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Journal articles on the topic 'San Salvador Earthquake'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 3 March 2023

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1

Harlow, David H., Randall A. White, Michael J. Rymer, and Salvador Alvarez G. "The San Salvador earthquake of 10 October 1986 and its historical context." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 83, no. 4 (August 1, 1993): 1143–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0830041143.

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Abstract The San Salvador earthquake of 10 October 1986 resulted in 1500 deaths, 10,000 injuries, and 100,000 people left homeless. The earthquake has a surface-wave magnitude (MS) of 5.4, and using strong-motion data, we estimate a moment magnitude (M6−) of 5.7. Focal mechanisms and aftershock distributions from locally recorded seismic data indicate that the earthquake was caused by near-surface, left-lateral slip on a N25°E-trending fault located directly beneath the city of San Salvador. Although strong ground motion lasted for only 3 to 5 sec, horizontal ground accelerations of up to 0.72 g were recorded. Seismic amplification by a surficial layer of low-velocity ash may have increased ground accelerations and thereby contributed to damage of adobe as well as engineered structures that seems excessive for such an earthquake magnitude. Since 1700 the city has been severely damaged at least nine times by similar moderate magnitude shallow-focus earthquakes. Such earthquakes are common along the heavily populated Central American volcanic chain and pose a major seismic hazard to numerous cities and towns that share a geologic setting similar to that of San Salvador.

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2

Lara, Mauricio A. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—History of Construction Practices in San Salvador." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 491–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585443.

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Construction practice in San Salvador, as in the rest of El Salvador, had remained practically unchanged since the time of Spanish colonization up to around 1942. From then on, building practices from many other countries have been introduced, and they have exerted a major influence. The last four decades can be divided into five stages or periods induced by events such as earthquakes in El Salvador and neighboring countries, as well as the incorporation of foreign codes in lieu of a local one and the introduction of new techniques, such as soil mechanics and microseismic investigation. The incorporation of practices based on foreign codes contributed significantly to the improvement of construction practice but occasionally led to misinterpretations, e.g. in the evaluation of seismic actions. At present, a number of studies and records are available that can be used as a basis for the elaboration of an earthquake resistant design code.

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3

Morgan, James R., and Sam W. Swan. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Performance of Lifelines." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 585–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585447.

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Although the October 10, 1986 San Salvador earthquake was only a moderate event of magnitude 5.4 and the recorded ground motions had a relatively short duration, the high recorded peak accelerations caused substantial damage to lifelines. There was significant and widespread damage to buried lifelines. Long-distance telecommunications facilities were reportedly undamaged, but there was substantial loss of local phone service caused by damage to buildings, failures of equipment racks, and loss of emergency power (tilting of batteries). Power generating facilities (hydroelectric and geothermal) that supply electricity to San Salvador are located too far from the city to have been affected by the earthquake. Both 115-kV substations that serve San Salvador experienced a moderate level of damage, consisting mostly of ceramic column circuit breaker failures. As has been observed in past earthquakes, control and instrumentation systems and low-voltage power-supply equipment displayed an ability to withstand high ground accelerations.

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4

Rymer, Michael J. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Geologic Aspects." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 435–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585440.

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The San Salvador earthquake struck an area of upper Cenozoic volcanic rocks, consisting of basaltic to silicic flows and tuffs. Tuff deposits constitute the upper 30 m of section below San Salvador; thinner sections are in the hills surrounding the city. Tuffs were important in landslide development during the earthquake and may have amplified ground motion. Faults mapped in the area strike east-west, northwest-southeast, and less distinctly, northeast-southwest and north-south. Ringlike structures formed by volcanic subsidence are also present in the area. No evidence was seen of surface faulting associated with the October 10 main shock or an earthquake on October 13 on a separate fault 7 km west-northwest of the main shock. Numerous cracks were seen in the epicentral areas of both earthquakes, but these are easily explained as secondary ground failures. Both of the earthquakes occurred on unmapped faults. The main shock caused several hundred landslides in an area of at least 200 km2. The most numerous landslides were soil slides and soil falls, which were especially common in stream banks and roadcuts. The earthquake also produced rock falls and slides, slumps, rapid soil flows, shattered ridge effects, and compaction. Landslides and related ground failures were triggered as much as 12 km from the epicenter and accounted for about 200 fatalities and at least 100 damaged homes.

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5

Shakal, Anthony F., Moh-jiann Huang, and Roberto Linares. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Processed Strong Motion Data." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 465–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585441.

