Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Saccharomyces cerevisiae Signal Transduction'

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Cells of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are able to change their morphological appearance in response to a variety of extracellular and intracellular signals. The processes involved in morphogenesis are well characterised in this organism, but the exact mechanism by which information emanating from the environment is integrated into the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and the yeast cell cycle, is still not clearly understood. Considerable progress has, however, been made. The processes are investigated on various levels including: (i) the nature of the signals required to elicit a morphological adaptation, (ii) the mechanism by which these signals are perceived and transmitted to the nucleus for gene transcription regulation (signal transduction pathways), (iii) the role of the cytoskeleton, particularly actin, in morphogenesis, and (iv) the relationship between cell cycle regulators and factors required for alterations in cellular shape. The focus of this study was on elements involved in the regulation of one of these morphological processes, pseudohyphal formation, in S. cerevisiae. During pseudohyphal differentiation normal oval yeast cells become elongated and mother and daughter cells stay attached after cytokinesis to give rise to filaments. These filaments are able to penetrate the growth substrate, a phenomenon referred to as invasive growth. Actin remodelling is a prerequisite for the formation of elongated cells during pseudohyphal development and invasive growth. Its main contribution to this event is the directing of vesicles, containing cell wall constituents and enzymes, to specific sites of cell wall growth at the cell periphery. In order to fulfil this cellular function, actin is regulated on several levels. Signal transduction pathways that are activated in response to external nutritional signals play important roles in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton during pseudohyphal differentiation. For this reason a literature review was compiled to introduce various aspects of actin-structure, the regulation of this structure and the functions actin performs during morphogenesis. The connection between signal transduction elements involved in morphological processes and actin remodelling is also reviewed. This study entailed the genetic analysis of numerous factors involved in the regulation of pseudohyphal differentiation, invasive growth and starch metabolism. Several transcriptional regulators playing a role in these phenomena were investigated. Apart from the transcription factors, which include Mss11p, Msn1p, Ste12p, F108p,Phd1p and Tec1p, additional elements ranging from transporters to G-proteins, were also investigated. Mutant strains deleted for one or more of these factors were constructed and tested to assess their abilities to form filaments that penetrate the growth substrate, and to utilise starch as a carbon source. Complex genetic relationships were observed for various combinations of these factors. Specifically, F108p,Msn1p and Ste12p were shown to act independently in controlling invasive growth and starch metabolism, suggesting that these factors are regulated by different signal transduction pathways. Mss11p, on the other hand, was found to play an indispensable role and seems to act as a downstream factor of Msn1 p, Fl08p, Ste12p and Tec1 p. The exception to this is Phd1 p, since multiple copies of PHD1 partially suppress the effect of a MSS11 deletion. The data suggests that Mss11 p functions at the confluence of several signalling pathways controlling the transcriptional regulation of genes required for invasive growth and starch degradation. Different nutritional signals were also found to differentially regulate specific signalling elements during the invasive growth response. For example, Tec1 p requires Msn1 p activity in response to growth on media containing a limited nitrogen source. This dependency, however, was absent when invasive growth was tested on glucose and starch media. Evidence was also obtained that confirmed the transcriptional co-regulation of MUC1 and STA2. MUC1 encodes a mucin-like protein that is required for invasive growth and pseudohyphal differentiation, whereas STA2 encodes a glucoamylase required for starch degradation. Unpublished results indicated that several transcriptional regulators of invasive growth also exert an effect on starch metabolism. The data generated during this study complemented and confirmed published results. It also contributed to the compilation of a more detailed model, integrating the numerous factors involved in these signalling processes.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Saccharomyces cerevisiae gisselle beskik oor die vermoë om hul morfologiese voorkoms in responstot 'n verskeidenheid van ekstrasellulêre en intrasellulêre seine te verander. Die prosesse betrokke by morfogenese is goed gekarakteriseerd in hierdie organisme, maar die presiese meganisme waardeur inligting vanuit die omgewing geïntegreer word in die reguleringvan die aktien-sitoskelet en die gisselsiklus, word nog nie ten volle verstaan nie. Aansienlike vordering in die verband is egter gemaak. Die prosesse word op verskeie vlakke ondersoek, insluitende: (i) die aard van die seine wat benodig word om 'n morfologiese aanpassing te inisïeer; (ii) die meganisme waardeur hierdie seine waargeneem en herlei word na die selkern vir die regulering van geen-transkripsie (seintransduksie paaie); (iii) die rol van die sitoskelet, spesifiek aktien, in morfogenese en (iv) die verhouding tussen selsiklusreguleerders en faktore wat benodig word vir verandering in selvorm. Hierdie navorsing fokus op elemente betrokke by die regulering van een van hierdie morfologiese prosesse in S. cerevisiae, naamlik pseudohife-vorming. Gedurende pseudohife-differensiëring neem tipiese ovaalvormige selle 'n verlengde voorkoms aan wat tot die vorming van filamente lei. Hierdie filamente is in staat om die groeisubstraat te penetreer, 'n verskynsel bekend as penetrasie-groei. Aktienherrangskikking is 'n voorvereiste vir die vorming van verlengde selle tydens pseudohife-ontwikkeling. Die hoofbydrae van aktien tot hierdie verskynsel is die oriëntering van uitskeidingsvesikels, wat selwandkomponente en ensieme bevat, na spesifieke areas van selwandgroei op die seloppervlak. Aktien word op verskeie vlakke gereguleer om hierdie sellulêre funksie te vervul. Seintransduksiepaaie wat geaktiveer word in respons tot ekstrasellulêre voedingsseine speel 'n belangrike rol in die regulering van die aktien-sitoskelet tydens pseudohife-differensiëring. Op grond hiervan is 'n literatuuroorsig saamgestel vir die bekendstelling van verskeie aspekte van aktienstruktuur, die regulering van hierdie strukture en die funksies wat deur aktien gedurende morfogenese vervul word. Die verband tussen seintransduksie-elemente betrokke by morfologiese prosesse en aktien herrangskikkingword ook behandel. Hierdie studie het die genetiese analisering van verskeie faktore betrokke by pseudohife-differensiëring, penetrasie-groei en styselmetabolisme, behels. Verskeie transkripsionele reguleerders wat In rol speel in hierdie prosesse was bestudeer. Buiten die transkripsiefaktore Mss11p, Msn1p, Ste12p, F108p,Phd1P en Tec1p, was addisionele faktore, wat gewissel het van transporters tot G-proteïene, ook ondersoek. Mutante-rasse met geendelesies vir een of meer van hierdie faktore is gekonstrueer en getoets om vas te stel hoe dit hul vermoë raak om penetrerende filamente te vorm, asook om te bepaal of stysel as koolstofbron gebruik kan word. Komplekse genetiese interaksies vir verskeie kombinasies van hierdie faktore is waargeneem. Dit was waargeneem dat F108p,Msn1p en Ste12p onafhanklik funksioneer tydens die regulering van penetrasie-groei en styselmetabolisme, wat impliseer dat hierdie faktore deur verskillende seintransduksiepaaie gereguleer word. Mss11 p word beskou as In onmisbare rolspeler in hierdie prosesse en dit kom voor asof hierdie protein as 'n stroom-af faktor is en vereis word vir die funksionering van Msn1p, F108p, Ste12p en Tec1p. Phd1p is egter 'n uitsondering, aangesien veelvuldige kopieë van PHD1 die effek van 'n MSS11-delesie gedeeltelik oorkom. Die data impliseer dat Mss11 p by die samevloei van verskeie seintransduksiepaaie, benodig vir die transkripsionele regulering van gene betrokke by penetrasie-groei en styselmetabolisme, funksioneer. Dit was ook waargeneem dat verskillende voedingsseine die faktore betrokke by die penetrasie-groeirespons differensieel reguleer. Tec1 p byvoorbeeld benodig Msn1paktiwitieit in respons tot groei op media met 'n beperkte stikstofbron. Hierdie afhanklike interaksie is egter afwesig wanneer penetrasie-groei bestudeer word op glukose- en styselmedia. Resultate wat die gesamentlike transkripsionele regulering van MUC1 en STA2 bevestig, is ook verkry. MUC1 kodeer vir 'n mukienagtige proteïen wat benodig word vir pseudohife-vorming en penetrasie-groei, terwyl STA2 kodeer vir 'n glukoamilase essensieël vir styselafbraak. Ongepubliseerde resultate dui daarop dat verskeie transkripsionele reguleerders van penetrasie-groei ook In effek uitoefen op styselmetabolisme. Die data wat gegenereer is tydens hierdie studie komplementeer en bevestig reeds gepubliseerde resultate. Dit het ook bygedra tot die samestelling van 'n gedetaileerde model wat die verskillende faktore, betrokke by hierdie seintransduksieprosesse, integreer.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2007.
Title from electronic title page (viewed Apr. 25, 2008). "... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics." Discipline: Biochemistry and Biophysics; Department/School: Medicine. On title page, [beta] appears as Greek character.

