Academic literature on the topic 'Sale Adult - Travel - General'

Active travel may be an easily achievable form of physical activity for older people especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), but there are currently no studies on how this form of physical activity is associated with a preclinical state of dementia known as mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Therefore, we aimed to investigate the association between active travel and MCI among adults aged ≥50 years from six LMICs. Cross-sectional, community-based data from the World Health Organization’s Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health were analyzed. The definition of MCI was based on the National Institute on Ageing-Alzheimer’s Association criteria. Active travel (minutes/week) was assessed with questions of the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) and presented in tertiles. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the association between active travel and MCI. Data on 32715 people aged ≥50 years (mean age 62.4 years; 52.1% females) were analyzed. Compared to the highest tertile of active travel, the lowest tertile was associated with 1.33 (95%CI = 1.14–1.54) times higher odds for MCI overall. This association was particularly pronounced among those aged ≥65 years (OR = 1.70; 95%CI = 1.32–2.19) but active travel was not associated with MCI among those aged 50–64 years. In conclusion, low levels of active travel were associated with a significantly higher odds of MCI in adults aged ≥65 years in LMICs. Promoting active travel among people of this age group in LMICs via tailored interventions and/or country-wide infrastructure investment to provide a safe environment for active travel may lead to a reduction in MCI and subsequent dementia.

Abstract Background: rVIII-SingleChain, a novel recombinant Factor VIII, has been designed as a B-domain truncated construct with a covalent bond between the heavy and light chain, aiming for a higher binding affinity to von Willebrand Factor. rVIII-SingleChain has a lower clearance, longer half-life and larger area under the curve compared to octocog alfa (Advate®). This sub-study of the AFFINITY program investigated the safety and efficacy of rVIII-SingleChain to control hemostasis in adult and adolescent patients (12 - 65 years of age) with severe Hemophilia A undergoing major surgery. rVIII-SingleChain was used either as continuous infusion or as a bolus injection. Methods: The study was approved by the relevant ethics committees and national authorities and conducted according to GCP and the Declaration of Helsinki. 13 patients underwent a total of 16 major surgical procedures (a surgical procedure that required general, spinal or regional anesthesia). Dosing was guided by the WFH recommendations. In 8 patients, rVIII-SingleChain was used as continuous infusion and in 8 patients rVIII-SingleChain was used as a bolus injection. Results: The following procedures were performed using continuous infusion: knee replacement (5), cholecystectomy, lengthening of the achilles tendon combined with surgical correction of the right toes, and open reduction and internal fixation of right ankle fracture. Furthermore, circumcision (3), extraction of wisdom teeth, abdominal hernia repair, elbow replacement, ankle arthroplasty, and hardware removal of the right ankle were performed after administering a bolus injection of rVIII-SingleChain. In the 8 procedures that were covered by bolus injection rVIII-SingleChain median pre- and intraoperative consumption was 79.2 IU/kg, and in the 8 procedures that were covered by continuous infusion, rVIII-SingleChain median pre- and intraoperative consumption was 92.5 IU/kg. Investigators rated the efficacy of rVIII-SingleChain during surgery as excellent (defined as hemostasis not clinically significant different from normal) in all cases but one (knee replacement under continuous infusion), in which it was rated as good (defined as hemostasis normal or mildly abnormal in terms of quantity and/or quality e.g., slight oozing). After the procedure, patients returned to routine treatment after a median of 9 days. No related AEs or SAEs were observed during the surgery period. Conclusion: rVIII-SingleChain provides very effective and safe control of hemostasis during a wide range of surgical procedures when dosed either by continuous infusion or by bolus injection. Consumption of factor on the day of surgery seems to be comparable in both treatment regimens. Disclosures Mahlangu: NovoNordisk: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Bayer: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Biogen: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; CSL Behring: Research Funding; Biotest: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Roche: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Baker:Daiichi Sankyo: Research Funding; CSL Behring: Research Funding; Portola Pharmaceuticals: Research Funding; Astellas: Research Funding; Bayer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Boehringer Ingelheim: conference travel support, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Biogen Idec: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Baxter Healthcare: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Other: conference travel support , Research Funding; Pfizer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Amgen: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Other: conference travel support; Alexion Pharmaceuticals: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Other: conference travel support; Bristol-Myers Squibb: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Novo Nordisk: Other: conference travel support. Leissinger:Biogen: Research Funding; Pfizer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Roche: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; CSL Behring: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Kedrion: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Baxter: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Novo Nordisk: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Bayer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding. Santagostino:Pfizer: Research Funding; Novo Nordisk: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Baxter: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; CSL Behring: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Grifols: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Bayer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Biotest: Speakers Bureau; Octapharma: Speakers Bureau; Kedrion: Speakers Bureau; Biogen/Sobi: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Bensen-Kennedy:CSL Behring: Employment. St. Ledger:CSL Behring: Employment. Veldman:CSL Behring: Employment. Pabinger:Boehringer Ingelheim: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; CSL Behring: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Other: Travel support, Research Funding; Pfizer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Amgen: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Baxter: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; GSK: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Bayer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees.

