Academic literature on the topic 'Sacraments, early works to 1800'

This article discusses the reception of Kepler’s work in the earliest interpretations of the history of astronomy, which appeared in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The focus is not on the reception of Kepler’s work among astronomers themselves but instead on its significance for the history of science as seen by early historians of mathematics and astronomy. The first section discusses the evaluation of Kepler in the so-called “Prefatory Histories” of astronomy that appeared in various astronomical works during the seventeenth century. In these, Kepler was considered mainly to be the person who brought the work of Tycho Brahe to completion, rather than an original astronomer. The second section is devoted to the evaluation of Kepler in interpretations of the history of astronomy that appeared in the eighteenth century (often as part of the history of mathematics). In these works, Kepler is regarded as a genius who deserves tremendous credit for the advancement of the human spirit. Both sections also devote attention to Copernicus and Tycho Brahe because this facilitates the explanation of how Kepler’s contribution was judged. By studying the reception of Johannes Kepler’s work, we may gain greater insight into the transition from a cyclical perception of the history of science to the progressive model.

RÉSUMÉLe principal objectif de cet article est d’encourager une approche plus large, supraconfessionnelle, du mariage et de la famille à l’époque moderne. La conjugalité a été “désacralisée” par les réformateurs protestants du 16e siècle. Martin Luther, parmi d’autres, a refusé le statut de sacrement au mariage, tout en valorisant celui-ci comme une arme contre le péché. En réaction, le concile de Trente a réaffirmé avec force que le mariage est bien un des sept sacrements chrétiens. Mais, promouvant la supériorité du célibat, l’Église catholique n’a jamais beaucoup insisté sur les vertus de la vie et de la piété familiales avant le 19e siècle. En parallèle, les historiens décèlent des signes de “sacralisation” de la famille protestante à partir du 16e siècle. Leurs conclusions doivent être relativisées à la lumière de recherches plus récentes et plus critiques, centrées sur les rapports et les représentations de genre. Elles peuvent néanmoins inspirer une étude élargie et comparative, inexistante dans l’historiographie traditionnelle, des réalités et des perceptions de la famille chrétienne au-delà des frontières confessionnelles.MOTS-CLÉ: Époque Moderne, mariage, famille, protestantisme, Concile de TrenteABSTRACTThe main purpose of this paper is to encourage a broader supra-confessional approach to the history of marriage and the family in the Early Modern era. Wedlock was “desacralized” by the Protestant reformers of the 16th century. Martin Luther, among others, denied the sacramental status of marriage but valued it as a weapon against sin. In reaction, the Council of Trent reinforced marriage as one of the seven sacraments. But the Catholic Church, which promoted the superiority of celibacy, did little to defend the virtues of family life and piety before the 19th century. In parallel, historians have identified signs of a “sacralization” of the Protestant family since the 16th century. These findings must be relativized in the light of newer and more critical studies on gender relations and representations. But they can still inspire a broader comparative study, non-existent in traditional confessional historiography, of the realities and perceptions of the Christian family beyond denominational borders.KEY WORDS: Early Modern Christianity, marriage, family, Protestantism, Council of Trent BIBLIOGRAPHIEAdair, R., Courtship, Illegitimacy and Marriage in Early Modern England, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1996.Beaulande-Barraud, V., “Sexualité, mariage et procréation. Discours et pratiques dans l’Église médiévale (XIIIe-XVe siècles)”, dans Vanderpelen-Diagre, C., & Sägesser, C., (coords.), La Sainte Famille. Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Église catholique, Problèmes d’Histoire des Religions, 24, Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 2017, pp. 19-29.Bels, P., Le mariage des protestants français jusqu’en 1685. Fondements doctrinaux et pratique juridique, Paris, Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1968.Benedict, P., Christ’s Churches Purely Reformed. A Social History of Calvinism, New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 2002.Bernos, M., “Le concile de Trente et la sexualité. La doctrine et sa postérité”, dansBernos, M., (coord.), Sexualité et religions, Paris, Cerf, 1988, pp. 217-239.Bernos, M., Femmes et gens d’Église dans la France classique (XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle), Paris, Éditions du Cerf, Histoire religieuse de la France, 2003.Bernos, M., “L’Église et l’amour humain à l’époque moderne”, dans Bernos, M., Les sacrements dans la France des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. Pastorale et vécu des fidèles, Aix-en-Provence, Publications de l’Université de Provence, 2007, pp. 245-264.Bologne, J.