本文データは平成22年度国立国会図書館の学位論文(博士)のデジタル化実施により作成された画像ファイルを基にpdf変換したものである
Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(農学)
甲第7406号
農博第990号
新制||農||762(附属図書館)
学位論文||H10||N3152(農学部図書室)
UT51-98-G335
京都大学大学院農学研究科食品工学専攻
(主査)教授 木村 光, 教授 天知 輝夫, 教授 江﨑 信芳
学位規則第4条第1項該当

The yeast SKN7 gene encodes a transcription factor that is involved in a variety of processes in cell physiology including cell wall synthesis, cell cycle progression, and oxidative stress resistance. Using a transcriptional reporter-based system, it has been demonstrated that Skn7p is regulated by the two-component osmosensor Sln1p in a manner that requires the phosphorelay molecule Ypd1p, but not the response regulator Ssk1p. Consistent with its regulation by an osmosensor, Skn7p is involved in negative regulation of the osmoresponsive HOG MAP kinase cascade. Cells lacking SKN7 and the protein serine/threonine phosphatase encoded by PTC1 are severely disabled for growth, and hyperaccumulate intracellular glycerol. The growth defect of skn7Delta ptc1Delta mutants can be bypassed by overexpression of specific phosphatase genes, or by deletion of the HOG MAP kinase pathway-encoding genes PBS2 or HOG1.
MID2 was isolated in a screen designed to identify upstream regulators of Skn7p. Mid2p is an extensively O-mannosylated protein that is localized to the plasma membrane. Mutants with defective beta-1,6-glucan synthesis grow more quickly when MID2 is absent. Conversely, MID2 is essential for viability in cells lacking FKS1, the gene encoding the primary catalytic subunit of beta-1,3-glucan synthase. mid2Delta mutants are resistant to calcofluor white, a drug that interferes with cell wall chitin synthesis, while cells overexpressing MID2 are supersensitive to the drug. mid2Delta mutants have a significant reduction in stress-induced chitin synthesis, while cells overexpressing MID2 hyperaccumulate cell wall chitin. Consistent with a proposed role in sensing and responding to cell wall stress, high copy expression of specific components of the cell wall integrity MAP kinase cascade suppress various mid2Delta phenotypes, and Mid2p is essential for full activation of the Mpk1p MAP kinase during various cell wall stress and morphogenic conditions.
Observations from genetic and biochemical experiments suggest that Mid2p is a regulator of the small G-protein encoded by RHO1. Deletion of MID2 is lethal to mutants lacking the Rho1p GEF Rom2p, but suppresses the low temperature growth defect of mutants lacking the Rho1p GAP Sac7p. Conversely, high copy expression of MID2 is a strong suppressor of mutants lacking TOR2, an upstream activator of Rom2p, but is toxic to sac7Delta mutants. High copy expression of MID2 causes increased GEF activity towards Rho1p. Mid2p appears to act in parallel to Rom1p and Rom2p in promoting GDP-GTP exchange for Rho1p in a mechanism that is not yet understood.

À l’interface entre la cellule et le milieu extérieur, les protéines membranaires ont un rôle indispensable au fonctionnement cellulaire. Elles jouent un grand nombre de fonctions et peuvent être impliquées dans des pathologies graves. La connaissance de ces protéines membranaire peut permettre de mieux comprendre de nombreux phénomènes biologiques et pathologiques et leur localisation, accessible, en fait de bonne cibles thérapeutique. La connaissance de la structure des protéines apporte une quantité d’information très importante sur leur fonctionnement. À ce jour si plusieurs dizaines de milliers de structures de protéines solubles ont pu être résolues, moins de deux cents structures de protéines membranaires sont connues. Cette différence provient des difficultés à produire des protéines membranaires pures et stables en quantités nécessaires à la détermination des structures tridimensionnelles. Les conditions d’expression des protéines membranaires est très variables en fonction de la protéine. Notre équipe de recherche s’intéresse au développement de stratégies pour l’expression hétérologue et la purification de protéines membranaires impliquées dans des pathologies humaines dans le but d’en étudier la structure et les relations structurefonction et par une approche protéine. Dans cette thèse sont présentés les résultats obtenus sur l’expression et la purification des récepteurs humains de la voie de signalisation Hedgehog, Patched et Smoothened, dont le disfonctionnement est mis en cause dans de nombreux cancers mais également dans des maladies neuro-dégénératives. Ces protéines ont pu être exprimées dans différents systèmes hétérologues : les levures Saccharomyces cerevisiae et Pichia pastoris et dans les Cellules S2 de drosophile. Nous avons pu mettre en évidence que Smoothened était exprimé sous sa forme native dans les levures et qu’il était possible de la purifier et la produire dans l’optique d’une étude structurale à partir de Pichia pastoris (de Rivoyre et al, FEBS letters, 2005). Patched et Smoothened ont également pu être exprimé stablement et fonctionnellement par des clones de cellules S2. Ce système qui permet la purification de ces protéines s’est également avéré très intéressant pour une étude comparative du fonctionnement des protéines humaines et des protéines de drosophile (de Rivoyre et al, JBC, 2006)
Membrane-bound proteins play a significant role in cell function due to their position in between the cell and the external medium. These proteines are for this reason, involved in a number of human diseases. Knowing membrane-bound proteins will allow us to better understand several biological and pathophysiological functions. Furthermore, their localisations make them interesting therapeutic targets. Knowing the structure of proteins gives a tremendous amount of information on their functions. To date, even if several thousands structures of soluble proteins have been solved; only less than two hundred structures of membrane-bound proteins are known. This important difference is partly due to the fact that membrane-bound proteins are difficult to obtain pure in a stable conformation in order to determine their three-dimensional structures. Recombinant expression of membrane-bound proteins has a high variability depending on the nature of the protein studied. Our research team is therefore interested in the development of recombinant expression and purification strategies of membrane-bound proteins involved in numerous human diseases, in order to study their functions but also to establish structurefunction relationships. My thesis work has focused on the expression and the purification of human receptors of the Hedgehog pathway, Patched and Smoothened. Alteration of these two proteins is known to be involved in numerous cancers but also in some neurological diseases. These two proteins have been expressed in two different systems : yeast cells Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris and also in drosophila cells S2. We have been able to show that the protein Smoothened is expressed in Pichia pastoris in its native conformation in yeast cells an dit is therefore possible to purify it in order to perform structural studies. Patched and Smoothened have also been stably and functionaly expressed in S2 cells. This system is also interesting to perform comparative studies between drosophila and human proteins