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Strong-motion records were recovered from nine accelerographs at seven stations of the El Salvador Geotechnical Investigation Center Strong Motion Network following the damaging 5.4 Ms San Salvador earthquake of October 10, 1986. The sites were all within 6 km of the epicenter; peak horizontal accelerations at ground level ranged from 0.32 to 0.72 g. The duration of strong shaking was about 3 seconds at most sites. One 10-story concrete building was instrumented with recorders at the basement, second floor, and roof level. The maximum accelerations recorded at this building were 0.47 g at the basement, 0.69 g at the second floor, and 0.91 g at the roof. Eight of the accelerograms were digitized and processed. A maximum horizontal velocity of 80 cm/s was obtained for a station 4 km from the epicenter. Peak velocity for the other stations ranged from 26 to 75 cm/s. The maximum horizontal displacements ranged from 5 to 18 cm. The San Salvador records and spectra are compared to other close-in observations such as the Station 2 record from the ML 5.6 Parkfield earthquake of 1966. The San Salvador records share many features with the Parkfield record. In general, the peak accelerations recorded at many of the stations are larger than previously recorded values at close-in distances from earthquakes of similar magnitude.

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6

Bommer, Julian, and Stephen Ledbetter. "The San Salvador earthquake of 10th October 1986." Disasters 11, no. 2 (June 1987): 83–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.1987.tb00620.x.

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7

White, Randall A., David H. Harlow, and Salvador Alvarez. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Seismological Aspects and Other Recent Local Seismicity." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 419–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585439.

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The San Salvador earthquake of October 10, 1986 originated along the Central American volcanic chain within the upper crust of the Caribbean Plate. Results from a local seismograph network show a tectonic style main shock-aftershock sequence, with a magnitude, Mw, 5.6. The hypocenter was located 7.3 km below the south edge of San Salvador. The main shock ruptured along a nearly vertical plane toward the north-northeast. A main shock fault-plane solution shows a nearly vertical fault plane striking N32\sz\E, with left-lateral sense of motion. This earthquake is the second Central American volcanic chain earthquake documented with left-lateral slip on a fault perpendicular to the volcanic chain. During the 2 1/2 years preceeding the earthquake, minor microseismicity was noted near the epicenter, but we show that this has been common along the volcanic chain since at least 1953. San Salvador was previously damaged by a volcanic chain earthquake on May 3, 1965. The locations of six foreshocks preceding the 1965 shock show a distinctly WNW-trending distribution. This observation, together with the distribution of damage and a fault-plane solution, suggest that right-lateral slip occurred along a fault sub-parallel with Central American volcanic chain. We believe this is the first time such motion has been documented along the volcanic chain. This earthquake was also unusual in that it was preceded by a foreshock sequence more energetic than the aftershock sequence. Earlier this century, on June 08, 1917, an Ms 6.4 earthquake occurred 30 to 40 km west of San Salvador Volcano. Only 30 minutes later, an Ms 6.3 earthquake occurred, centered at the volcano, and about 35 minutes later the volcano erupted. In 1919 an Ms 6 earthquake occurred, centered at about the epicenter of the 1986 earthquake. We conclude that the volcanic chain is seismically very active with variable styles of seismicity.

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8

Durkin, Michael E., and John Hopkins. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Architecture and Urban Planning." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 609–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585448.

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Major damage from the October 10 earthquake was concentrated in and around the capital city of San Salvador. Losses exceeded $900 million, or 25% of El Salvador's 1986 gross domestic product. Poor soil conditions, ineffective land use controls, and inadequate building practices combined with the severe shaking intensity to produce widespread damage to both engineered and nonengineered structures. Residential, institutional, and commercial buildings sustained heavy damage. Nonstructural damage and damage to building contents contributed to economic and operational loss. Government officials are making a deliberate attempt to incorporate new knowledge in reconstruction planning. However, recovery and reconstruction will be a slow process due to the current state of the economy.

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9

Anderson, Raymond W. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Review of Building Damage." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 497–541. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585444.

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Damage to low-rise engineered buildings in San Salvador in the three to six-story height range was major and wide-spread. This can probably be attributed to the small natural periods of vibration associated with low-rise buildings and their response when interacting with the short-period and short-duration earthquake ground motion. Damage to high-rise buildings that have much longer periods of vibration was relatively minor. This paper reviews buildings that appeared to have performed well and describes the heavy damage that occurred to low-rise buildings that performed poorly, including examples of collapsed or partially collapsed buildings. Lessons learned or relearned from the San Salvador earthquake are summarized.

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10

Sauter, Franz F. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Structural Aspects of Damage." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 563–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585446.

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The October 10, 1986 San Salvador earthquake caused extensive damage to one- and two-story bahareque-type dwellings and buildings, and the collapse of multistory engineered structures. The study of the effects of the San Salvador earthquake on buildings points out that poor quality materials and workmanship, as well as deficiencies in constructive details, are the cause of severe damage. However, it confirms once again that conceptual errors in design, including the selection of the lateral load resistant system, are the main cause of structural failure of buildings and engineered structures. It reiterates already well-known concepts, which are frequently forgotten by the professionals involved in the project and seismic design of modern buildings.

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11

Chieruzzi, Robert. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Geotechnical Effects." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 483–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585442.