-C., Histoire du mariage en Occident, Paris, Lattès/Hachette Littératures, 1995.Burghartz, S., Zeiten der Reinheit – Orte der Unzucht. Ehe und Sexualität in Basel während der Frühen Neuzeit, Paderborn, Schöningh, 1999.Calvin, J., Institution de la Religion chrétienne (1541), édition critique en deux vols., Millet, O., (ed.), Genève, Librairie Droz, 2008, vol. 2, pp. 1471-1479.Carillo, F., “Famille”, dans Gisel, P., (coord.), Encyclopédie du protestantisme, Paris, PUF/Quadrige, 2006, p. 489.Christin, O., & Krumenacker, Y., (coords.), Les protestants à l’époque moderne. Une approche anthropologique, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017.Corbin, A., Courtine, J.-J., et Vigarello, G., (coords.), Histoire du corps, vol. 1: De la Renaissance aux Lumières, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 2005.Corbin, A., Courtine, J.-J., et Vigarello, G., (coords.), Histoire des émotions, vol. 1: De l’Antiquité aux Lumières, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 2016.Cristellon, C., “Mixed Marriages in Early Modern Europe“, in Seidel Menchi, S., (coord.), Marriage in Europe 1400-1800, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2016, chapter 10.Demos, J., A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony, New York, 1970.Flandrin, J.-L., Familles. Parenté, maison, sexualité dans l’ancienne société, Paris, Seuil, 1976/1984.Forclaz, B., “Le foyer de la discorde? Les mariages mixtes à Utrecht au XVIIe siècle”, Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales (2008/5), pp. 1101-1123.Forster, M. R., Kaplan, B. J., (coords.), Piety and Family in Early Modern Europe. Essays in Honour of Steven Ozment, St. Andrews Studies in Reformation History, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2005.Forster, M. R., “Domestic Devotions and Family Piety in German Catholicism”, inForster, M. R., Kaplan, B. J., (coords.), Piety and Family in Early Modern Europe. Essays in Honour of Steven Ozment, St. Andrews Studies in Reformation History, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2005, pp. 97-114.François W., & Soen, V. (coords.), The Council of Trent: Reform and Controversy in Europe and Beyond, 1545-1700, Göttingen, Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2018.Gautier, S., “Mariages de pasteurs dans le Saint-Empire luthérien: de la question de l’union des corps à la formation d’un corps pastoral ‘exemplaire et plaisant à Dieu’”, dans Christin, O., & Krumenacker, Y., (coords.), Les protestants à l’époque moderne. Une approche anthropologique, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017, pp. 505-517.Gautier, S., “Identité, éloge et image de soi dans les sermons funéraires des foyers pastoraux luthériens aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles”, Europa moderna. Revue d’histoire et d’iconologie, n. 3 (2012), pp. 54-71.Goody, J., The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe, Cambridge, 1983; L’évolution de la famille et du mariage en Europe, Paris, Armand Colin, 1985/2012.Hacker, P., Faith in Luther. Martin Luther and the Origin of Anthropocentric Religion, Emmaus Academic, 2017.Harrington, J. F., Reordering Marriage and Society in Reformation Germany, Cambridge, 1995.Hendrix, S. H., & Karant-Nunn, S. C., (coords.), Masculinity in the Reformation Era, Kirksville, Truman State University Press, 2008.Hendrix, S. H., “Christianizing Domestic Relations: Women and Marriage in Johann Freder’s Dialogus dem Ehestand zu ehren”, Sixteenth Century Journal, 23 (1992), pp. 251-266.Ingram, M., Church Courts. Sex and Marriage in England 1570-1640, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987.Jacobsen, G., “Women, Marriage and magisterial Reformation: the case of Malmø”, in Sessions, K. C., & Bebb, P. N., (coords.), Pietas et Societas: New Trends in Reformation Social History, Kirksville, Sixteenth Century Journal Press, 1985, pp. 57-78.Jedin, H., Crise et dénouement du concile de Trente, Paris, Desclée, 1965.Jelsma, A., “‘What Men and Women are meant for’: on marriage and family at the time of the Reformation”, in Jelsma, A., Frontiers of the Reformation. Dissidence and Orthodoxy in Sixteenth Century Europe, Ashgate, 1998, Routledge, 2016, EPUB, chapter 8.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “Une oeuvre de chair: l’acte sexuel en tant que liberté chrétienne dans la vie et la pensée de Martin Luther”, dans Christin, O., &Krumenacker, Y., (coords.), Les protestants à l’époque moderne. Une approche anthropologique, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2017, pp. 467-485.Karant-Nunn, S. C., The Reformation of Feeling: Shaping the Religious Emotions in Early Modern Germany, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “The emergence of the pastoral family in the German Reformation: the parsonage as a site of socio-religious change”, in Dixon, C. S., & Schorn-Schütte, L., (coords.), The Protestant Clergy of Early Modern Europe, Basingstoke, Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003, pp. 79-99.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “Reformation Society, Women and the Family”, in Pettegree, A., (coord.), The Reformation World, London/New York, Routledge, 2000, pp. 433-460.Karant-Nunn, S. C., “Marriage, Defenses of”, in Hillerbrand, H. J., (coord.