, language, or hearing. Based on challenges faced by clinicians during patient care, a decision to start a training program was reached and shared with university of Rwanda administration in 2012 to solicit support to offer the intended programs. The discussions and curricula planning culminated in a participatory stakeholder validation workshop in February 2016 with the purpose of brainstorming the way forward towards approval and implementation of the programs. Subsequently, in May 2016, a strategic planning workshop was held with the objective of mapping resources and budgeting for the long-term sustainability of the programs as well as establishment of the professions and employability of graduates. Currently, the important step is to get funding for the curricula implementation. Thus, this paper describes the process of development of two programs to train a cadre of professionals in communication disorders; specifically speech and language and audiology and solicits any potential and interested funder to partner with the University of Rwanda.

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Cammaer, Gerda. "Tijdsconcepten en Tijdsbeleving, een Probleem uit de Interculturele Communicatie. Case-Study: Rwanda." Afrika Focus 7, no. 2 (January 26, 1991): 99–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2031356x-00702002.

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Conceptions of Time and Time Experience, A Problem in Intercultural Communication. Case-Study: Rwanda. The confrontation between people from different cultures causes a lot of problems, most of all communication problems. They are too often considered as only language-problems, but the so-called “cultural-shock” is a lot more comprehensive. Reducing any cultural problem to language troubles, means ignoring the non-verbal and other cultural principles that make cultures so rich and different. The experience of time and the concepts of time are such principles, rooted in culture and traditions. For the members of the culture in question, these time-principles have become so natural that they remain unexperienced or even unconscious, but they might surprise, even irritate, the members of other cultures. The scientific discipline called “chronemics” examines how humans perceive, structure and use time as communication. Every culture has its own conception of time and its own customs for the use of time. In this sense the Western culture is totally different from the Central African culture in Rwanda. This often causes intercultural conflicts when Europeans working in Rwanda are confronted with the different attitudes towards time of the Rwandese people and vice versa. The purpose of this research is to find an answer to the question whether the intercultural communication between Rwandese people and Europeans (sometimes, often, always) is disturbed because of misunderstandings caused by the differences in their time-codes. This survey contains two parts: first, a literature study on intercultural communication and time as a message system with references to the two cultures in question and second, a field study in Rwanda consisting of 120 questionnaires answered by Europeans and Rwandese people who work together.

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Martinon, Jean-Paul. "The birth of language or the necessity of rule." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 81, no. 3 (October 2018): 413–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x1800099x.

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AbstractAs is well known, the biblical sixth commandment, “Thou shall not kill”, is intimately linked to the First Commandment, “I am the Lord”. By linking the two at the top of Moses's two-column table, language is given priority: the name of God can be uttered only when the possibility of death has been set aside. In this way, the linking of these two commandments marks not only the birth of language, but also, more importantly, the start of ethics. As such, commandments one and six form the basis of practically all Western ethics from Kant's categorical imperative (the unconditional maxim needs a First Word to enter into force) to Lyotard's language games (for which all utterances are charged with the moral imperative to respond), for example. But how on earth does this famous linguistic and ethical structure fare in a context whereby the written text is not given priority, in a situation where prohibitions are inherited orally? This paper will attempt to expose the thorny issue of the role of the sixth commandment in the context of Rwanda. This will imply neither the exposition of the history of the arrival of the Bible in Rwanda nor the way it helped to consolidate the colonial regime. This paper will also not examine the neglect of the prohibition against murder during the genocide of 1994. Instead, the essay will examine the linguistic and cultural problems one faces when determining the birth of ethics in two radically different contexts.

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Engledow, Henry, Sofie De Smedt, Ann Bogaerts, and Quentin Groom. "An Evaluation of In-house versus Out-sourced Data Capture at the Meise Botanic Garden (BR)." Biodiversity Information Science and Standards 2 (May 21, 2018): e26514. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/biss.2.26514.

