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Journal articles on the topic 'Saturn's atmosphere'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 15 February 2022

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1

Fletcher, Leigh N. "Saturn's seasonal atmosphere." Astronomy & Geophysics 58, no. 4 (August 1, 2017): 4.26–4.30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/astrogeo/atx138.

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2

Coates, Andrew J. "Interaction of Titan's ionosphere with Saturn's magnetosphere." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367, no. 1889 (November 20, 2008): 773–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2008.0248.

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Titan is the only Moon in the Solar System with a significant permanent atmosphere. Within this nitrogen–methane atmosphere, an ionosphere forms. Titan has no significant magnetic dipole moment, and is usually located inside Saturn's magnetosphere. Atmospheric particles are ionized both by sunlight and by particles from Saturn's magnetosphere, mainly electrons, which reach the top of the atmosphere. So far, the Cassini spacecraft has made over 45 close flybys of Titan, allowing measurements in the ionosphere and the surrounding magnetosphere under different conditions. Here we review how Titan's ionosphere and Saturn's magnetosphere interact, using measurements from Cassini low-energy particle detectors. In particular, we discuss ionization processes and ionospheric photoelectrons, including their effect on ion escape from the ionosphere. We also discuss one of the unexpected discoveries in Titan's ionosphere, the existence of extremely heavy negative ions up to 10 000 amu at 950 km altitude.
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3

Balcerak, Ernie. "Vortices in Saturn's upper atmosphere." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 95, no. 44 (November 4, 2014): 408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014eo440016.

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4

Hall, D. T., P. D. Feldman, J. B. Holberg, and M. A. McGrath. "Fluorescent Hydroxyl Emissions from Saturn's Ring Atmosphere." Science 272, no. 5261 (April 26, 1996): 516–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.272.5261.516.

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5

Ingersoll, Andrew P., Shawn P. Ewald, Kunio M. Sayanagi, and John J. Blalock. "Saturn's Atmosphere at 1-10 Kilometer Resolution." Geophysical Research Letters 45, no. 15 (August 11, 2018): 7851–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2018gl079255.

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6

Connerney, J. E. P. "Magnetic connection for Saturn's rings and atmosphere." Geophysical Research Letters 13, no. 8 (August 1986): 773–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/gl013i008p00773.

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7

Hartle, R. E. "Interaction of Titan's atmosphere with Saturn's magnetosphere." Advances in Space Research 5, no. 4 (January 1985): 321–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0273-1177(85)90158-9.

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8

Dandouras, Iannis, Philippe Garnier, Donald G. Mitchell, Edmond C. Roelof, Pontus C. Brandt, Norbert Krupp, and Stamatios M. Krimigis. "Titan's exosphere and its interaction with Saturn's magnetosphere." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367, no. 1889 (November 20, 2008): 743–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2008.0249.

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Titan's nitrogen-rich atmosphere is directly bombarded by energetic ions, due to its lack of a significant intrinsic magnetic field. Singly charged energetic ions from Saturn's magnetosphere undergo charge-exchange collisions with neutral atoms in Titan's upper atmosphere, or exosphere, being transformed into energetic neutral atoms (ENAs). The ion and neutral camera, one of the three sensors that comprise the magnetosphere imaging instrument (MIMI) on the Cassini/Huygens mission to Saturn and Titan, images these ENAs like photons, and measures their fluxes and energies. These remote-sensing measurements, combined with the in situ measurements performed in the upper thermosphere and in the exosphere by the ion and neutral mass spectrometer instrument, provide a powerful diagnostic of Titan's exosphere and its interaction with the Kronian magnetosphere. These observations are analysed and some of the exospheric features they reveal are modelled.
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9

Fischer, G., S. Y. Ye, J. B. Groene, A. P. Ingersoll, K. M. Sayanagi, J. D. Menietti, W. S. Kurth, and D. A. Gurnett. "A possible influence of the Great White Spot on Saturn kilometric radiation periodicity." Annales Geophysicae 32, no. 12 (December 4, 2014): 1463–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-32-1463-2014.