L'ubiquitylation est une modification post-traductionnelle impliquée dans de nombreux processus cellulaires qui nécessite une régulation fine. La protéine Cdc48, qui appartient à la famille des ATPases AÂA (ATPase associated with various activities), participe à cette régulation. En effet, il s'agit d'une chaperonne dépendante de l'ubiquitine, essentielle à la viabilité cellulaire, qui est capable de réguler le devenir de protéines ubiquitylées, directement ou indirectement via des cofacteurs. Cdc48 est impliquée dans la régulation de nombreuses fonctions biologiques et contribue à l'homéostasie cellulaire en participant à la dégradation de protéines via le système ubiquitine/ protéasome et l'autophagie. Lors de ma thèse, je me suis intéressée à la caractérisation de nouvelles fonctions de la protéine Cdc48 chez la levure S. Cerevisiae. Dans un premier temps, j'ai participé à la description d'une nouvelle fonction de Cdc48 et son cofacteur Ufd3, deux nouveaux partenaires du complexe de déubiquitylation Ubp3-Bre5, dans la ribophagie, un processus d'autophagie sélective permettant la dégradation vacuolaire des ribosomes matures en condition de carence nutritionnelle. Dans un deuxième temps, je me suis intéressée au rôle de Cdc48 dans le noyau et plus précisément à la chromatine. Cette étude a mis en évidence que la protéine Cdc48 est recrutée sur les gènes activement transcrits, et qu'elle régule le processus d'ubiquitylation de l'histone H2B sur certains gènes. Nous avons donc caractérisé une nouvelle fonction de la protéine Cdc48 qui serait un régulateur important de Pubiquitylation de l'histone H2B, une marque d'histone dont la fonction est encore mal comprise
The ubiquitylation is a post-translational modification involved in numerous cellular processes and needs to be tightly regulated. The protein Cdc48, which belongs to the AAA ATPase family (ATPase associated with various activities), contributes to this regulation. Indeed, it is a ubiquitin-1 selective chaperone, essential for cell viability, which is capable of regulating the fate of ubiquitylated proteins directly or indirectly via specific cofactors. Cdc48 is involved in the regulation of a large array of biological processes and contributes notably to cellular homeostasis by participating in protein degradation via the ubiquitin/proteasome System and the autophagic pathway. During my PhD, I focused on the characterization of new fonctions of the protein Cdc48 in I the yeast S. Cerevisiae. At first, I participated in the description of a new function of Cdc48 and its cofactor Ufd3, two new partners of the deubiquitylation complex Ubp3-Bre5, in the ribophagy, a selective autophagy process induced by nutrient starvation that allows the vacuolar degradation of mature ribosomes. In a second time, I became interested in the role of Cdc48 in the nucleus and more specifically at the chromatin. This study showed that the protein Cdc48 is recruited to actively transcribed genes and that it regulates the process of the ubiquitylation of the histone H2B on certain I genes. We therefore characterized a novel function of the protein Cdc48, which would be an important regulator of the ubiquitylation of H2B, a histone mark whose function is still poorly understood

Les glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) sont des modifications glycolipidiques permettant d'ancrer certaines protéines eucaryotes secrétées à la surface cellulaire. Les ancres GPI partagent la même sructure centrale très conservée protéine-PEthN-6Manα1-2Man&l-6Manαl-4GlcNH2&l-6inositol-PO4-lipide, synthétisée en plus de 12 étapes enzymatiques. Au moins une protéine a déja été identifiée pour chacune de ces étapes, à l'exception de l'addition du second mannose. Une stratégie bioinformatique m'a permis d'identifier une protéine non caractérisée, Gpi 18p, responsable de l'ajout de Man2. Des cellules mutantes où l'expression de Gpi 18p est bloquée accumulent Man1 (EthNP)-GPI indiquant que l'addition d'EthN-P aurait lieu plus tôt que préalablement supposé dans la biosynthèse GPI. J'ai étendu mes recherches sur les modifications des glycanes GPI aux champignons pathogènes ou intéressants sur le plan évolutif. Mon travail a contribué à la caractérisation génétique de la fonction de Smp3p chez l levure à fission Schizasaccharomyces pombe chez lequel l'addition d'un quatrième mannose s'est avérée obligatoire. Enfin, j'ai pu initialement caractérisé les GPIs chez le champignon pathogène Cryptococcus neoformans, par prédiction bioinformatique. La fonction des enzymes de la voie de biosynthèse des GPIs ainsi identifiées, a été testée chez les mutants gpi de S. Cerevisiae. Un système acellulaire utilisant les membranes de C. Neoformans a permis de visualiser des intermédiaires GPI. Nos données préliminaires suggèrent que les glycanes GPI pourraient être structurellement moins complexes que ceux de S. Cerevisiae et des mammifères de part l'absence des ramifications EthN-Ps et Man-4
Glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) are essential glycolipid modification of certain eukaryotic secretory proteins. Their primary function is to anchor a protein to the surface of a cell. However, GPIs have also been implicated in many important cellular processes such as cell adhesion, fungal pathogenesis, and cell wall formation. All GPI anchors share a highly conserved core structure of protein-CO-PEthN-6Manα1-2Manα1-6Manα1-4GlcNH2αl-6myo-inositol-PO4-lipid which is synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum. In both S. Cerevisiae and humans, the GPI biosynthesis pathway involves more than ten enzymatic steps for which at least one protein has been identified except for addition of the second mannose. I devised a bioinformatics-based strategy to identify a previously uncharacterized protein, Gpi 18p, which is responsible for addition of intermediate lipid having an EthN-P side-branch indicating that EthN-P addition to GPI glycans may occur earlier in GPI biosynthesis than previously thought. . .

In response to external stimuli, many intracellular signaling proteins undergo dynamic changes in localization to the plasma membrane. Using the Saccharomyces cerevisiaemating pathway as a model, I investigated the molecular interactions that govern plasma membrane localization of signaling proteins, and how the plasma membrane compartmentalization of a signaling complex influences the overall signaling behavior of the pathway. Signaling proteins often consist of multiple interaction domains that collectively dictate their localization and function. Ste20 is a p21-activated kinase (PAK) that functions downstream of the Rho-type GTPase Cdc42 to activate several mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways in budding yeast, including the mating pathway. I identified a short domain in Ste20 that directly binds to membrane lipids via electrostatic interaction. A mutation in this domain abolishes both the localization and function of Ste20. Thus, the previously known Cdc42 binding is necessary but not sufficient; instead, direct membrane binding by Ste20 is also critical. By replacing this domain with heterologous membranebinding domains, I demonstrated that phospholipid specificity is not essential in vivo. Functionally important short membrane-binding domains were also found in the Cdc42 effectors Gic1 and Gic2, indicating that generic membrane binding can work in concert with the CRIB domain to regulate activation of Cdc42 targets. These results underscore the importance of cooperation between protein-protein and protein-membrane interaction in achieving proper localization of signaling proteins at the cell cortex. At the system level, MAP kinase cascades can be graded or switch-like. The budding yeast mating pathway exhibits a graded response to increasing levels of pheromone. Previously the scaffold protein Ste5 was hypothesized to contribute to this graded response. To test this idea, I activated the pathway in a variety of ways and measured the response at the single cell level. I found that the graded response is not perturbed by the deletion of negative regulators of the pathway whereas the response became switch-like when the pathway was activated by a crosstalk stimulus that bypasses the upstream components. Interestingly, activation of the pathway in the cytoplasm using the graded expression of MAPKKK resulted in an ultrasensitive response. In contrast, activation of the pathway at the plasma membrane using the graded expression of membranetargeted active pathway components remained graded. In these settings, the scaffold protein Ste5 increased ultrasensitivity when limited to the cytosol; however, if Ste5 was allowed to function at the plasma membrane, signaling was graded. The results suggest that, in the mating pathway, the inherently ultrasensitive MAPK cascade is converted to a graded system by the scaffoldmediated assembly of signaling complexes at the plasma membrane. Therefore, the plasma membrane localization of Ste5 helps shape the input-output properties of the mating MAPK pathway in a manner that is suitable for the biology of mating. Taken together, this thesis underscores the importance of plasma membrane localization during mating pathway signaling in yeast. The examples described here provide further appreciation of how multiple interaction domains can function together to achieve specific targeting of the signaling proteins, as well as advances in understanding the role of scaffold proteins in modulating signaling behavior to promote graded signaling at the plasma membrane.