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There are many ways to capture data from herbarium specimen labels. Here we compare the results of in-house verses out-sourced data transcription with the aim of evaluating the pros and cons of each approach and guiding future projects that want to do the same. In 2014 Meise Botanic Garden (BR) embarked on a mass digitization project. We digitally imaged of some 1.2 million herbarium specimens from our African and Belgian Herbaria. The minimal data for a third of these images was transcribed in-house, while the remainder was out-sourced to a commercial company. The minimal data comprised the fields: specimen’s herbarium location, barcode, filing name, family, collector, collector number, country code and phytoregion (for the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda & Burundi). The out-sourced data capture consisted of three types: additional label information for central African specimens having minimal data; complete data for the remaining African specimens; and, species filing name information for African and Belgian specimens without minimal data. As part of the preparation for out-sourcing, a strict protocol had to be established as to the criteria for acceptable data quality levels. Also, the creation of several lookup tables for data entry was necessary to improve data quality. During the start-up phase all the data were checked, feedback given, compromises made and the protocol amended. After this phase, an agreed upon subsample was quality controlled. If the error score exceeded the agreed level, the batch was returned for retyping. The data had three quality control checks during the process, by the data capturers, the contractor’s project managers and ourselves. Data quality was analysed and compared in-house versus out-sourced modes of data capture. The error rate by our staff versus the external company was comparable. The types of error that occurred were often linked to the specific field in question. These errors include problems of interpretation, legibility, foreign languages, typographic errors, etc. A significant amount of data cleaning and post-capture processing was required prior to import into our database, despite the data being of good quality according to protocol (error < 1%). By improving the workflow and field definitions a notable improvement could be made in the “data cleaning” phase. The initial motivation for capturing some data in-house was financial. However, after analysis, this may not have been the most cost effective approach. Many lessons have been learned from this first mass digitisation project that will implemented in similar projects in the future.

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Andersson, Ingrid, and Joseph Rusanganwa. "Language and space in a multilingual undergraduate physics classroom in Rwanda." International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 14, no. 6 (November 2011): 751–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2011.583337.

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Rosendal, Tove. "Linguistic markets in Rwanda: language use in advertisements and on signs." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 30, no. 1 (February 2009): 19–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01434630802307882.

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Habyarimana, Heli, Evariste Ntakirutimana, and Lawrie Barnes. "A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Code-Switching in Rwanda." Language Matters 48, no. 3 (September 2, 2017): 49–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2017.1413127.

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KELSALL, TIM. "Politics, anti-politics, international justice: language and power in the Special Court for Sierra Leone." Review of International Studies 32, no. 4 (October 2006): 587–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210506007170.

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The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) is located in a fortified compound in central Freetown. Inside its militarised space a project of global significance is unfolding. Together with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and the International Criminal Court, the SCSL is an experiment in bringing the rule of international law and governance to regions recently destabilised by war and conflict.

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Hitchcott, Nicki. "The (Un)Believable Truth about Rwanda." Australian Journal of French Studies 56, no. 2 (July 2019): 199–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/ajfs.2019.15.

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Goyvaerts, Didier L. "The Emergence of Lingala in Bukavu, Zaïre." Journal of Modern African Studies 33, no. 2 (June 1995): 299–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x0002108x.

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Ever since independence Lingala has been gradually spreading throughout Zaïre to the extent that nowadays in Bukavu, a traditionally Swahili-speaking city near Rwanda and Burundi, about 70 per cent of the population has some knowledge of the language. This holds true for all layers of society: youngsters, students, teachers, civil servants, businessmen, petty traders, soldiers, and prostitutes. The advent of Lingala raises an important question: how do we explain the presence of this new language in a city where already three lingua francas exist, namely French, Swahili, and Indoubil.1

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Mulaudzi, Phalandwa, and Obwang'i Mbori. "Kiswahili and ethno-political stability in Kenya and Rwanda." Language Matters 39, no. 1 (July 2008): 18–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228190802321004.

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Gafaranga, Joseph. "Other-language recalibration in bilingual broadcast news interviews in Rwanda: The directionality of a language choice practice." Journal of Pragmatics 184 (October 2021): 74–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.07.021.

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Rizzi, Giovanni. "African and Rwandan Translations of the Bible." Między Oryginałem a Przekładem 27, no. 3(53) (September 21, 2021): 85–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.12797/moap.27.2021.53.05.