“Medical Tourism” is the travel of residents of one country to another country for treatment. In this article I focus on travel abroad to purchase organs for transplant, what I will call “Transplant Tourism.” With the exception of Iran, organ sale is illegal across the globe, but many destination countries have thriving black markets, either due to their willful failure to police the practice or more good faith lack of resources to detect it. I focus on the sale of kidneys, the most common subject of transplant tourism, though much of what I say could be applied to other organs as well. Part I briefly reviews some data on sellers, recipients, and brokers. Part II discusses the bioethical issues posed by the trade, and Part III focuses on potential regulation to deal with these issues.

Purpose – Intercountry adoptions (hereafter ICAs) in the USA are a form of sale of children. According to international policy, sale of children is an illicit social practice that involves improper financial gains by at least one party. Sale of children is a threat to legitimate ICA. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the policy and practice of ICAs in the USA, including pricing arrangements, demonstrate that US ICAs, which can have humanitarian aims and be legitimate forms of family development, comprise sale of children. Design/methodology/approach – Internet searches and e-mail inquiries were used to obtain ICA cost data for a randomised sample of 10 per cent of the agencies in the USA that facilitate ICAs. Findings – Cost information was obtained from only 25 per cent of the sample, suggesting lack of transparency in and available information about monetary costs of US ICAs. A range of US$12,000 to $40,000 suggests that US ICAs are expensive and costs vary. Large, undisclosed fees in the form of “required donations”, agency fees, and extensive foreign travel requirements imply third party economic gains are made through US ICA transactions. Practical implications – US ICA agencies should disclose costs and employ transparent practices. US policies regulating ICAs should be clarified and strengthened. The US Government should ratify, implement, and enforce major children’s rights international policy standards. Social implications – International demand for adopted children may encourage child trafficking, child laundering, and kidnapping for profit (see Smolin, 2005), putting children, adoptive families, and birth communities at risk of breaches of basic human rights. Originality/value – No study has offered systematic analysis of monetary costs of US ICAs and linked this analysis to policy and legitimacy of social practices.

Objective To measure the situation of the non-prescription sale of antibiotics and the service quality of community pharmacies in Guangzhou, China. Methods A simulated client method was conducted to estimate the non-prescription sale of antibiotics and service quality based on scenarios about adult acute upper respiratory tract infection in 2019. A total of 595 community pharmacies from 11 districts were investigated in Guangzhou, China. We used binary logistic regression to evaluate the factors associated with the non-prescription sale of antibiotics. Results The proportion of non-prescription dispensing of antibiotics was 63.1% in Guangzhou, China, with a higher incidence of antibiotic dispensing without prescription in outer districts (69.3%). Cephalosporin (44.1%) and Amoxicillin (39.0%) were sold more often than other antibiotics. Chain pharmacies had better performance on the prescription sale of antibiotics and service quality. Traditional Chinese medicine was commonly recommended by pharmacy staff. Conclusion Since the non-prescription sale of antibiotics is prevalent in Guangzhou, effective solutions should be determined. Strengthened public awareness and regulatory system innovation are needed.