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, vol. 2, p. 24.Kingdon, R., Adultery and Divorce in Calvin’s Geneva, Harvard University Press, 1995.Krumenacker, Y., “Protestantisme: le mariage n’est plus un sacrement”, dans Mariages, catalogue d’exposition, Archives municipales de Lyon, Lyon, Olivétan, 2017.Le concile de Trente, 2e partie (1551-1563), vol. XI de l’Histoire des conciles oecuméniques, Paris, (Éditions de l’Orante, 1981), Fayard, 2005, pp. 441-455.Les Decrets et Canons touchant le mariage, publiez en la huictiesme session du Concile de Trente, souz nostre sainct pere le Pape Pie quatriesme de ce nom, l’unziesme iour de novembre, 1563, Paris, 1564.Luther, M., “Sermon sur l’état conjugal”, dans OEuvres, I, Paris, Gallimard/La Pléiade, 1999, pp. 231-240.Luther, M., “Du mariage”, dans Prélude sur la captivité babylonienne de l’Église (1520), dans OEuvres, vol. I, édition publiée sous la direction de M. Lienhard et M. Arnold, Paris, Gallimard/La Pléiade, 1999, pp. 791-805.Luther, M., De la vie conjugale, dans OEuvres, I, Paris, Gallimard/La Pléiade, 1999, pp. 1147-1179.Mentzer, R., “La place et le rôle des femmes dans les Églises réformées”, Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 113 (2001), pp. 119-132.Morgan, E. S., The Puritan Family. Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England, (1944), New York, Harper, 1966.O’Reggio, T., “Martin Luther on Marriage and Family”, 2012, Faculty Publications, Paper 20, Andrews University, http://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/church-history-pubs/20. (consulté le 15 décembre 2018).Ozment, S., When Fathers Ruled. Family Life in Reformation Europe, Studies in Cultural History, Harvard University Press, 1983.Reynolds, P. L., How Marriage became One of the Sacrements. The Sacramental Theology of Marriage from the Medieval Origins to the Council of Trent, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2016/2018.Roper, L., Martin Luther. Renegade and Prophet, London, Vintage, 2016.Roper, L., The Holy Household: Women and Morals in Reformation Augsburg, Oxford Studies in Social History, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1989.Roper, L., “Going to Church and Street: Weddings in Reformation Augsburg”, Past & Present, 106 (1985), pp. 62-101.Safley, T. M., “Marriage”, in Hillerbrand, H. J., (coord.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, vol. 3, pp. 18-23.Safley, T. M., “Family”, in Hillerbrand, H. J., (coord.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, vol. 2, pp. 93-98.Safley, T. M., “Protestantism, divorce and the breaking of the modern family”, dans Sessions, K. C., & Bebb, P. N., (coords.), Pietas et Societas: New Trends inReformation Social History, Kirksville, Sixteenth Century Journal Press, 1985, pp. 35-56.Safley, T. M., Let No Man Put Asunder: The Control of Marriage in the German Southwest. A Comparative Study, 1550-1600, Kirksville, Sixteenth Century Journal Press, 1984.Seidel Menchi, S., (coord.), Marriage in Europe 1400-1800, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2016.Stone, L., The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500-1800, New York, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1977.Strauss, G., Luther’s House of Learning, Baltimore/London, 1978.Thomas, R., “Éduquer au mariage par l’image dans les Provinces-Unies du XVIIe siècle: les livres illustrés de Jacob Cats”, Les Cahiers du Larhra, dossier sur Images et Histoire, 2012, pp. 113-144.Vanderpelen-Diagre, C., & Sägesser, C., (coords.), La Sainte Famille. Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Église catholique, Problèmes d’Histoire des Religions, 24,Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 2017.Walch, A., La spiritualité conjugale dans le catholicisme français, XVIe-XXe siècle, Paris, Le Cerf, 2002.Watt, J. R., The Making of Modern Marriage: Matrimonial Control and the Rise of Sentiment in Neuchâtel, Ithaca, 1992.Weis, M., “La ‘Sainte Famille’ inexistante? Le mariage selon le concile de Trente (1563) et à l’époque des Réformes”, dans Vanderpelen-Diagre, C., & Sägesser, C., (coords.), La Sainte Famille. Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Église catholique, Problèmes d’Histoire des Religions, 24, Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université deBruxelles, 2017, pp. 31-40.Westphal, S., Schmidt-Voges, I., & Baumann, A., (coords.), Venus und Vulcanus. Ehe und ihre Konflikte in der Frühen Neuzeit, München, Oldenbourg Verlag, 2011.Wiesner, M. E., Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge, 1993.Wiesner, M. E., “Studies of Women, the Family and Gender”, in Maltby, W. S., (coord.), Reformation Europe: A Guide to Research, Saint Louis, 1992, pp. 181-196.Wiesner-Hanks, M. E., “Women”, in Hillerbrand, H. J., (coord.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, vol. 4, pp. 290-298.Williams, G. H., The Radical Reformation, (1962), 3e ed., Truman State University Press, 2000, pp. 755-798Wunder, H., “He is the Sun. She is the Moon”: Women in Early Modern Germany, Harvard University Press, 1998.Yates, W., “The Protestant View of Marriage”, Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 22 (1985), pp. 41-54.