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The article offers a concise presentation of the project linked to the Library Fund of the Pontifical Urbaniana University, namely, to study the inculturation of the Christian faith by relating the documentation on the editions of the Bible to the catechisms in the territories entrusted to the pastoral care of the Congregation for Evangelization of peoples. The vastness of the project itself is marked today by the difficulty of using more extensive documentation than that present in the Fund of the same Library. However, more limited segments of the indicated material of interest can already be identified. More specifically, the African continent shows quite a varied phenomenology of the editions of the Bible: from translations of the Latin Vulgate into local languages, to translations from English or French, themselves translations from Latin. In the post-conciliar period, the translations of the Bible from the original biblical languages emerge. This is the case of the Kinyarwanda versions of the NT (1988, 1989) and of the OT-NT in a single volume (1990, 1992), in which, alongside pastoral purposes, the results of modern biblical exegesis are evident, to the point of proposing categorizations of literary bodies of biblical literature from an interconfessional and also interreligious perspective.

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Baele, Stephane J. "Conspiratorial Narratives in Violent Political Actors’ Language." Journal of Language and Social Psychology 38, no. 5-6 (August 12, 2019): 706–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0261927x19868494.

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This article articulates the concept of “conspiratorial narratives”—defined as stories which integrate a large range of events and archetypal characters from past and present in a single teleological explanation for the alleged suffering of a given social group—and argues that this particular linguistic construct is a key marker of extremist language. Using three different cases to illustrate our theoretical contribution (Nazi propaganda, Rwandan genocidaires’ radio, IS’ messaging), we show that paying attention to conspiratorial narratives leads us to significantly revise classic accounts of violent actors’ language, and provides a better understanding of the link between that language and violence itself—more precisely, why violence happens, how much violence is directed to whom, and when it occurs.

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Stevens, Samantha. "British Media and the Rwandan Genocide." Journal of Communication 68, no. 5 (August 1, 2018): E59—E60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqy039.

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Stambach, Amy, and Kevin Wamalwa. "Students’ Reparticularization of Chinese Language and Culture at the University of Rwanda Confucius Institute." Signs and Society 6, no. 2 (March 2018): 332–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/696798.

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Mukara, Kaitesi Batamuliza, Richard J. Lilford, Debara Lyn Tucci, and Peter Waiswa. "Prevalence of Middle Ear Infections and Associated Risk Factors in Children under 5 Years in Gasabo District of Kigali City, Rwanda." International Journal of Pediatrics 2017 (2017): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/4280583.

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Middle ear infections are common in children, and delay in diagnosis and treatment may result in complications such as delays in speech and language development and deafness. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and care seeking behaviour for middle ear infections in children under five years in Kigali city. We conducted a cross-sectional study among 810 children aged 6–59 months in Gasabo district of Kigali city, Rwanda. The prevalence of middle ear infections was 5.8%, of whom 4% had chronic suppurative otitis media. A child was less likely to develop middle ear infections if they lived in an urban setting (OR = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.285–0.958) but more likely to develop middle ear infections if exposed to household smoke (OR = 2.54, 95% CI: 1.18–5.46). Parents were unlikely to know that their child had an ear infection (OR: 0.15, 95% CI: 0.06–0.34). Middle ear infection remains a public health problem in Rwanda but many parents were not aware of its presence in the affected children. There is a need to raise awareness of parents about ear infection and to promote early care seeking from qualified health workers.

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Rooke, O. J. "The refugees of Rwanda seen through the eyes of a psychiatrist." Psychiatric Bulletin 19, no. 12 (December 1995): 774–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/pb.19.12.774.

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Rwanda was the most densely populated country in Africa. It is two-thirds the size of Switzerland but contained a larger population (9 million people), growing by almost 40% every two years. Few square inches are left uncultivated. The Tutsi people (never more than 14% of the population) are said to have arrived in the 14th century ad, bringing with them a feudal and totalitarian system of government. There was significant intermarriage with the result that today the Hutu and Tutsi people share the same language, cultural beliefs and religions (predominantly Catholic). In reality the terms Hutu and Tutsi now more accurately describe caste than ethnicity (Delcros, 1994).

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Fraiture, Pierre-Philippe. "Rwanda Genocide Stories: Fiction after 1994. By Nicki Hitchcott." French Studies 71, no. 2 (March 14, 2017): 297–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/knx062.

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BAZIMAZIKI, GABRIEL. "Students perceptions of using a second language in a mother tongue dominated environment." International Journal for Innovation Education and Research 6, no. 2 (February 28, 2018): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol6.iss2.915.