Organisms must constantly face and adapt to environmental change. Although unpredictable events may inevitably impose threats, temporally correlated changes may also provide opportunities from which an organism can profit. An evolutionarily successful microbe must collect enough information to distinguish threats from opportunities. Indeed, for nutrient transport, it is not clear how organisms distinguish one from the other. Fluctuations in nutrient levels can quickly render any transporter's capabilities obsolete. Identifying the environment's dynamic identity is therefore a highly valuable asset for a cell to elicit an accurate physiological response. Recent evidence suggests that the baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae can exert anticipatory responses to environmental shifts. Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which cells are able to incorporate information from the environment's dynamic features is not understood. A potential source of complex information processing is a highly intricate biochemical network that controls glucose transport. The understanding of this network, however, has revolved around its ability to adjust expression of 17 hexose transporter genes (HXT) to glucose levels. In this thesis, I postulate that instead the glucose sensing network is dynamically controlling the 7 major hexose transporters. By studying transporter dynamics in several scenarios, I provide substantial evidence for this hypothesis. I find that hexose transporters with similar reported affinities (Hxt2 and Hxt4) are robustly allocated to separate stages of growth for multiple initial glucose concentrations. Using single-cell studies, I show that Hxt4 expresses exclusively during glucose downshifts, in contrast with Hxt2. From multiple approaches, I demonstrate that Mig1 is mostly responsible for reporting on the time derivative of glucose, and harnessing it to differentially regulate both transporters. I also provide evidence for the roles of Rgt2 and Std1 in modulating long-term glucose repression of Hxt4. This work extends our ideas on the functionality of transport and gene regulation beyond the established steady-state models. The ability to decode environmental dynamics is likely to be present in other signaling systems and may impact a cell's decision to use fermentation - a decision which is of fundamental interest both for cancer research and for biotechnology.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Protein secretion and intracellular transport are highly regulated processes and involve the interplay of a multitude of proteins. A unique collection of thermosensitive secretory mutants allowed scientists to demonstrate that the secretory pathway of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is very similar to that of the higher eukaryotes. All proteins commence their journey in the endoplasmic reticulum, where they undergo amino-linked core glycosyl modification. After passage through the Golgi apparatus, where the remodelling of the glycosyl chains is completed, proteins are transported to their final destinations, which are either the cell surface, periplasmic space or the vacuole. Proteins destined for secretion are usually synthesised with a transient amino-terminal secretion leader of varying length and hydrophobicity, which plays a crucial role in the targeting and translocation of their protein cargo. Considerable effort has been made to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in these processes, especially due to their relevance in a rapidly expanding biotech industry. The advantages of S. cerevisiae as a host for the expression of recombinant proteins are well documented. Unfortunately, S. cerevisiae is also subject to a number of drawbacks, with a relative low product yield being one of the major disadvantages. Bearing this in mind, different secretion leaders were compared with the aim of improving the secretion of the LKA 1 and LKA2 a-amylase enzymes from the S. cerevisiae secretion system. The yeast Lipomyces kononenkoae is well known for its ability to degrade raw starch and an improved secretion of its amylase enzymes from S. cerevisiae paves the way for a potential one-step starch utilisation process. Three sets of constructs were prepared containing the LKA 1 and LKA2 genes separately under secretory direction of either their native secretion leader, the S. cerevisiae mating pheromone a-factor (MFa1) secretion leader, or the MFa1 secretion leader containing a synthetic C-terminal spacer peptide (EEGEPK). The inclusion of a spacer peptide in the latter set of constructs ensured improved Kex2p proteolytic processing of the leader/protein fusion. Strains expressing the amylase genes under their native secretion leaders resulted in the highest saccharolytic activity in the culture medium. In contrast to this, strains utilising the synthetic secretion leader produced the highest fermentation yield, but had a lower than expected extracellular activity. We hypothesise that the native amylase leaders may function as intramolecular chaperones in the folding and processing of their passenger proteins, thereby increasing processing efficiency and concomitant enzyme activity.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Proteïensekresie en intrasellulêre transport is hoogs gereguleerde prosesse en betrek die onderlinge wisselwerking van 'n verskeidenheid proteïene. 'n Unieke versameling van temperatuur-sensitiewe sekresiemutante het wetenskaplikes in staat gestelom die ooreenkoms tussen die sekresiepad van die gis Saccharomyces cerevisiae en dié van komplekser eukariote aan te toon. Alle proteïene begin hul reis in die endoplasmiese retikulum, waartydens hulle ook amino-gekoppelde kernglikosielveranderings ondergaan. Nadat die proteïene deur die Golgi-apparaat beweeg het, waar die laaste veranderings aan die glikosielkettings plaasvind, word hulle na hul finale bestemmings, waaronder die seloppervlak, die periplasmiese ruimte of die vakuool, vervoer. Proteïene wat vir sekresie bestem is, word gewoonlik met 'n tydelike, amino-eindpuntsekresiesein, wat 'n kritiese rol in die teiken en translokasie van hul proteïenvrag speel, gesintetiseer. Heelwat pogings is in hierdie studie aangewend om die molekulêre meganismes betrokke by hierdie prosesse te ontrafel, veral as gevolg van hul toepaslikheid in 'n vinnig groeiende biotegnologiebedryf. Die voordele van S. cerevisiae as 'n gasheer vir die uitdruk van rekombinante proteïene is alombekend. S. cerevisiae het egter ook verskeie nadele, waaronder die relatiewe lae produkopbrengs die belangrikste is. Teen hierdie agtergrond, is verskillende sekresieseine met mekaar vergelyk met die doelom die sekresie van die LKA 1 en LKA2 a-amilasegene vanuit die S. cerevisiae-uitdrukkingsisteem te verbeter. Die gis Lipomyces kononenkoae is bekend vir sy vermoeë om rou stysel af te breek en 'n verbeterde sekresie van sy amilasegene vanuit S. cerevisiae baan die weg vir 'n moontlike een-stap styselgebruiksproses. Drie stelle konstrukte is gemaak wat die LKA 1- en LKA2- gene onafhanklik onder sekresiebeheer van onderskeidelik hul inheemse sekresiesein, die S. cerevisiae paringsferomoonsekresiesein (MFa1) of die MFa1-sekresiesein met 'n sintetiese koppelingspeptied aan die C-eindpunt (EEGEPK), plaas. Die insluiting van 'n koppelingspeptied in die laasgenoemde stel konstrukte verseker verbeterde Kex2p proteolitiese prosessering van die sein/proteïenfusie. Rasse wat die amilasegene onder beheer van hul inheemse sekresieseine uitdruk, het die beste saccharolitiese aktiwiteit in die kultuurmedia getoon. In teenstelling hiermee, het rasse wat van die sintetiese sekresiesein gebruik maak, die beste fermentasie-opbrengs getoon, maar met 'n laer as verwagte ekstrasellulêre aktiwiteit. Ons vermoed dat die inheemse amilaseseine as intramolekulêre begeleiers optree in die vou en prosessering van hul proteïenpassasiers, wat lei tot verbeterde prosessering en ensiemaktiwiteit.