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Abstract. The periodicity of Saturn kilometric radiation (SKR) varies with time, and its two periods during the first 5 years of the Cassini mission have been attributed to SKR from the northern and southern hemisphere. After Saturn equinox in August 2009, there were long intervals of time (March 2010 to February 2011 and September 2011 to June 2012) with similar northern and southern SKR periods and locked SKR phases. However, from March to August 2011 the SKR periods were split up again, and the phases were unlocked. In this time interval, the southern SKR period slowed down by ~ 0.5% on average, and there was a large jump back to a faster period in August 2011. The northern SKR period speeded up and coalesced again with the southern period in September 2011. We argue that this unusual behavior could be related to the so-called Great White Spot (GWS), a giant thunderstorm that raged in Saturn's atmosphere around that time. For several months in 2011, the visible head of the GWS had the same period of ~ 10.69 h as the main southern SKR modulation signal. The GWS was most likely a source of intense gravity waves that may have caused a global change in Saturn's thermospheric winds via energy and momentum deposition. This would support the theory that Saturn's magnetospheric periodicities are driven by the upper atmosphere. Since the GWS with simultaneous SKR periodicity measurements have only been made once, it is difficult to prove a physical connection between these two phenomena, but we provide plausible mechanisms by which the GWS might modify the SKR periods.
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10

Heintz, Andreas, and Eckard Bich. "Thermodynamics in an icy world: The atmosphere and internal structure of Saturn's moon Titan." Pure and Applied Chemistry 81, no. 10 (October 3, 2009): 1903–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac-con-08-10-04.

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Thermodynamic principles can be applied for describing the atmospheres and the internal structure of celestial bodies using Saturn's moon Titan as a most appropriate example. Some basic physical data of Titan such as the measured temperature and pressure on its surface, the atmospheric composition, Titan’s density and diameter, and other information allow us to predict further properties which have not been determined directly by measurements. The existence of a liquid phase covering smaller parts of the surface can be confirmed, and the composition of the liquid can be predicted. The change of temperature with the height over the surface and the appearance of clouds and rainfall in the atmosphere consisting essentially of CH4 + N2 mixtures can also be predicted. By developing a new method of calculation of atmospheric scenarios, the chemical history of Titan’s surface and atmosphere can be roughly reconstructed taking into account the known rate of methane destruction caused by radiative absorption of sunlight. Finally, some estimations concerning the material structure and the pressure behavior of Titan’s interior can be made. Only basic knowledge of thermodynamics and physics is required to understand essential features in a strange world that is more than one billion kilometers away from us.
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11

Arridge, C. S., N. Achilleos, and P. Guio. "Electric field variability and classifications of Titan's magnetoplasma environment." Annales Geophysicae 29, no. 7 (July 19, 2011): 1253–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-29-1253-2011.

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Abstract. The atmosphere of Saturn's largest moon Titan is driven by photochemistry, charged particle precipitation from Saturn's upstream magnetosphere, and presumably by the diffusion of the magnetospheric field into the outer ionosphere, amongst other processes. Ion pickup, controlled by the upstream convection electric field, plays a role in the loss of this atmosphere. The interaction of Titan with Saturn's magnetosphere results in the formation of a flow-induced magnetosphere. The upstream magnetoplasma environment of Titan is a complex and highly variable system and significant quasi-periodic modulations of the plasma in this region of Saturn's magnetosphere have been reported. In this paper we quantitatively investigate the effect of these quasi-periodic modulations on the convection electric field at Titan. We show that the electric field can be significantly perturbed away from the nominal radial orientation inferred from Voyager 1 observations, and demonstrate that upstream categorisation schemes must be used with care when undertaking quantitative studies of Titan's magnetospheric interaction, particularly where assumptions regarding the orientation of the convection electric field are made.
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12

Wannawichian, S., J. T. Clarke, and D. H. Pontius. "Interaction evidence between Enceladus' atmosphere and Saturn's magnetosphere." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 113, A7 (July 2008): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007ja012899.

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13

Sanchez-Lavega, A., J. Lecacheux, J. M. Gomez, F. Colas, P. Laques, K. Noll, D. Gilmore, I. Miyazaki, and D. Parker. "Large-Scale Storms in Saturn's Atmosphere During 1994." Science 271, no. 5249 (February 2, 1996): 631–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.271.5249.631.

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14

Porco, C. C. "Cassini Imaging Science: Initial Results on Saturn's Atmosphere." Science 307, no. 5713 (February 25, 2005): 1243–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1107691.

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15

Koskinen, T. T., J. I. Moses, R. A. West, S. Guerlet, and A. Jouchoux. "The detection of benzene in Saturn's upper atmosphere." Geophysical Research Letters 43, no. 15 (August 15, 2016): 7895–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2016gl070000.

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16

Abbas, M. M., A. LeClair, E. Woodard, M. Young, M. Stanbro, F. M. Flasar, V. G. Kunde, et al. "DISTRIBUTION OF CO2IN SATURN'S ATMOSPHERE FROMCASSINI/CIRS INFRARED OBSERVATIONS." Astrophysical Journal 776, no. 2 (September 27, 2013): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0004-637x/776/2/73.

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17

Balcerak, Ernie. "Magnetic field data: Thin atmosphere on Saturn's moon Dione." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 92, no. 40 (October 4, 2011): 348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011eo400014.