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While English is an official language and holds a significant role in education not only as a medium of instruction but also a subject of study from primary to tertiary level in Rwandan education system, some students still stick on their mother tongue in academic environment and this impedes language education and quality education as a whole. Based on Communicative approach, this study explored students’ perceptions of using a second language in a mother tongue dominated environment. The study involved 36 Diploma students from language education combinations. Questionnaire was used for data collection. Analysis revealed that mother tongue environment affects second language use. It was recommended that efforts be made to practice and improve their English language for effective communication.

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Karasenga, Jean de Dieu, Innocent Nkundabatware, and Olivier Munyansanga. "ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN POST-GENOCIDE RWANDA: A STUDY OF TEACHERS’ OBSERVANCE OF THE GRICE’S COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE." INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 2, no. 2 (May 2, 2020): 174–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.33369/ijer.v2i2.10985.

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The purpose of this paper is to report about how teachers of English in Rwanda implement Grice’s cooperative principle in their classrooms, the challenges they face while implementing it, and how they deal with those challenges. The study upon which this paper is based used survey questionnaires, observations, and interviews as methods of data collection. Grounded theory analysis was employed to make sense of the data. Research findings are articulated according to four maxims including quantitative maxim, qualitative maxim, maxim of relevance, and the maxim of manner. They include the fact that teachers struggle with teaching the prescribed curriculum, communicating with students in English, and teaching what is at their students’ learning level. The paper concludes by devising implications of the findings for policy and practice.

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van Klyton, Aaron, and Said Rutabayiro-Ngoga. "SME finance and the construction of value in Rwanda." Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 25, no. 4 (August 13, 2018): 628–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jsbed-02-2017-0046.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore how entrepreneurs, banks, the government, and alternative lending respond to finance gaps for small and medium enterprises (SMEs). This paper considers valuation as a sociological construct where actors use different calculative devices, forming an assemblage that partly positions valuation of entrepreneurial finance as a contested and socially constructed process. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on the concept of “calculative devices”, the study articulates discursive institutional practices embedded within SME lending. This case study draws on analyses of 30 semi-structured interviews and archival data, government reports, and newspaper articles. Findings The study identified three triggers in Rwanda that were rooted in the informal and unincorporated nature of the SME governance structure, the lack of capacity for SME owners to manage their own projects, and normalising language around collateral requirements that marginalised the realities of SMEs, contributing to stagnation for SME finance. Practical implications The research provides direction for understanding how calculative devices create new forms of valuation of entrepreneurship in developing countries, particularly when human and non-human actors come together in an assemblage. The study calls for further research to demonstrate the embedded power of valuation practices and the performance of value in entrepreneurial finance. Originality/value The study brings new findings to the market creation literature by extending the notion of distributive calculative agency to SME finance. The study mobilises theory to interpret how discursive institutional practices are embedded within a country’s finance infrastructure, yielding unintended consequences for SME growth.

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Russell, S. Garnett, and Prudence L. Carter. "When the Past Is in the Present: The Paradox of Educational Opportunity and Social Inclusion in South Africa and Rwanda." Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 5, no. 4 (July 9, 2018): 547–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2332649218783517.

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The legacies of a racial and ethnocentric past continue to have implications for the present in South Africa and Rwanda, particularly within the realm of education. Although in both societies, the governments have addressed their repressive and violent histories through the implementation of color-blind (or nonracial/ethnic) policies that espouse national unity and reconciliation, these very same policies inadvertently reinforce old divisions. They suppress candid discussion about past and current intergroup tensions, resulting in a paradox of social inclusion. In this article, the authors interrogate how historically ascribed identities, which were used for the purposes of oppression and social divisions in South Africa and Rwanda, are reconstituted in the postapartheid and postgenocide eras. The authors draw on empirical evidence from case studies of contemporary schools in both countries and argue that the nations’ two approaches—nonracialization and nonethnicization, respectively—aim to mute explicit discourse and language about racial and ethnic differences though the spread of “color-blind” ideologies. However, everyday behaviors and attitudes of individuals—students and educators—who are inculcated with ideas of past racial/ethnic ideologies remain rigid and continue to affect micro-level and school-level interactions that undermine the legitimacy of either color-mute or color-blind ideologies and contribute to boundary maintenance.