A fundamental property of living cells is the ability to sense and respond appropriately to changing environmental conditions. In budding yeast (Sacharomyces cerevisiae), changes in extracellular osmotic conditions are sensed by the HOG SAPK pathway, which orchestrates the cell adaptation program required to maximize cell survival upon stress. Although most of the HOG pathway components have been described, little was known about the dynamics of the response. The aim of this thesis was to analyze the dynamic behavior of the HOG pathway. By using a chemical inhibitor and extensive signal quantification we showed that the HOG pathway is controlled by high basal signaling counteracted by a negative feedback regulatory system. This property determines dynamic signaling in terms of faster response times and higher sensitivity to small variations in extracellular stimuli. This thesis also aimed to implement novel strategies for biological computation that allow increasing complexity of circuits. By engineering signaling pathways in yeast, we have shown that distribution of computation tasks among several wired cells reduces wiring constraints and allows scalability of circuit complexity. Moreover, reusability of cells permits implementation of multiple circuits. Overall, our results define novel dynamic properties of the HOG pathway and have been important to achieve a better view of signal transduction process though MAPK pathways. Moreover, we have developed and implemented novel strategies for biological computation that solved fundamental constrains in the field of synthetic biology.
Una propietat cel•lular fonamental és l’habilitat de detectar estímuls i respondre coherentment a un ambient dinàmic. En cèl•lules de llevat (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), els canvis en l’osmolaritat externa són detectats per la via de senyalització de HOG que organitza tot el programa d’adaptació cel•lular, indispensable per assegurar la supervivència cel•lular en estrès osmòtic. Tot i que la gran majoria dels components de la via de HOG han estat identificats, la dinàmica del procés de senyalització és encara força desconeguda. L’objectiu d’aquest projecte de tesis ha estat analitzar el comportament dinàmic de la via de HOG. Gràcies a la utilització d’un al•lel inhibible de la MAPK Hog1 i a la quantificació sistemàtica del procés de senyalització, hem pogut demostrar que en la via de HOG existeix una intensa senyal basal reprimida constantment per un feedback negatiu depenent de la MAPK Hog1. Aquesta tesi també té com a objectiu la implementació de noves estratègies de computació biològica que permetin un increment de la complexitat dels circuits. Gràcies a la bioenginyeria de les vies de senyalització de llevat, hem demostrat que la distribució de la computació en diferents cèl•lules connectades entre elles disminueix les limitacions de connexió i permet incrementar la complexitat dels circuits a un baix cost. En conjunt, els nostres resultats defineixen noves propietats dinàmiques de la via de HOG i han estat importants per tenir una visió global millorada del procés de senyalització per vies de MAPK. A més, hem dissenyat i implementat noves estratègies de computació biològica que han resolt problemes fonamentals del camp de la biologia sintètica.

Meiosis is the process by which diploid cells undergo DNA synthesis, homologous recombination and pairing, followed by the reductional division then the equational division. I present work in this PhD thesis which furthers the understanding of the coordination of the initiation of meiotic recombination and the reductional division. Ten genes are required to initiate recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The presence of a subset of recombination initiation proteins creates a Recombination Initiation Signal (RIS) that delays the start of MI in wild type cells. I present experiments demonstrating the first division kinetics of the two remaining recombination initiation genes that our lab had not yet studied. Rec107 is part of the RIS, while Ski8 is not. The RIS is conserved in a divergent Saccharomyces strain background. rec102 and rec104 SK1 strains both start the first division earlier that wildtype SK1 strains. I present evidence that suggests that the RIS acts independently of the pathway that controls securin (PDS1) degradation. The work in this thesis expands our knowledge of the mechanism by which the RIS delays the reductional division. In this thesis I present experiments showing that the DNA damage, spindle and S phase checkpoints do not transduce the RIS. I establish the meiosis-specific candidate Mek1 as a candidate for relaying the RIS. Lastly, experiments described in these chapters show that the transcriptional activator of Middle Meiosis, NDT80, is the target of the RIS. NDT80 transcription and activity are both necessary and sufficient to affect an earlier reductional division, similar to the early MI seen in RIS mutants.

Le maintien d'une homéostasie redox intracellulaire est essentielle à la survie de la cellule. Pour cela, la cellule doit réguler la concentration intracellulaire en intermédiaires réactifs de l'oxygène (ou IRO), sous-produits de la respiration. La connaissance que nous avons des mécanismes de contrôle de l'homéostasie redox repose principalement sur des données obtenues chez la bactérie. Nous avons donc choisi un eucaryote comme modèle d'étude, la levure S. Cerevisiae. Le facteur de transcription Yap1 contrôle l'expression d'anti-oxydants, responsables en particulier de la réduction du peroxyde d'hydrogène (H2O2) et de l'ion superoxyde (O2. -). L'activité de Yap1 est régulée par sa localisation subcellulaire. Nous avons montré qu'in vivo, l'activation de Yap1 par le H2O2 repose sur la formation d'un pont disulfure intramoléculaire. Cette oxydation est responsable de l'accumulation nucléaire du régulateur et permet la production des anti-oxydants. L'oxydation de Yap1 par le H2O2 n'est pas directe mais elle est relayée par une peroxydase, Gpx3. L'oxydation de Gpx3 par le H2O2 entraîne la formation d'un pont disulfure intermoléculaire entre Yap1 et Gpx3, rapidement transformé en pont intramoléculaire dans Yap1. Ainsi, Gpx3 détecte et transmet spécifiquement le signal H2O2 à Yap1 par le transfert d'une modification redox. La description de ce mode d'activation assimile Gpx3 à un récepteur des peroxydes. L'ensemble de ces données nous ont conduit à renommer Gpx3 en Orp1 pour " Oxidant Receptor Peroxidase ". Après correction de la perturbation redox, Yap1 est désactivé par réduction, vraisemblablement par les thiorédoxines, dont Yap1 contrôle l'expression. La levure possède donc un système de surveillance de la concentration en peroxydes rétrocontrôlé.

The methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris has been used extensively for expressing recombinant proteins because it combines the ease of genetic manipulation with rapid growth to high cell densities and provides complex posttranslational modifications. The most successful and commonly used secretion signal leader in Pichia pastoris has been the MAT α prepro secretion signal. However, limitations exist as some proteins cannot be secreted efficiently even with the MAT α prepro secretion signal. Some strategies to enhance secretion efficiency involved modifying the secretion signal leader. Based on the knob-socket model and Jpred3 ( a secondary structure predictor), eleven deletions of MAT α prepro secretion signal and one MAT α pre double pro-peptide mutant was engineered and assayed with either horseradish peroxidase (HRP), or Candida antarctica lipase B reporter protein to evaluate the correlation between secondary structure and secretion level. In addition, structural analysis through circular dichroism was completed for the wild type pro-peptide and a mutant pro-peptide to evaluate differences in secondary structure. Results suggest pro-peptide amino acids 75-78 play an important role in determining secretion level and a higher secretion level tends to associate with secondary structures that are less defined. With these analyses, optimization of secretion systems can be achieved to impact the fields of science, industry, healthcare, and economics worldwide.

Le maintien d'une homéostasie redox intracellulaire est essentielle à la survie de la cellule. Pour cela, la cellule doit réguler la concentration intracellulaire en intermédiaires réactifs de l'oxygène (ou IRO), sous-produits de la respiration. La connaissance que nous avons des mécanismes de contrôle de l'homéostasie redox repose principalement sur des données obtenues chez la bactérie. Nous avons donc choisi un eucaryote comme modèle d'étude, la levure S. cerevisiae. Le facteur de transcription Yap1 contrôle l'expression d'anti-oxydants, responsables en particulier de la réduction du peroxyde d'hydrogène (H2O2) et de l'ion superoxyde (O2.-). L'activité de Yap1 est régulée par sa localisation subcellulaire. Nous avons montré qu'in vivo, l'activation de Yap1 par le H2O2 repose sur la formation d'un pont disulfure intramoléculaire. Cette oxydation est responsable de l'accumulation nucléaire du régulateur et permet la production des anti-oxydants. L'oxydation de Yap1 par le H2O2 n'est pas directe mais elle est relayée par une peroxydase, Gpx3. L'oxydation de Gpx3 par le H2O2 entraîne la formation d'un pont disulfure intermoléculaire entre Yap1 et Gpx3, rapidement transformé en pont intramoléculaire dans Yap1. Ainsi, Gpx3 détecte et transmet spécifiquement le signal H2O2 à Yap1 par le transfert d'une modification redox. La description de ce mode d'activation assimile Gpx3 à un récepteur des peroxydes. L'ensemble de ces données nous ont conduit à renommer Gpx3 en Orp1 pour " Oxidant Receptor Peroxidase ". Après correction de la perturbation redox, Yap1 est désactivé par réduction, vraisemblablement par les thiorédoxines, dont Yap1 contrôle l'expression. La levure possède donc un système de surveillance de la concentration en peroxydes rétrocontrôlé.