Ann Radcliffe’s novels were extremely popular in early nineteenth-century Russia. Publication of her work in Russian translation propelled the so-called gothic wave of 1800-10. Yet, many of the works Radcliffe was known for in Russia were not written by her; rather, they were works by others that were attributed to Radcliffe. This article traces the publication and translation histories of Radcliffiana on the Russian book market of 1800-20. Building on JoEllen DeLucia’s concept of a “corporate Radcliffe” in the anglophone world, this article proposes a Russian corporate Radcliffe. Identifying, classifying, and analysing the provenance of Russian corporate Radcliffe works reveals insight into the transnational circulation of texts and the role of copyright law within it, the nature of the early nineteenth-century Russian book market, the rise of popular reading and advertising in Russia, and the gendered nature of critical discourse at this time. The Russian corporate Radcliffe assures the legacy and influence of Radcliffe in later Russian literature and culture, although a Radcliffe that represents much more than just the English author. Exploring the Russian corporate Radcliffe expands our understanding of early nineteenth-century Russian literary history through specific case studies that demonstrate the significant role played by both women writers and translation, an aspect of this history that is often overlooked.

Benjamin Buchloh speaks with German artist, musician, and critic Jutta Koether about the many ways in which Koether blurs the lines between painting and performance in her practice, “reinstalling,” in her words, painting as a “platform, a potential, [and] a performance.” Koether discusses the formative role of New Wave and punk culture in her practice, particularly her time at Spex magazine; her studies in Cologne in the late 1970s and the anti-aesthetic impulse in painting from Picabia to Polke to Kippenberger; and her time in New York in the late 1980s and ′90s. Special attention is paid to her relationship to Poussin, both in her paintings The Seasons and The Sacraments and in her performance at Harvard in April 2013, as well as to early works like Inside Job (1992).

Swedish Short Stories in the Early 19th Century. Publication and Subgenres The present study of Swedish short stories published between the years 1810 and 1829 illustrates that authors representing the Romantic Movement made special efforts to put the short story on the market. At V. F. Palmblad’s publishing house, German contemporary short stories were translated and distributed, later followed by Swedish contributions to the genre, which appeared primarily in literary magazines. Only a small number of short stories were published over the course of these 19 years, and the means of publication varied. Out of 45 works found in the catalogues of the National Library of Sweden, 27 are published separately, while 14 are published in periodicals or newspapers and two in anthologies (one of which is a frame story and the other a modern collection). Authors connected to the Romantic school introduced two new varieties of short story: the exotic story and the fantastic story. The pre-existing subgenres included, for instance: adventures, satirical or comic stories, stories of family life, travel stories and historical short stories. Among these, the historical story was the only subgenre to be printed separately. Characteristic for the short story is its ability to be inserted into many different kinds of publications. Another result of the study is the discovery of the ease with which a short story may be transferred from one form of publication to another. For instance, the short story may originate as part of a novel, only to turn into a separate work in its own right. Alternatively, it may develop as a serial story in a newspaper and go on to be printed separately, and later appear in a publishing house series or in a volume of selected works. This adaptive, or transferable, quality should be included in the ongoing discussion pertaining to the definition of the short story.

AbstractThis paper investigates comparison as a fundamental practice within the early life sciences. Four episodes are selected that show how comparing species works in the early 19th century and how it builds bridges between scientific and literary culture: comparing living organisms in pre-Darwinian natural history (Lacépède, Treviranus), comparing species distribution in actualistic geology (Lyell), comparing organs in comparative anatomy (Müller), and – last but not least – comparing social classes in new literary genres such as sketch, ‘Paris physiology’, or travel feuilleton.

Marriage and the English Reformation. By Eric Josef Carlson. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. Pp. ix+276. ISBN 0-631-16864-8. £45.00Gender, sex and subordination in England, 1550–1800. By Anthony Fletcher. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995. Pp. xxii+442. ISBN 0-300-06531-0. £19.95.Domestic dangers: women, words, and sex in early modern London. By Laura Gowing. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. Pp. 301. ISBN 0-19-820517-1. £35.00.The prospect before her: a history of women in western Europe, Volume one, 1500–1800. By Olwen Hufton. London: HarperCollins, 1995. Pp. xiv+654. ISBN 0-00255120-9. £25.00.Sex and subjection: attitudes to women in early modern society. By Margaret R. Sommerville. London: Edward Arnold, 1995. Pp. 287. ISBN 0-340-64574-1. £14.99.