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Kellow, Christine L., and H. Leslie Steeves. "The Role of Radio in the Rwandan Genocide." Journal of Communication 48, no. 3 (September 1, 1998): 107–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1998.tb02762.x.

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Samuelson, Beth Lewis, and James Chamwada Kigamwa. "Students Writing across Cultures: Teaching Awareness of Audience in a Co-curricular Service Learning Project." International Journal of Literacy, Culture, and Language Education 1 (February 15, 2019): 69–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.14434/ijlcle.v1i0.26827.

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We examine a model for outofschool literacy instruction using language and cultural available designs for teaching awareness of audience across cultures. The literacy model described here engages undergraduate and secondary students in a cross-cultural storytelling exchange and calls for anticipating the needs of young readers who do not share linguistic or cultural backgrounds. We describe the process of helping the writers to understand their Rwandan audience and highlight some of the linguistic and cultural issues that arose in the early drafts and persisted throughout the editing process despite direct feedback. We describe the workshops in which we discussed available linguistic and cultural designs and track some of the responses of the writers. And finally, we examine a story from the third volume for evidence that the writers had addressed the needs of the Rwandan readers in their stories.

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Gafaranga, Joseph. "Medium request: Talking language shift into being." Language in Society 39, no. 2 (April 2010): 241–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047404510000047.

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AbstractIn his landmark contribution to the field of language shift/maintenance, Fishman maintains that, for language shift to be reversed, “face-to-face, small-scale social life must be pursued in their own right and focused upon directly.” This article responds to this call to examine language shift at the level of face-to-face interaction. It describes a specific interactional practice, referred to as “medium request,” observed in the Rwandan community in Belgium, where language shift is taking place from Kinyarwanda-French bilingualism to French monolingualism. The practice consists in the fact that younger members of the community, when in interaction with adult members, constantly (albeit indirectly) request the latter to “medium-switch” from Kinyarwanda to French. The article therefore describes the practice as a specific type of language/medium negotiation, examines its various strategies, and shows how, through this interactional practice, members of the community actually talk language shift into being. (Medium request, language shift, language maintenance, language/medium negotiation, other-initiated medium repair, embedded medium repair, generalized content repair, targeted content repair, understanding check)

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Hitchcott, N. "A Global African Commemoration - Rwanda: ecrire par devoir de memoire." Forum for Modern Language Studies 45, no. 2 (July 16, 2008): 151–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fmls/cqp003.

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Fraiture, Pierre-Philippe. "La Transmission littéraire et cinématographique du génocide des Tutsi au Rwanda." French Studies 70, no. 2 (February 21, 2016): 295–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/knw066.

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Janzen, John M. "Historical consciousness and a 'prise de conscience' in genocidal Rwanda." Journal of African Cultural Studies 13, no. 1 (June 2000): 153–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713674305.

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Manirakiza, Evariste, and Innocent Hakizimana. "Engaging Students in Error Analysis and Correction: A learner-Centered Approach to Improving Linguistic Accuracy." European Journal of Teaching and Education 2, no. 3 (December 30, 2020): 35–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.33422/ejte.v2i3.361.

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Students frequently commit errors despite spending huge amount of time studying language. This paper discusses a classroom-based teaching inquiry about error analysis and correction. The study focused on the use of simple past in paragraphs. The objectives of the investigation were to understand the extent to which dealing with students’ errors in a leaner-centered classroom improves accuracy in English and to assess students’ attitudes to the approach in language learning. The inquiry involved 62 first-year students from the College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine at the University of Rwanda. Individual and group work, a questionnaire and class observations were data collection tools. Findings revealed that the majority of students significantly improved their writing as a result of analyzing their errors in written work. In addition, students reported that correcting errors together gave them confidence and freedom to explore their language use more freely, to discuss their errors, to learn new words in their field of study, and to avoid repeating error while writing. Class observations showed that students were discussing and listening to each other’s opinions attentively and critically. The researchers concluded that students acquire more language accuracy when they are deeply involved in error analysis as they feel motivated and responsible for their own learning.

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Pottier, Johan. "Debating Styles in a Rwandan Co-Operative: Reflections on Language, Policy and Gender." Sociological Review 36, no. 1_suppl (May 1988): 41–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954x.1988.tb03325.x.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Rwanda – Languages'

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