Lors de l'epuisement du milieu, la levure s'adapte en arretant sa multiplication dans un etat particulier appele phase stationnaire. Son metabolisme y est tres ralenti, ses parois modifiees et son cycle cellulaire arrete en phase g1. Si l'amp cyclique est connu comme etant le messager essentiel a l'etablissement de ce phenomene, on ne sait pas comment la levure percoit la carence, ni comment l'amp cyclique permet les multiples changements metaboliques et cellulaires. Dans la premiere partie de ce travail, nous avons montre que les levures commencent leur adaptation a une carence en carbone lorsqu'environ la moitie du glucose disponible en debut de culture a ete consomme. Des experiences de dilution et l'utilisation d'un analogue du glucose permettent de penser que la levure secrete, dans le milieu, une molecule qui sert de signal. La competition entre cette molecule et le glucose residuel permettrait aux cellules de declencher la synthese du glycogene avant l'epuisement du sucre et ce, quelle que soit la concentration de celui-ci. Dans la seconde partie, les relations entre le cycle cellulaire et la phase stationnaire ont ete abordees. Des mutants du cycle cellulaire, deficients en amp cyclique induisent specifiquement la phenotype caracteristique du mutants rvs supposes affecter l'etablissement de la phase stationnaire. Un autre mutant du cycle affecte egalement en phase g1 mais pas dans le systeme de l'amp cyclique n'induit pas ce phenotype. Il semble donc que les fonctions codees par les genes rvs sont sous controle de l'amp cyclique et non de la carance elle-meme ou de l'arret en phase g1. Ils peuvent donc etre consideres comme intervenant specifiquement dans l'etablissement de la phase stationnaire via le signal amp cyclique

Exposure to external stimuli promotes a variety of cellular responses including changes in morphology, gene expression and cell division status. These responses are promoted by signaling pathways composed of modules that are conserved from lower to higher eukaryotes. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae response to the external stimuli provided by mating pheromone is governed by the pheromone response pathway. This pathway is composed of a G protein coupled receptor/heterotrimeric G protein (Gαβγ) module and a MAP kinase cascade. Activation of this pathway allows the heterotrimeric G protein βγ dimer (Gβγ) to recruit polarity proteins to promote changes in cell morphology and to activate signaling through the MAP kinase cascade. Here we investigate the regulation of these pheromone-induced responses. We first examine how an asymmetric polarization response is generated. Normally, a gradient of pheromone serves as a spatial cue for formation of a polarized mating projection, but cells can still polarize when pheromone is present uniformly. Here we show that an intact receptor/Gαβγ module is required for polarization in response to both a gradient and uniform concentration of pheromone. Further investigation into regulation of Gβγ by Gα revealed that the two interaction interfaces between Gα and Gβ have qualitatively different roles. Our results suggest that one interface controls signaling whereas the other governs coupling to the receptor. Overall our results indicate that communication between the receptor and Gαβγ is required for proper polarization. We then examine how G1 CDKs regulate MAP kinase signaling. Response to pheromone is restricted to the G1 stage of the cell cycle. Once cells commit to a round of division they become refractory to mating pheromone until that round of division is complete. One contributor to this specificity involves inhibition of signaling through the MAP kinase cascade by G1 CDKs, but it was not known how this occurs. Here, we show that the MAP kinase cascade scaffold Ste5 is the target of this inhibition. Cln/CDKs inhibit signaling by phosphorylating sites surrounding a small membrane-binding domain in Ste5, thereby disrupting the membrane localization of Ste5. Furthermore, we found that disrupting this regulation allows cells to arrest at an aberrant non-G1 position. Our findings define a mechanism and a physiological benefit for restricting pheromone-induced signaling to G1. This thesis describes findings related to generation of an asymmetric polarization response, heterotrimeric G protein function, and coordination of differentiation signaling with cell division status. Lessons learned here might be applicable to the regulation of polarization and differentiation responses in other systems as the signaling modules are conserved.

L’émission de lumière par les tissus vivants, probablement liée au métabolisme oxydatif, est connue depuis des décennies, tout comme la luminescence de certaines réactions chimiques très simples en milieu aqueux. Ces phénomènes restent très mal connus en raison de l’extrême faiblesse de lumière produite, appelée de ce fait "luminescence ultrafaible". Dans cette thèse, nous proposons d’abord un dispositif expérimental original pour quantifier avec une très grande sensibilité la luminescence produite par unité de volume de l’échantillon.Le seuil de détection atteint est ≈ 1 photon s−1 cm−3 soit ≈ 2.10−21 M.s−1 . Nous avons pour cela combiné : 1) un environnement d’obscurité maximale, 2) une sphère intégrante de réflexivité extrême pour canaliser au maximum les photons de l’échantillon vers le détecteur, 3) une caméra amplifiée en mode binaire dans le domaine visible (400 − 900) et un modèle statistique conduisant à une détectivité optimale, et 4) une procédure semi-automatique de manipulation dans l’obscurité.Grace à ce dispositif, 1) le seuil de détection est ≈ 9.2 photons s−1cm−2 sur la caméra, soit ≈ 1% du courant d’obscurité, 2) ≈ 12% des photons émis de façon isotrope par l’échantillon sont détectés, 3) la détection des variations de l’intensité lumineuse est optimisée en opérant non pas au maximum du rapport signal à bruit, mais au maximum de détectivité. Nous avons ensuite étudié la luminescence produite par la disproportionation de H2O2 dans l’eau, réaction importante pour le métabolisme et catalysée par les peroxidases, mais essentielle aussi dans l’histoire de la chimiluminescence pour la compréhension fondamentale et ses applications basées sur le luminol. Nous avons quantifié pour la première fois, en absence de tout catalyseur, la luminescence dose-dépendante de la disproportionation dans l’eau pure, avec ≈ 15 photons s−1cm−3 pour [H2O2] = 90 mM. Grace au modèle biologique bien connu des levures Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nous avons mis en évidence un pic de luminescence en culture liquide associé au début de la phase exponentielle, suivi d’une décroissance sur 10 heures. Cette production de lumière représente environ 10−5 par seconde et par cellule.Notre travail permet d’envisager l’étude beaucoup plus quantitative de la luminescence ultrafaible en chimie et en biologie, condition nécessaire pour la com- préhension des mécanismes fondamentaux impliqués et le développement de possibles applications notamment biomédicales
It has been known for decades that ultra-weak visible and UV light is emitted by most living tissues due to their oxidative metabolism, as well as by some simple reactions in aqueous medium. However, these phenomena are not well known due to the extreme weakness of the light emission, hence called "ultra-weak" luminescence. In this thesis, we propose an original experimental setup to make extremely sensitive measurements of the luminescence produced by a sample per unit volume.We reached a detection limit of ≈ 1 photon s−1cm−3 which corresponds to ≈ 2.10−21 M.s−1. To obtain this result, we combined: 1) the darkest environment possible, 2) an integrating sphere with extreme reflectivity which brings the maximum amount of photons onto the detector, 3) an amplified camera in binary mode (visible : 400 − 900) and a statistical model which optimizes detectivity, and 4) a semi-automatic procedure to operate in darkness. This setup enables the following: 1) the detection limit is ≈ 9.2 photons s−1cm−2 on the camera, which accounts for ≈ 1% of its dark current, 2) ≈ 12% of the photons emitted isotropically by the sample are detected, 3) measurement of light intensity variations is optimized by maximizing the detectivity, rather than by maximiz- ing the signal-to-noise ratio.Then, we studied the luminescence produced by the disproportionation of H2O2 in water. This reaction catalysed in cells by peroxidases, is important for the metabolism, and is critical to the understanding chemiluminescence in general and and luminol-based applications in particular. We quantified for the first time without a catalyst, the dose-dependent luminescence of the disproportionation reaction in pure water, with ≈ 15photonss−1cm−3 for [H2O2 = 90] mM. Using a well-known biological model, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast), cultured in liquid, we showed a peak in the luminescence associated with the beginning of the exponential growth phase, followed by a sustained decrease over 10 hours. This light production represents approximately 10−5 photons per second per cell.We hope our work leads to better quantitative study of the ultra-weak luminescence in chemistry and biology. This quantification is necessary for understanding the fundamental underlying mechanisms behind luminescence and to develop chemical and biomedical applications