This Article explores two ways in which airline travel is an important vector for the spread of infectious disease, and argues that airlines have market-based and liability-based reasons to require that passengers be vaccinated. Going further, the Article explores whether the federal government has the legal and constitutional authority—especially under the Commerce Clause—to encourage or mandate that airlines implement such a vaccine screen. By disrupting the spread of disease at key network nodes where individuals interact and then connect with other geographic regions, and by creating another incentive for adult vaccination, an airline vaccine screen could be an effective and legally viable tool for the protection of public health.

Eastern Europe is among the major sources of migrants who travel for work to other European nations. In this research, in-depth interviews and analysis of legal cases of migration in Bulgaria reveal that the typical kinds of human trafficking in the region are sexual exploitation, labor exploitation, forced servitude, and trafficking of pregnant women for the sale of their babies. For each type, I examine victim profiles, recruitment strategies, transportation, and the types of control and exploitation that traffickers use. Comparisons are drawn between the Bulgarian findings and patterns in other Eastern European nations.

<p>Attitudinal and perceptual factors are important determinants of bicycle use as a mode of transportation. Understanding how attitudes and perceptions vary across different population is critical for successful cycling promotion interventions. Drawing on research from the context of an African city, this paper examines attitudes and perceptions about utility cycling in the general population, and determines if there are differences in how males and females who have different cycling experience perceive cycling for commuting purposes. Using non-parametric test, the study found that attitudes and perceptions regarding the environmental, financial, exercise and potential health benefits of cycling for transportation were very positive generally, and slightly stronger in females who had never cycled before than in males in the same group. Cycling was also not perceived as the most comfortable, safe, easy, convenient and flexible mode of transportation suitable for long distance travel among the majority of the respondents. These perceptions and attitudes were pronounced in females in the sub-group of respondents who had never cycled before and those who cycled previously than in males in the same groups. Among frequent cyclists, males perceived cycling for commute as a less tiring activity than females. Moreover, cycling’s public image as a less prestigious mode of transport that could not be taken to important social events was prevalent among the respondents, although this perception was found to be stronger in males than in females who had not cycled before. The findings could inform tailored cycling promotion programmes within the general population and across specific groups.</p>

The level of bruising and its distribution on the carcass was assessed for 35 085 cattle at an abattoir in southern Queensland. Using the Australian Carcase Bruise Scoring System, the average bruise score was 8.4 points (equivalent to 1.1 kg bruise trim) per carcass, with 61%of bruising on the hindquarters. Forty-two carcasses (0.12%) were condemned because of bruising. There were significant ( P< 0.01) differences between slaughter-lots due to horn status (mixed horn > hornless group), class of animal (mixed sex and cow > steer > bull groups), breed (Zebu crossbred > British breed groups), mode of travel (road plus rail > road > road plus walk), and individual saleyard. There were no differences due to method of sale (direct to abattoir v. via saleyard), road transport operators, road distance travelled (<50 to > 500 km), or due to unloading cattle from trucks to dip for ticks. The results indicate that animal factors, such as horn status and class of animal, may be more important sources of bruising than transportation (at least by major transport operators) and method of sale. Future efforts to reduce the level of bruising depend on all meat processors paying lower prices for bruised carcasses and publicly proclaiming these differential prices.