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18

Jia, Xianzhe, Margaret G. Kivelson, and Tamas I. Gombosi. "Driving Saturn's magnetospheric periodicities from the upper atmosphere/ionosphere." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 117, A4 (April 2012): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011ja017367.

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19

Karimov, A. M. "Absorption of methane in the Saturn's atmosphere near 2009 equinox." Astronomical School’s Report 9, no. 2 (2013): 176–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.18372/2411-6602.09.2176.

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20

Coghlan, Andy. "Cassini gears up for final fiery plunge into Saturn's atmosphere." New Scientist 230, no. 3071 (April 2016): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(16)30738-2.

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21

Tokar, R. L. "The Interaction of the Atmosphere of Enceladus with Saturn's Plasma." Science 311, no. 5766 (March 10, 2006): 1409–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1121061.

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22

Sanchez-Lavega, A., J. Lecacheux, F. Colas, and P. Laques. "Temporal behavior of cloud morphologies and motions in Saturn's atmosphere." Journal of Geophysical Research 98, E10 (1993): 18857. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/93je01777.

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23

Johnson, R. E., J. G. Luhmann, R. L. Tokar, M. Bouhram, J. J. Berthelier, E. C. Sittler, J. F. Cooper, et al. "Production, ionization and redistribution of O2 in Saturn's ring atmosphere." Icarus 180, no. 2 (February 2006): 393–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2005.08.021.

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24

FARMER, A., and P. GOLDREICH. "How much oxygen is too much? Constraining Saturn's ring atmosphere." Icarus 188, no. 1 (May 2007): 108–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2006.11.013.

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25

Muhleman, Duane O., Bryan J. Butler, Martin A. Slade, and Arie W. Grossman. "Radar Imaging of the Planets Using the Very Large Array." Symposium - International Astronomical Union 158 (1994): 457–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900108186.

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We have used the VLA to make images of the planets which are continuously illuminated by the high power planetary radar transmitter on the 70 meter antenna at Goldstone, CA. That instrument is capable of transmitting up to 460,000 watts of continuous power near 8.5 GHz. Radar imaging experiments became possible after the installation of the 8.5 GHz receivers on all VLA antennas by NASA for the encounter of the Voyager spacecraft with Uranus. A similar radar may be configured with the Australia Telescope (array) at Narrabri and the Goldstone 70 m at S-band which may be important for experiments on Venus whose atmosphere strongly absorbs at X-band. Highly successful experiments have been carried out at the VLA on Mercury, Venus, Mars, Saturn's rings and Titan, the giant satellite of Saturn.
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26

Smith, C. G. A., and A. D. Aylward. "Coupled rotational dynamics of Saturn's thermosphere and magnetosphere: a thermospheric modelling study." Annales Geophysicae 26, no. 4 (May 13, 2008): 1007–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-26-1007-2008.

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Abstract. We use a numerical model of Saturn's thermosphere to investigate the flow of angular momentum from the atmosphere to the magnetosphere. The thermosphere model is driven by Joule heating and ion drag calculated from a simple model of the magnetospheric plasma flows and a fixed model of the ionospheric conductivity. We describe an initial study in which our plasma flow model is fixed and find that this leads to several inconsistencies in our results. We thus describe an improved model in which the plasma flows are allowed to vary in response to the structure of the thermospheric winds. Using this improved model we are able to analyse in detail the mechanism by which angular momentum extracted from the thermosphere by the magnetosphere is replaced by transport from the lower atmosphere. Previously, this transport was believed to be dominated by vertical transport due to eddy viscosity. Our results suggest that transport within the upper atmosphere by meridional winds is a much more important mechanism. As a consequence of this, we find that the rotational structures of the thermosphere and magnetosphere are related in a more complex way than the eddy viscosity model implies. Rather than the thermosphere behaving as a passive component of the system, the thermosphere-magnetosphere interaction is shown to be a two-way process in which rotational structures develop mutually. As an example of this, we are able to show that thermospheric dynamics offer an explanation of the small degree of super-corotation that has been observed in the inner magnetosphere. These results call into question the usefulness of the effective Pedersen conductivity as a parameterisation of the neutral atmosphere. We suggest that a two-parameter model employing the true Pedersen conductivity and the true thermospheric rotation velocity may be a more accurate representation of the thermospheric behaviour.
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27

Gezari, D. Y., M. J. Mumma, F. Espenak, D. Deming, G. Bjoraker, L. Woods, and W. Folz. "New features in Saturn's atmosphere revealed by high-resolution thermal infrared images." Nature 342, no. 6251 (December 1989): 777–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/342777a0.