Cotranslational translocation is initiated by targeting of a ribosome-bound nascent polypeptide chain (RNC) to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. The targeting reaction is coordinated by the signal recognition particle (SRP) through its interaction with the RNC and the membrane-bound SRP receptor (SR). A vacant translocon is a prerequisite for the subsequent nascent chain release from SRP-SR-RNC complex. It has been proposed that the protease-accessible cytosolic domains of the Sec61p complex play an important role in posttargeting steps by providing the binding site for the ribosome or interacting with the SR to initiate the signal sequence releasing. In this study, we have investigated the detailed mechanism that allows transfer of the ribosome-nascent chain (RNC) from the SRP-SR complex to the translocon using yeast S. cerevisiaeas the model system. Point mutations in cytoplasmic loops six (L6) and eight (L8) of yeast Sec61p cause reductions in growth rates and defects in translocation of nascent polypeptides that utilize the cotranslational translocation pathway. Sec61 heterotrimers isolated from the L8 sec61 mutants have a greatly reduced affinity for 80S ribosomes. Cytoplasmic accumulation of protein precursors demonstrates that the initial contact between the large ribosomal subunit and the Sec61 complex is important for efficient insertion of a nascent polypeptide into the translocation pore. In contrast, point mutations in L6 of Sec61p inhibit cotranslational translocation without significantly reducing the ribosome binding activity, indicating that the L6 and L8 sec61mutants impact different steps in the cotranslational translocation pathway. An interaction between the signal recognition particle receptor (SR) and the Sec61 complex has been proposed to facilitate transfer of the ribosome-nascent chain (RNC) complex to an unoccupied translocon. The slow growth and cotranslational translocation defects caused by deletion of the transmembrane span of yeast SRβ (srp102pΔTMD) are exaggerated upon disruption of the SSH1 gene, which encodes the pore subunit of a cotranslational translocation channel. Disruption of the SBH2 gene, which encodes the β-subunit of the Ssh1p complex, likewise causes a synthetic growth defect when combined with srp102pΔTMD. The in vivo kinetics of translocon gating by RNCs were slow and inefficient in the ssh1Δ srp102pΔTMD mutant. A critical role for translocon β-subunits in SR recognition is supported by the observation that deletion of both translocon β-subunits causes a block in the cotranslational targeting pathway that resembles elimination of either subunit of the SR, and could be partially suppressed by expression of carboxy-terminal Sbh2p fragments.

碩士
國立交通大學
生化工程研究所
97
The evidence of proteins at the yeast cell surface that lack N-terminal signal peptides was initially provided by morphological, biochemical and genetic studies. The existence of many such proteins has subsequently been demonstrated by proteomic approaches. In Candida albicans, the gene encoding enolase is named CaENO1. Enolase is an enzyme of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis as well as major cell-surface antigen, which binds host plasmin and plasminogen. It is immunoprotective, phagocytosis, biofilm-regulated, and farnesol-down regulated. Enolase is detected on the cell surface even in the culture medium, but the mechanism of secretion is still unknown. My study was focused on identifying the critical region of CaENO1 for secretion. First step is to test whether CaENO1 can be expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, CaENO1 was tagged with HA3HIS6 and EGFP, respectively for detecting the target protein. Second is to further analysis the protein secretion. For determining which region is critical, the CaENO1 was truncated for obtaining the constructs with different fragments 1-150 bp, 1-279, 1-387, 1-450, 1-510, 1-900, 280-1320, 388-1320, 451-1320, 901-1320, 451-901 of CaENO1 and negative control EGFP only construct, and then analyzed for the secretion of truncated CaENO1-EGFP protein with western blot. According to the result of western blot, only full length CaENO1 can lead the tagged protein outside the cell. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy, the eno-EGFPp was localized in the cytoplasm but not in the cell membrane or cell wall.the. S. cerevisiae cell seems not recognize the eno-EGFPp as a cell wall protein in this study.