This thesis investigates the learning experiences of students who participated in short-term study abroad trips (also known as regional academic travel) offered by New York University Abu Dhabi’s Office of Global Education, with the objective of attaining an authentic account of these experiences. This authentic account supports a better understanding of a student’s experience, and leads to a more in-depth understanding of learning, which for this research is called the learning lifeworld. Phenomenography is used to capture the qualitative variation of individual experiences leading to four categories of description placed in logical relationship to one another yielding an outcome space of four conceptions of learning experience. Phenomenography alone, while reflective in nature, has limitations on determining an authentic account of experience. Therefore, it is helpful to draw upon reflective thinking ability, which produces information on each student’s ability to reason through an ill-structured problem, and puts students in a reflective thinking development stage, which is linked to a student’s critical reflection ability. Reflective judgment stages for each student were determined using the standard reflective judgment interview (King & Kitchener, 1994), and then compared against the instances conceptions of learning experience that appeared in each student account. A relationship was identified between instances of conceptions and the level of a student’s reflective thinking ability that could lead to a deeper understanding of the learning lifeworld through the language students used in responses from the phenomenographic interview and the reflective judgment interview. The findings of this research show that there were at least four qualitatively different ways students experienced regional academic travel trips. The categories developed through an analysis of student reflective accounts are: the regional academic travel experience complements and supplements classroom learning; develops academic skills; affects students’ future academic, personal, and professional endeavours; and offers students a chance to reflect on impacts they have made and can make in a community and the world. The results of this research make an original contribution to lifeworld theory, transformative learning, and short-term study abroad research by utilizing a unique combination of research approaches (phenomenography and reflective judgment to inform lifeworld theory and transformative learning) in a novel setting (NYU Abu Dhabi regional academic travel). The design of this research could be used for future studies to examine learning in an in-depth way, whilst assuring that the accounts given could be considered authentic. Finally, the results also led to recommendations for improvement of future regional academic travel trips offered by The Office of Global Education.

碩士
南華大學
出版學研究所
91
This research is employed and weighted in the methods of paper investigation, documentation, and deep interview to analyze the role of thirty editors currently working in six travel magazines on general sale in Taiwan. The main purpose is to understand the role and importance of editors in travel magazines through actual investigation. Simultaneously, the result of the research can provide the publishing circles more knowledge in interviewing and editing of travel magazines. 　　This research is from population background, career pattern, magazine organization, and outer environment aspects to be the basic background data to see observations and influences of the role of editors in travel magazines. Role performance, role expectation, and role location are the three parts to be used to explore the role of career. Statistic of paper investigation is based on descriptive statistics. Through paper investigation, documentation, and deep interview, there are several findings of the research in the following: 1.Population background: Most editors in Taiwan’s travel magazine are un-marriage females majoring in mass media or relative majors in the university. Average age is 32-33. Most were born in Taipei without religions. In addition, most of their parents were graduated from junior or senior high schools. The influence of parents’ position on them is slight. 2.Career pattern: The first position for most editors in travel magazines after graduating from schools is to work for a magazine house. In a career transition, they don’t have much experience and spend less time on other fields. Also, most of them are engaged in their own professions before current jobs. Magazines houses of sightseeing, tour, finance, economics, industry and business are most popular jobs they used to work for. The standard of promotion in a magazine house is usually like this: an editor-a senior editor and an executive-a chief editor or a continuous senior editor-a vice general editor or a general editor. Work experience, competence, and recommendation are three main elements of promotion. Put it to another way, the system of a magazine house and the characteristic of editing are two special important reasons to cause a promotion of a magazine house. 3.Role performance, role expectation, and role location: In each variable, personal experiences, executive’s opinions, and the trend of popular fashions have most influences on role performance. Besides, editors’ best friends are related to publishing, mass media, or culture and education government work. They keep close relationship with coworkers. Also, most editors of travel magazines often collect popular information related to travel. The most finding of role expectation is that the influence and evaluation of editing on a society population are from mass media and actually the convincement of editing is limited. In addition, although editors of travel magazines and reporters of travel line are in charge of different task, they have the same nature work. 　　According to the result and limitation of the research, there are several related suggestions in the future study and profession.Future researchers can seek other type of magazines, other editors, and non-profit travel magazine organizations. Besides that, they can build a professional model, tabulation, and use a “single-case inquisition” to search a related theme. Lastly, the profession should be award of pre-career training and sharing resources.

This chapter covers a range of special situations in oncology, from demographic age groups, lifestyle, and social and non-medical care to the practicalities of and resources for travelling and insurance. The median age of diagnosis of cancer in the general population is 70 years. The majority of those cancers are related to specific risk factors such as smoking. At the other end of the scale, the majority of paediatric malignancies are thought to be developmental in origin with teenager and young adult malignancies falling in between these two extremes and may represent a late developmental malignancy or an early adult malignancy due to other factors such as genetic and environmental factors. Topics covered in this chapter include teenage and young adult malignancies, cancer in older people, cancer in pregnant women, cancer of unknown primary site, fertility and cancer, late effects, cancer survivorship, travel, insurance, vaccination, lifestyle choices after cancer, complementary therapies, and supportive care during chemotherapy.