The article discusses an important feature of Pavel Florensky’s biography and legacy that has not been properly covered by the existing research. Florensky is a well-known religious philosopher, the author of The Pillar and Ground of the Truth and lectures on the philosophy of cult and the philosophy of art. Russian theologists tend to perceive his ideas on a par with Sergei Bulgakov’s sophiology, in line with the modernizing trends of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which are characterized positively or negatively, depending on the preferences of scholars. The article identifies and comments on some basic facts that testify to Florensky’s desire to preserve intact the dogmata, the canons and the sacraments of the Orthodox Church. It highlights Florensky’s ideas directed against the concept of progress in the religious consciousness of mankind and the associated theory of “dogmatic development”. The main attention is drawn to Florensky’s position and actions during the upheavals of 1905–1907 and after the February Revolution of 1917. His efforts to preserve the liturgical and monastic life in the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and other characteristic moments of his work under the Soviets are detailed. The main conclusion is that, although Florensky’s works contain ambiguous concepts and theologoumena, he should still be regarded as a conservative thinker who always had in mind the main goal for which the Orthodox Church existed.

After some decades of historical debate about the early modern Atlantic, it has become a truism that the Atlantic may better be understood as a world of connections rather than as a collection of isolated national sub-empires. Likewise, it is commonly accepted that the study of this interconnected Atlantic world should be interdisciplinary, going beyond traditional economic and political history to include the study of the circulation of people and cultures. This view was espoused and expanded upon in the issue of Itinerario on the nature of Atlantic history published thirteen years ago—the same issue in which Pieter Emmer and Wim Klooster famously asserted that there was no Dutch Atlantic empire. Since this controversial article appeared, there has been a resurgence of interest among scholars about the role of the Dutch in the Atlantic. With Atlantic history continuing to occupy a prominent place in Anglo-American university history departments, it seems high time to appraise the output of this resurgence of interest with an historiographical essay reviewing the major works and trends in the study of the Dutch in the Atlantic.

The article considers the achievements of modern Russian historiography in the field of compiling documents for demographic census registration by the parish Orthodox clergy in the synodic period of the Russian Orthodox Church. Among the problems that have been the most reflected, especially in the regional historiography of recent decades are the external features of confessional statements, changes in their forms during the XVIII–XIX centuries, the estates groups and strata represented in them, changes in the composition of parish families over several years, the gender and age composition of parishioners, migration processes within a one particular locality. The greatest value undoubtedly is the statistical data on the performance of Christian sacraments of confession and communion by parishioners. The works of researchers who analyze and use ecclesiastical signed documents, note a huge information potential of this type of historical sources. Ecclesiastical signed documents reveal not only the peculiarities in the social structure of an individual parish, diocese or eparchy as a whole. They are a fairly reliable indicator of the population’s introduction to the Orthodox faith and rites, especially beginning from the early XIX century, when the possibilities of data falsification by the parish clergy were minimized. This type of mass sources, such as signed documents, makes it possible to consider the history of everyday life, household and housing conditions, the distance of the village to the temple. The revealed shortcomings in ecclesiastical signed documents include the following: fixing the population only present in the parish, giving amorphous reasons for non-fulfillment of the sacraments such as «failure», «negligence», inaccurate determination of parishioners’ age in remote parish villages, real attitude of believers to the church and dogmas.

The goal of this thesis is a critical edition of the Secrets des femmes, a text attributed to Arnold de Vilanova. In the exegetic tradition, this attribution has been widely argued. Our preliminary findings lead to the same conclusions. The text composed in French couldn't have been written by Vilanova, who would have composed it in Latin, the language of the "clerks", or in Catalan, his first language. Critical tradition shows that the Secrets des femmes is based on three manuscripts. But we have demonstrated that the Mazarine's manuscript is not at the base of this work, but rather of a text entitled Les Termes et secrets des femmes. For the critical edition, which is the objective of our study, there is no doubt that the Arsenal's text is the basic manuscript, while the Vatican's manuscript is the Arsenal's metalanguage.

This dissertation is generally concerned with Plato's conception of philosophy, as the conception is ascertainable from the Republic and certain ‘post-Republic' dialogues. It argues that philosophy, according to Plato, is multi-disciplinary; that ‘philosophy' does not mark off just one art or science; that there are various philosophers corresponding to various philosophical sciences, all of which come together under a common aim: betterment of self through intellectual activity. A major part of this dissertation is concerned with Plato's science par excellence, ‘the science of dialectic' (he epistêmê dialektikê). The science of dialectic is distinguished in Plato by being concerned with Forms or Kinds as such; the science of dialectic, alone amongst the philosophical sciences, fully understands what it means for Form X to be a Form. I track the science of dialectic, from its showcase in Republic VI and VII, and analyze its place in relation to the other philosophical sciences in certain post-Republic dialogues. Ultimately, I show that, whilst it is not the only science constituting philosophy, Plato's science of dialectic represents the intellectual zenith obtainable by man; the expert of this science is the topmost philosopher. In this dissertation I also argue that Socrates, as variously depicted in these dialogues, always falls short of being identified as the philosopher par excellence, as that expert with positive knowledge of Forms as such. Yet I also show that, far from being in conflict, the elenctic Socrates and the philosopher par excellence form a complementary relationship: the elenctic philosopher gets pupils to think about certain things in the right way prior to sending them off to work with the philosopher par excellence.