Les changements évolutifs nous instruisent sur les nombreuses innovations permettant à chaque organisme de maximiser ses aptitudes en choisissant le partenaire approprié, telles que les caractéristiques sexuelles secondaires, les patrons comportementaux, les attractifs chimiques et les mécanismes sensoriels y répondant. L'haploïde de la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae distingue son partenaire en interprétant le gradient de la concentration d'une phéromone sécrétée par les partenaires potentiels grâce à un réseau de protéines signalétiques de type kinase activées par la mitose (MAPK). La décision de la liaison sexuelle chez la levure est un événement en "tout–ourien", à la manière d'un interrupteur. Les cellules haploïdes choisissent leur partenaire sexuel en fonction de la concentration de phéromones qu’il produit. Seul le partenaire à proximité sécrétant des concentrations de phéromones égales ou supérieures à une concentration critique est retenu. Les faibles signaux de phéromones sont attribués à des partenaires pouvant mener à des accouplements infructueux. Notre compréhension du mécanisme moléculaire contrôlant cet interrupteur de la décision d'accouplement reste encore mince. Dans le cadre de la présente thèse, je démontre que le mécanisme de décision de la liaison sexuelle provient de la compétition pour le contrôle de l'état de phosphorylation de quatre sites sur la protéine d'échafaudage Ste5, entre la MAPK, Fus3, et la phosphatase,Ptc1. Cette compétition résulte en la dissociation de type « intérupteur » entre Fus3 et Ste5, nécessaire à la prise de décision d'accouplement en "tout-ou-rien". Ainsi, la décision de la liaison sexuelle s'effectue à une étape précoce de la voie de réponse aux phéromones et se produit rapidement, peut-être dans le but de prévenir la perte d’un partenaire potentiel. Nous argumentons que l'architecture du circuit Fus3-Ste5-Ptc1 génère un mécanisme inédit d'ultrasensibilité, ressemblant à "l'ultrasensibilité d'ordre zéro", qui résiste aux variations de concentration de ces protéines. Cette robustesse assure que l'accouplement puisse se produire en dépit de la stochasticité cellulaire ou de variations génétiques entre individus.Je démontre, par la suite, qu'un évènement précoce en réponse aux signaux extracellulaires recrutant Ste5 à la membrane plasmique est également ultrasensible à l'augmentation de la concentration de phéromones et que cette ultrasensibilité est engendrée par la déphosphorylation de huit phosphosites en N-terminal sur Ste5 par la phosphatase Ptc1 lorsqu'elle est associée à Ste5 via la protéine polarisante, Bem1. L'interférence dans ce mécanisme provoque une perte de l'ultrasensibilité et réduit, du même coup, l'amplitude et la fidélité de la voie de réponse aux phéromones à la stimulation. Ces changements se reflètent en une réduction de la fidélité et de la précision de la morphologie attribuable à la réponse d'accouplement. La polarisation dans l'assemblage du complexe protéique à la surface de la membrane plasmique est un thème général persistant dans tous les organismes, de la bactérie à l'humain. Un tel complexe est en mesure d'accroître l'efficacité, la fidélité et la spécificité de la transmission du signal. L'ensemble de nos découvertes démontre que l'ultrasensibilité, la précision et la robustesse de la réponse aux phéromones découlent de la régulation de la phosphorylation stoichiométrique de deux groupes de phosphosites sur Ste5, par la phosphatase Ptc1, un groupe effectuant le recrutement ultrasensible de Ste5 à la membrane et un autre incitant la dissociation et l'activation ultrasensible de la MAPK terminal Fus3. Le rôle modulateur de Ste5 dans la décision de la destinée cellulaire étend le répertoire fonctionnel des protéines d'échafaudage bien au-delà de l'accessoire dans la spécificité et l'efficacité des traitements de l'information. La régulation de la dynamique des caractères signal-réponse à travers une telle régulation modulaire des groupes de phosphosites sur des protéines d'échafaudage combinées à l'assemblage à la membrane peut être un moyen général par lequel la polarisation du destin cellulaire est obtenue. Des mécanismes similaires peuvent contrôler les décisions cellulaires dans les organismes complexes et peuvent être compromis dans des dérèglements cellulaires, tel que le cancer. Finalement, sur un thème relié, je présente la découverte d'un nouveau mécanisme où le seuil de la concentration de phéromones est contrôlé par une voie sensorielle de nutriments, ajustant, de cette manière, le point prédéterminé dans lequel la quantité et la qualité des nutriments accessibles dans l'environnement déterminent le seuil à partir duquel la levure s'accouple. La sous-unité régulatrice de la kinase à protéine A (PKA),Bcy1, une composante clé du réseau signalétique du senseur aux nutriments, interagit directement avec la sous-unité α des petites protéines G, Gpa1, le premier effecteur dans le réseau de réponse aux phéromones. L'interaction Bcy1-Gpa1 est accrue lorsque la cellule croit en présence d'un sucre idéal, le glucose, diminuant la concentration seuil auquel la décision d'accouplement est activée. Compromettre l'interaction Bcy1-Gpa1 ou inactiver Bcy1 accroît la concentration seuil nécessaire à une réponse aux phéromones. Nous argumentons qu'en ajustant leur sensibilité, les levures peuvent intégrer le stimulus provenant des phéromones au niveau du glucose extracellulaire, priorisant la décision de survie dans un milieu pauvre ou continuer leur cycle sexuel en choisissant un accouplement.
Evolution has resulted in numerous innovations that allow organisms to maximize their fitness by choosing particular mating partners, including secondary sexual characteristics, behavioural patterns, chemical attractants and corresponding sensory mechanisms. The haploid yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae selects mating partners by interpreting the concentration gradient of pheromone secreted by potential mates through a network of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling proteins. The mating decision in yeast is an all-or-none, or switch-like, response that allows cells to make accurate decisions about which among potential partners to mate with and to filter weak pheromone signals, thus avoiding inappropriate commitment to mating by responding only at or above critical concentrations when a mate is sufficiently close. The molecular mechanisms that govern the switch-like mating decision are poorly understood. In this thesis I demonstrate that the switching mechanism arises from competition between the MAPK Fus3 and a phosphatase Ptc1 for control of the phosphorylation state of four sites on the scaffold protein Ste5. This competition results in a switch-like dissociation of Fus3 from Ste5 that is necessary to generate the switch-like mating response. Thus, the decision to mate is made at an early stage in the pheromone pathway and occurs rapidly, perhaps to prevent the loss of the potential mate to competitors. We argue that the architecture of the Fus3–Ste5–Ptc1 circuit generates a novel ultrasensitivity mechanism that resembles “zero-order ultrasensitivity”, which is robust to variations in the concentrations of these proteins. This robustness helps assure that mating can occur despite stochastic or genetic variation between individuals. I then demonstrate that during the mating response, an early event of Ste5 recruitment to plasma membrane is ultrasensitive and that it is generated by dephosphorylation of eight N-terminal phosphosites on Ste5 by the phosphatase Ptc1 when associated with Ste5 via the polarization protein Bem1. Interference with this mechanism results in loss of ultrasensitivity and reduced amplitude and therefore fidelity of the pheromone signaling response. These changes are reflected in reduced fidelity and accuracy of the morphogenic mating response. Polarized assembly of signaling protein complexes at the plasma membrane surface is a general theme recapitulated in all organisms from bacteria to humans. Such complexes can increase the efficiency, fidelity and specificity of signal transduction. Together with our previous findings, our results demonstrate that ultrasensitivity, accuracy and robustness of the pheromone response occurs through regulation of the stoichiometry of phosphorylation of two clusters of phosphosites on Ste5, by Ptc1, one cluster mediating ultrasensitive recruitment of Ste5 to the membrane and the other, ultrasensitive dissociation and activation of the terminal MAP kinase Fus3. The role of Ste5 as a direct modulator of a cell-fate decision expands the functional repertoire of scaffold proteins beyond providing specificity and efficiency of information processing. Regulation of dynamic signal-response characteristics through such modular regulation of clusters of phosphosites may be a general means by which cell fate decisions are achieved. Similar mechanisms may govern cellular decisions in higher organisms and be disrupted in cancer. Finally, in a related theme, I present the discovery of a novel mechanisms by which the threshold of pheromone response is controlled by a nutrient-sensing pathway, thus adjusting the set-point at which the quantity and quality of nutrients available in the environment set the threshold of pheromone at which yeast will mate. The regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA), Bcy1, a key component of a nutrient sensing signaling network, directly interacts with the α subunit of G-protein, Gpa1, the primary effector of the pheromone signaling network. The Bcy1-Gpa1 interaction is enhanced when cells are grown in their ideal carbon source glucose, lowering the threshold concentration at which the mating response is activated. Disruption of Bcy1-Gpa1 interaction or Bcy1 deletion increased the threshold concentration for the mating response. We argue that by adjusting their sensitivity, yeast can integrate pheromone stimulus with glucose levels and prioritize decisions to survive in a nutrient-starved environment or to continue their sexual cycle by mating.

碩士
國立清華大學
生命科學系
87
In alcohol manufacturing, glucoamylase (GA, 1, 4-α-D-glucan-glucohydrolase, EC3.2.1.3) is widely used for starch saccharification. Many scientists are interested in producing this enzyme by microorganisms to approach enormous quantity and high quality. Due to the enzyme is an extracellular one and can be secreted into the medium, we tried to analyze its signal peptide by mutation screening. The gene encoding glucoamylase from Rhizopus oryzae was cloned into a yeast-compatible vector, and the secretion of GA was investigated. This study was focused on the screening method. Based on the nature of glucoamylase, we have developed two methods to assay the mutants of GA. It was observed that a colony of yeast with glucoamylase on a starch plate would produce clear zone once GA was secreted. Bigger clear zones corresponded to better GA secretion in a colony. The other method was the in vitro activity assay. Using fructose instead of glucose as the carbon source for yeast growth, we could test the glucoamylase activity by measuring the concentration of glucose in the medium. According to the report by Perlman, D., and Halvorson, H. O. in 1983 (21), there are three domain, the N-domain, the H-domain, and the C-domain, in a secretory signal peptide. We introduced rational mutations in the area to see the features of these domains. One clone of our interest was identified with no secretion in expression of yeast. Besides the two negatively-charged residues introduced (Gln to Asp? and a Tyr to Glu?), the change of the cleavage location recognized by signal peptidase may be the reason for the down secretion.