A cohort study is one in which the outcome (usually disease status) is ascertained for groups of individuals defined on the basis of their exposure. At the time exposure status is determined, all must be free of the disease. All eligible participants are then followed up over time. Since exposure status is determined before the occurrence of the outcome, a cohort study can clarify the temporal sequence between exposure and outcome, with minimal information bias. The historical and the population cohort study (Box 9.1) are efficient variants of the classical cohort study described above, which nevertheless retain the essential components of the cohort study design. The exposure can be dichotomous [i.e. exposed (to obstetric complications at birth) vs. not exposed], or graded as degrees of exposure (e.g. no recent life events, one to two life events, three or more life events). The use of grades of exposure strengthens the results of a cohort study by supporting or refuting the hypothesis that the incidence of the disease increases with increasing exposure to the risk factor; a so-called dose–response relationship. The essential features of a cohort study are: ♦ participants are defined by their exposure status rather than by outcome (as in case–control design); ♦ it is a longitudinal design: exposure status must be ascertained before outcome is known. The classical cohort study In a classical cohort study participants are selected for study on the basis of a single exposure of interest. This might be exposure to a relatively rare occupational exposure, such as ionizing radiation (through working in the nuclear power industry). Care must be taken in selecting the unexposed cohort; perhaps those working in similar industries, but without any exposure to radiation. The outcome in this case might be leukaemia. All those in the exposed and unexposed cohorts would need to be free of leukaemia (hence ‘at risk’) on recruitment into the study. The two cohorts would then be followed up for (say) 10 years and rates at which they develop leukaemia compared directly. Classical cohort studies are rare in psychiatric epidemiology. This may be in part because this type of study is especially suited to occupational exposures, which have previously been relatively little studied as causes of mental illness. However, this may change as the high prevalence of mental disorders in the workplace and their negative impact upon productivity are increasingly recognized. The UK Gulf War Study could be taken as one rather unusual example of the genre (Unwin et al. 1999). Health outcomes, including mental health status, were compared between those who were deployed in the Persian Gulf War in 1990–91, those who were later deployed in Bosnia, and an ‘era control group’ who were serving at the time of the Gulf war but were not deployed. There are two main variations on this classical cohort study design: they are popular as they can, depending on circumstances, be more efficient than the classical cohort design. The population cohort study In the classical cohort study, participants are selected on the basis of exposure, and the hypothesis relates to the effect of this single exposure on a health outcome. However, a large cohort or panel of subjects are sometimes recruited and followed up, often over many years, to study multiple exposures and outcomes. No separate comparison group is required as the comparison group is generally an unexposed sub-group of the panel. Examples include the British Doctor's Study in which over 30,000 British doctors were followed up for over 20 years to study the effects of smoking and other exposures on health (Doll et al. 1994), and the Framingham Heart Study, in which residents of a town in Massachusetts, USA have been followed up for 50 years to study risk factors for coronary heart disease (Wolf et al. 1988). The Whitehall and Whitehall II studies in the UK (Fuhrer et al. 1999; Stansfeld et al. 2002) were based again on an occupationally defined cohort, and have led to important findings concerning workplace conditions and both physical and psychiatric morbidity. Birth cohort studies, in which everyone born within a certain chronological interval are recruited, are another example of this type of study. In birth cohorts, participants are commonly followed up at intervals of 5–10 years. Many recent panel studies in the UK and elsewhere have been funded on condition that investigators archive the data for public access, in order that the dataset might be more fully exploited by the wider academic community. Population cohort studies can test multiple hypotheses, and are far more common than any other type of cohort study. The scope of the study can readily be extended to include mental health outcomes. Thus, both the British Doctor's Study (Doll et al. 2000) and the Framingham Heart Study (Seshadri et al. 2002) have gone on to report on aetiological factors for dementia and Alzheimer's Disease as the cohorts passed into the age groups most at risk for these disorders. A variant of the population cohort study is one in which those who are prevalent cases of the outcome of interest at baseline are also