《鍼經指南》為元代竇默，字漢卿，所著。其所記載的鍼刺手法上承《黃帝內經》、《難經》，下啟《金鍼賦》、《玉龍歌》、《鍼灸大成》等，為鍼刺手法發展史上里程碑，亦是後世各種複式手法發展的啟蒙。 本文通過對《鍼經指南》相關鍼刺手法的篇章進行整理，從＂呼吸補瀉＂、＂燃轉補瀉＂、＂提插補瀉＂、＂迎隨補瀉＂、＂寒熱補瀉＂，及＂手指補瀉十四法＂等方面展開分析，分別探討《鍼經指南》的學術淵源和《鍼經指南》對元明時期鍼刺手法發展的影響。最後將相關醫家觀點與《鍼經指南》中鍼刺手法理論進行對比分析，討論其異同點。 通過資料整理，學術思想的對比分析，筆者總結《鍼經指南》對鍼刺手法理論主要貢獻是：1.提出調息治神法﹔ 2.熱補涼瀉復合補瀉手法﹔ 3.＂提鍼豆許＂手法技巧﹔ 4.＂瀉南補北＂迎隨補瀉理論。元代與明代主要鍼灸醫家的手法技巧和鍼刺理論均從《鍼經指南》的內容中發展與推衍出來。 根據研究結果顯示，鍼刺手法自《鍼經指南》后空前發展。鍼刺補瀉理論體系更加完善，手法操作更加繁複。符合由簡而繁的事物發展規律。此外，後世醫家在臨床實踐中將《鍼經指南》的鍼刺手法理論與當代文化思想結合并產生新的鍼刺手法及鍼刺理論，從另一方面體現了理論與實踐相結合的哲學思想。 關鍵詞：誠刺手法﹔《鍼經指南》﹔竇漢卿

Aristotle's concept of lexis has been discussed by numerous scholars, yet no comprehensive account of lexis has been produced so far. To fill this gap in scholarship, this thesis offers a systematic analysis of Aristotle's concept of lexis by dividing it into three levels, which allow a step-by-step approach to understanding this multi-layered concept. By considering Plato's and Isocrates' thoughts on lexis, Chapter 1 outlines the intellectual context in which Aristotle's ideas on the concept of lexis developed. Chapters 2-5 focus on the three levels of lexis and Chapter 6 brings a concluding discussion of metaphor. In Chapter 2 the linguistic elements treated under the notion of lexis and Aristotle's theory of language are delineated. These not only present Aristotle's thoughts on language as an abstract system, but they also form the most fundamental level upon which the remainder of Aristotle's thoughts on the concept of lexis are based. Chapter 3 explores Aristotle's remarks regarding individuals' use of linguistic elements as determined by sociolinguistic factors. Aristotle's occasional statements about language usage within the concept of lexis provide valuable pieces of evidence for studies in sociolinguistics and for his ideas on lexis on its third level as discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. In Chapter 4 the intra-textual aspect of Aristotle's remarks on lexis as a means for the creation of different kinds of poetry and rhetoric, i.e. lexis as technē, is examined. In Chapter 5 extra-textual factors are considered and are followed by a discussion of the purpose and function of lexis on its third level. Chapter 6 concludes the discussion of lexis by focusing on metaphor, the linguistic and stylistic element par excellence treated under the notion of lexis, which further highlights the benefits of a three-level approach to Aristotle's concept of lexis.

In this account of the pan that heat plays in the conception and development of living substances according to Aristotle, I begin by examining the concept of heat. I discover that Aristotle uses a distinction between to thermon and thermotes: the former is, in living substances, material; the latter is never material, being the powerful aspect of heat. For example, an animal possesses heat (to thermon) which maintains it through its power (thermotes) to concoct. I then turn to the biological works. Conception, it seems, does not fit the standard account of change, but is rather a concoction, performed by the heat of the semen. Nor is the usual account of conception ascribed to Aristotle adequate: I attempt to demonstrate that he held a more moderate account in which pneuma, the nature of which is to thermon, is transmitted to the embryo. I then examine the development of the embryo, which is performed using to thermon as a tool. The transmission and development of the rational psuche in particular has often caused problems: I offer an account of the transmission of psuche from parent to embryo, and describe the part that pneuma plays in this transmission and in the development and operation of the various levels of psuche. Development extends from foetal development until adulthood, and this poses another problem for the standard account of change as it appears to be neither substantial nor accidental change, yet these are apparently exhaustive possibilities. I conclude that development, like conception, is a concoction performed by the vital heat. Finally, I turn to the conception and development of spontaneously generated animals, and of abnormal animals such as monsters. I demonstrate the relationship between these generations and sexual generation, and the significance of heat and pneuma.