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Geotechnical effects generated by the October 10 earthquake were significant. Various types of observed ground failures include landslides, lurching or cracking, and differential fill compaction and settlement. Liquefaction and surface faulting were not observed. Poor compaction was responsible for many ground failures such as differential compaction/densification and settlement of embankment fills and fills placed in former deep barrancas. Foundation failures, if they occurred, were not observable at the time of the reconnaissance because of ongoing rescue and demolition operations and limited accessibility to collapsed buildings and major damaged areas. Preliminary assessment indicates that local geologic and soil conditions appear to have had some influence on the intensity of shaking and damage.

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12

Olson, Robert A. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Overview and Context." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 415–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585438.

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13

Lara, Mauricio A. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Detailed Evaluation of the Performance of Eight Engineered Structures." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 543–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585445.

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Eight engineered buildings in San Salvador were selected to provide detailed descriptions of structures that performed both poorly and well during the 1986 earthquake. The buildings selected were all of reinforced concrete construction, both moment-frame and shear-wall, and were in the range of three to eight stories in height. The earthquake performance of the eight buildings ranged from the moderately severe structural and nonstructural damage to the El Salvador Sheraton Hotel, which will require retrofitting, to the negligible nonstructural damage to the VIP Building at the Sheraton Hotel complex. Comparison of the performance of the various buildings clearly shows that newer buildings, especially those built since 1973, revealed less damage than older buildings designed a-d constructed under less stringent codes.

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14

Durkin, Michael E. "The San Salvador Earthquake of October 10, 1986—Casualties, Search and Rescue, and Response of the Health Care System." Earthquake Spectra 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 621–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.1585449.

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The San Salvador earthquake caused a relatively large number of casualties. Perhaps one-third of the fatalities occurred in engineered structures. Structural collapse, nonstructural elements, occupant actions, fire, and soil failure all played a role in earthquake injuries. The collapse of several multistory buildings necessitated heavy rescue operations by local authorities, foreign experts, and volunteers. This experience revealed the need for better coordination of such efforts in future disasters. Earthquake damage significantly disrupted local health services, causing evacuation of all major hospitals. Health care continues in temporary facilities. Future health service decentralization is a possible positive outcome.

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15

Legrand, D., G. Marroquín, C. DeMets, L. Mixco, A. García, M. Villalobos, D. Ferrés, et al. "Active deformation in the San Salvador extensional stepover, El Salvador from an analysis of the April–May 2017 earthquake sequence and GPS data." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (December 2020): 102854. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102854.

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16

Munoz, D. "The Earthquake of San Salvador, Central America, of 21 April 1594: The First Questionnaires on the Damage of an Earthquake in the Western Hemisphere." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 96, no. 4A (August 1, 2006): 1538–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120050213.

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17

Price, H. John, Adriano De Sortis, and Marko Schotanus. "Performance of the San Salvatore Regional Hospital in the 2009 L'Aquila Earthquake." Earthquake Spectra 28, no. 1 (February 2012): 239–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.3673595.

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The San Salvatore Hospital in Coppito was closed shortly after the 6 April 2009 L'Aquila earthquake, even though the buildings on its campus experienced only limited and localized structural damage. The decision to close part or all of an essential facility such as a hospital can be easily made in the heat of the moment after a disaster, but reopening even portions of such a facility is far more complex and raises a large number of operational issues. A documented pre-established program for post-event safety inspections, as well as training in its implementation for both on-site and backup personnel, is vital to the continued operation of any essential facility. While continued operation after an event may be the targeted goal, it may not actually be fully achieved, in particular for older facilities, and some disruption is to be expected. Management of realistic expectations is a vital part of the program for post-event safety inspections.

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18

Santini, Silvia, Vittoria Borghese, Mario Micheli, and Erick Orellana Paz. "Sustainable Recovery of Architectural Heritage: The Experience of a Worksite School in San Salvador." Sustainability 14, no. 2 (January 6, 2022): 608. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14020608.

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This paper presents the experience of both interdisciplinary and sustainable implementation of an educational construction site for the recovery of the architectural heritage in Central America. Rey Prendes House is representative of one hundred and forty-five houses made of wood, stamped steel sheet, and deployé that are located in the historical center of San Salvador. Its origin is linked to historical events, such as the strong migration of foreigners to El Salvador in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the presidential decrees that encouraged the reconstruction of the city with anti-seismic materials as a result of the earthquakes of 1873 and 1917. More recently, since 2017, Rey Prendes House has been included in the project funded by the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation. In this paper, the phases of the survey are documented with both materials and degradation analyses, the new design construction with BIM technology for the organization of the educational construction site, the creation of offices and laboratories for restoration and treatments of timber and metal details. Moreover, the study provides a contextual framework with the aim of describing the policies and the projects implemented, highlighting the adopted strategies, the results achieved, and outlining the path followed towards the design solutions for sustainable rehabilitation relating to future use.

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