followed up effectively as a separate cohort in order (a) to study the natural history of the disorder by estimating its maintenance (or recovery) rate, and (b) studying risk factors for maintenance (non-recovery) over the follow-up period (Prince et al. 1998). Historical cohort studies In the classical cohort study outcome is ascertained prospectively. Thus, new cases are ascertained over a follow-up period, after the exposure status has been determined. However, it is possible to ascertain both outcome and exposure retrospectively. This variant is referred to as a historical cohort study (Fig. 9.1). A good example is the work of David Barker in testing his low birth weight hypothesis (Barker et al. 1990; Hales et al. 1991). Barker hypothesized that risk for midlife vascular and endocrine disorders would be determined to some extent by the ‘programming’ of the hypothalamo-pituitary axis through foetal growth in utero. Thus ‘small for dates’ babies would have higher blood pressure levels in adult life, and greater risk for type II diabetes (through insulin resistance). A prospective cohort study would have recruited participants at birth, when exposure (birth weight) would be recorded. They would then be followed up over four or five decades to examine the effect of birth weight on the development of hypertension and type II diabetes. Barker took the more elegant (and feasible) approach of identifying hospitals in the UK where several decades previously birth records were meticulously recorded. He then traced the babies as adults (where they still lived in the same area) and measured directly their status with respect to outcome. The ‘prospective’ element of such studies is that exposure was recorded well before outcome even though both were ascertained retrospectively with respect to the timing of the study. The historical cohort study has also proved useful in psychiatric epidemiology where it has been used in particular to test the neurodevelopmental hypothesis for schizophrenia (Jones et al. 1994; Isohanni et al. 2001). Jones et al. studied associations between adult-onset schizophrenia and childhood sociodemographic, neurodevelopmental, cognitive, and behavioural factors in the UK 1946 birth cohort; 5362 people born in the week 3–9 March 1946, and followed up intermittently since then. Subsequent onsets of schizophrenia were identified in three ways: (a) routine data: cohort members were linked to the register of the Mental Health Enquiry for England in which mental health service contacts between 1974 and 1986 were recorded; (b) cohort data: hospital and GP contacts (and the reasons for these contacts) were routinely reported at the intermittent resurveys of the cohort; (c) all cohort participants identified as possible cases of schizophrenia were given a detailed clinical interview (Present State examination) at age 36. Milestones of motor development were reached later in cases than in non-cases, particularly walking. Cases also had more speech problems than had noncases. Low educational test scores at ages 8,11, and 15 years were a risk factor. A preference for solitary play at ages 4 and 6 years predicted schizophrenia. A health visitor's rating of the mother as having below average mothering skills and understanding of her child at age 4 years was a predictor of schizophrenia in that child. Jones concluded ‘differences between children destined to develop schizophrenia as adults and the general population were found across a range of developmental domains. As with some other adult illnesses, the origins of schizophrenia may be found in early life’. Jones' findings were largely confirmed in a very similar historical cohort study in Finland (Isohanni et al. 2001); a 31 year follow-up of the 1966 North Finland birth cohort (n = 12,058). Onsets of schizophrenia were ascertained from a national hospital discharge register. The ages at learning to stand, walk and become potty-trained were each related to subsequent incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses. Earlier milestones reduced, and later milestones increased, the risk in a linear manner. These developmental effects were not seen for non-psychotic outcomes. The findings support hypotheses regarding psychosis as having a developmental dimension with precursors apparent in early life. There are many conveniences to this approach for the contemporary investigator. ♦ The exposure data has already been collected for you. ♦ The follow-up period has already elapsed. ♦ The design maintains the essential feature of the cohort study, namely that information bias with respect to the assessment of the exposure should not be a problem. ♦ As with the Barker hypothesis example, historical cohort studies are particularly useful for investigating associations across the life course, when there is a long latency between hypothesized exposure and outcome. Despite these important advantages, such retrospective studies are often limited by reliance on historical data that was collected routinely for other purposes; often these data will be inaccurate or incomplete. Also information about possible confounders, such as smoking or diet, may be inadequate.