中國茶文化源遠流長，茶作為一種日常飲品，與咖啡、可可並稱為世界三大無酒精飲料。近年來，隨著人們生活水平的日益提高，茶葉的保健功效越來越受到社會的重視。據各文獻史料記載，我國飲用茶葉已有千年曆史，記載有關茶葉的文獻古籍繁多。而一直以來，茶葉與“健康”一詞密不可分，古人經過歸納前人的記述總結出了茶葉的二十四功效，如清熱、消食、醒酒、去疾等，並對茶有著極高的評價，然而很少人注意到通過飲茶所達到的有利功效需要建立在適度飲茶，科學飲茶的前提下，盲目品飲只會起到相反效果。與此同時，隨著醫學經驗、藥學知識的日益豐富，不當飲茶所帶來的一些副作用同樣也引起了古代醫學家與茶人的重視，人們開始不僅只是單純的追求茶葉的口感，更多的是開始關注飲茶對身體的影響及飲茶時的身心體驗，通過自己多年的親身感悟，長期與他人的經驗分享，總結歸納出了飲茶的利弊，教導後人飲茶需有度，因人而飲。 本文擬在分析我國古代文獻中飲茶不當導致的疾病，尋找飲用單一味茶葉對人體所產生的不良反應，其中不包括複方茶及非茶之“茶”，通過歸納、整理，探究古代不當飲茶所造成的對人體的危害疾病，提出適度飲茶，健康飲茶，科學飲茶的觀念，為今後的茶學及醫學研究不當飲茶致病因素提供古代文獻線索依據。 關鍵字：過度飲茶，過派飲茶，飲茶致病

Among the vast assembly of Biblical mythology, the tower of Babel stands as an exclusive representation of the limits of human endeavor. As a paradigmatic extremity, it circumscribes the field of civic artifice. Babel is the absolute limit, and in that regard, its presence is enduring and timeless. The legacy of exegetic readings are textual shades, emanating from the point source of the paradigm. Athanasius Kircher's Turris Babel is an appropriate and intentional unfolding of this condition.
Firstly, that in the awakening of the Baroque scholar to history, origin materializes as the sole legitimate chronological reference.
Secondly, that the paradigmatic extremities collapse into the empirical standard of the theoretical discourse.
This thesis is a speculative study of architecture, drawn through Turris Babel, in the shadow of the paradigmatic limits of Babel. Written in three parts, each dealing with the implications of artifice in confrontation with the post-Babel adversaries of dispersion, tyranny, and decay.

Rufus of Ephesus's 'Quaestiones Medicinales' is an under-studied work by one of the most respected doctors of Greco-Roman antiquity. This thesis presents a new translation - the first in English of the complete work - and a reassessment of the treatise. I propose that, far from being a simple handbook teaching doctors how to take a patient history, as has hitherto been assumed, QM is an ardent plea for doctors to recognise the limits of their own knowledge and the indispensability of questioning the patient. I argue that QM articulates the idea that the aim of medicine cannot be achieved through medical knowledge alone, and that, in constructing the patient as an essential partner in diagnosis and decisions about treatment, Rufus implies a sharing of authority between doctor and patient that is noticeably different from the emphasis that other authors, particularly the determinedly hierarchical Galen, place on securing patients' obedience, a subject on which Rufus is noticeably silent. I argue that Rufus is unusual in the clarity and candour with which he perceives and acknowledges the limits of medical knowledge, in his conceptualisation of questioning as a discursive rather than a formulaic activity, in his explicit insistence that it must be addressed directly to the patient, in his psychological concept of habits, and in his recommendation of questioning as a strategy for resolving the tension between universal theory and individual experience. I look at modern cross-cultural research into the factors that drive patient compliance, and note that chief among them is patients feeling they are partners in the treatment process. This raises the question whether and to what extent the features that drive compliance are diachronically as well as cross-culturally consistent, and whether Rufus's shared authority model is more likely to have produced successful treatment outcomes than the autocratic paradigm promoted by Galen, and subsequently absorbed into Western medical tradition, that seems to have met with so much resistance.

AbstractAround 1800, merchants, scientists and adventurers travelled to Latin America with different purposes. Their multifaceted interests in a world region, experiencing a threshold of independence from Spanish colonial rule, inspired new historical and political works about the continent’s recent past. The Enlightenment provided not only the philosophical armamentarium against corruption, but it also paved the way to a new expression of sentiments and to the loss of fear when addressing injustice. Some examples of these are Hipólito Villaroel’s list of grievances and Humboldt’s Political essay. These two authors provide some thoughts on the political landscape of New Spain (now Mexico), while the two Swiss physicians Rengger and Longchamp describe the ruthless and odd dictator Francia of independent Paraguay as a champion of anti-corruption. Finally, Argentine dictator Rosas—and his robberies as described by Rivera Indarte, Sarmiento and other anonymous authors—represent the embodiment of corruption through pure larceny, for whose crimes the Spanish colonial past apparently no longer served as a comparison.

In the spring and summer of 1525, Ulrich Zwingli published three works that rejected Christ’s corporeal presence, although Zwingli distanced himself from Karlstadt. Even more important was Johannes Oecolampadius’s treatise arguing that the church fathers had not taught Christ’s bodily presence. These Latin pamphlets generated a lively underground debate in letters and private conversations among reformers throughout southern Germany and Switzerland, and Erasmus did his best to distance himself from the position of his former associates. Zwingli’s pamphlets were translated into German and so contributed further to the vernacular discussion initiated by Karlstadt. Zwingli developed his understanding of the sacraments in attacks on Anabaptists who shared his understanding of the Lord’s Supper but rejected infant baptism. At the end of 1525, there was no clear distinction between the positions of Karlstadt and Zwingli, and the Wittenbergers considered Oecolampadius to be their most dangerous opponent

The two most important factors for the development of the Eucharistic controversy were medieval heresy and the application of humanist biblical hermeneutics to passages concerning the sacraments. John Wyclif’s criticisms of transubstantiation were further developed by Hussite theologians in the fifteenth century and spread into Germany in the early 1520s. The inner-evangelical debate over the sacraments grew from the different understandings of the sacraments expressed in Erasmus’s devotional and exegetical works and in Martin Luther’s alternative to the medieval sacramental system. A comparison of the exegetical works of Erasmus with Philipp Melanchthon shows that the former emphasized affective piety and the Christian life, while the Wittenbergers highlighted justification by faith and the assurance to consciences given by the sacraments. By 1524, both Johannes Oecolampadius and Ulrich Zwingli had rejected belief in Christ’s corporeal presence.

Interest in the optical characteristics and variability of the sea has grown for nearly two centuries. Most of the early work in this area was performed by European investigators. Perhaps the earliest reference to an optical oceanographic research cruise can be found in the book by Otto Krümmel (1886), in which the author refers to the Rurik circumnavigational cruise of 1817 made by Otto von Kotzebue. In these studies von Kotzebue made measurements using optical instrumentation comprised of a piece of red cloth tethered to a line and lowered into the sea. With this technique, von Kotzebue was able to crudely measure the depth of penetration of light. This technique was refined by using a white plate, and the first measurements in the Pacific (at 10°N 152°W) yielded measurements of 49 meters. It is worth noting that this work was done several decades before the famous efforts of Secchi (1866). Efforts to incorporate photographic techniques to characterize the underwater light field were also developing in the late 1800’s. In March, 1885 some experiments were made in the waters off Nice, France, in which a photographic plate was submerged to depths of several hundred meters. Additional historical information can be found in the classical textbook by Sauberer and Ruttner (1941). Theoretical treatments of optical oceanography developed somewhat later. Ludvig Valentin Lorenz published the first works on the theoretical aspects of marine light scattering. This work, originally published in Danish (Lorenz, 1890), was subsequently translated into French in 1915. Martin Knudsen (founder of International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, and developer of some of the fundamental concepts for making hydrographic calculations) also had concerns about marine optics as reflected in correspondence he sent to Professor Otto Pettersson (father of Hans Pettersson) in Sweden: . . . In studying those provinces of water and particularly of sea water, which are of importance to the organisms living therein, the study of the light contents of the water must occupy the prominent place. Light contents play in many respects a similar part to that of oxygen content but have not been so strongly investigated as the latter. . . .

In chapter 2 historical Romanticism is outlined as it emerged and thrived in Germany, Britain, and France around 1800 and as it reached deep into the nineteenth century. The works and lives of Rousseau, Novalis, Morris, and others are discussed for this purpose. Moreover, he social and political side of Romanticism (Ruskin, Morris, and Marx) and romantic Gothic are discussed. Historical Romanticism is then linked to romanticism more broadly defined. The author argues that in many ways romanticism still persists today and that there is a line to be drawn start from Rousseau in the late eighteenth century to twentieth century counterculture and beyond. Even in the early twenty-first century forms of subjectivity are very much shaped by Romanticism - mainly in the form of our heritage from 1960s and 1970s romantic counterculture.