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28

Sanchez-Lavega, A., F. Colas, J. Lecacheux, P. Laques, I. Miyazaki, and D. Parker. "The Great White Spot and disturbances in Saturn's equatorial atmosphere during 1990." Nature 353, no. 6343 (October 1991): 397–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/353397a0.

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29

Muñoz, O., F. Moreno, A. Molina, D. Grodent, J. C. Gérard, and V. Dols. "Study of the vertical structure of Saturn's atmosphere using HST/WFPC2 images." Icarus 169, no. 2 (June 2004): 413–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2003.12.018.

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30

Moses, J. "Photochemistry of Saturn's Atmosphere I. Hydrocarbon Chemistry and Comparisons with ISO Observations." Icarus 143, no. 2 (February 2000): 244–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/icar.1999.6270.

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31

Moses, J. "Photochemistry of Saturn's Atmosphere II. Effects of an Influx of External Oxygen." Icarus 145, no. 1 (May 2000): 166–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/icar.1999.6320.

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32

Teolis, B. D., G. H. Jones, P. F. Miles, R. L. Tokar, B. A. Magee, J. H. Waite, E. Roussos, et al. "Cassini Finds an Oxygen-Carbon Dioxide Atmosphere at Saturn's Icy Moon Rhea." Science 330, no. 6012 (November 25, 2010): 1813–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1198366.

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33

Kazeminejad, B., H. Lammer, A. Coustenis, O. Witasse, G. Fischer, K. Schwingenschuh, A. J. Ball, and H. O. Rucker. "Temperature variations in Titan's upper atmosphere: Impact on Cassini/Huygens." Annales Geophysicae 23, no. 4 (June 3, 2005): 1183–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-23-1183-2005.

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Abstract. Temperature variations of Titan's upper atmosphere due to the plasma interaction of the satellite with Saturn's magnetosphere and Titan's high altitude monomer haze particles can imply an offset of up to ±30K from currently estimated model profiles. We incorporated these temperature uncertainties as an offset into the recently published Vervack et al. (2004) (Icarus, Vol. 170, 91-112) engineering model and derive extreme case (i.e. minimum and maximum profiles) temperature, pressure, and density profiles. We simulated the Huygens probe hypersonic entry trajectory and obtain, as expected, deviations of the probe trajectory for the extreme atmosphere models compared to the simulation based on the nominal one. These deviations are very similar to the ones obtained with the standard Yelle et al. (1997) (ESA SP-1177) profiles. We could confirm that the difference in aerodynamic drag is of an order of magnitude that can be measured by the probe science accelerometer. They represent an important means for the reconstruction of Titan's upper atmospheric properties. Furthermore, we simulated a Cassini low Titan flyby trajectory. No major trajectory deviations were found. The atmospheric torques due to aerodynamic drag, however, are twice as high for our high temperature profile as the ones obtained with the Yelle maximum profile and more than 5 times higher than the worst case estimations from the Cassini project. We propose to use the Cassini atmospheric torque measurements during its low flybys to derive the atmospheric drag and to reconstruct Titan's upper atmosphere density, pressure, and temperature. The results could then be compared to the reconstructed profiles obtained from Huygens probe measurements. This would help to validate the probe measurements and decrease the error bars.
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34

Dobrijevic, M., J. L. Ollivier, F. Billebaud, J. Brillet, and J. P. Parisot. "Effect of chemical kinetic uncertainties on photochemical modeling results: Application to Saturn's atmosphere." Astronomy & Astrophysics 398, no. 1 (January 2003): 335–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20021659.

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35

Van Hemelrijck, E. "The effect of Saturn's rings on the upper-boundary insolation of its atmosphere." Earth, Moon, and Planets 38, no. 3 (July 1987): 217–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00121479.

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36

Smith, C. G. A. "Driving Planetary Period Oscillations From the Hall Conducting Layer of Saturn's Upper Atmosphere." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 124, no. 8 (August 2019): 6740–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2019ja026711.

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37

Jia, Xianzhe, and Margaret G. Kivelson. "Driving Saturn's magnetospheric periodicities from the upper atmosphere/ionosphere: Magnetotail response to dual sources." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 117, A11 (November 2012): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012ja018183.

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38

Spiga, Aymeric, Sandrine Guerlet, Ehouarn Millour, Mikel Indurain, Yann Meurdesoif, Simon Cabanes, Thomas Dubos, et al. "Global climate modeling of Saturn's atmosphere. Part II: Multi-annual high-resolution dynamical simulations." Icarus 335 (January 2020): 113377. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2019.07.011.

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39

Pérez-Hoyos, S., and A. Sánchez-Lavega. "Solar flux in Saturn's atmosphere: Penetration and heating rates in the aerosol and cloud layers." Icarus 180, no. 2 (February 2006): 368–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2005.10.009.

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40

del Río-Gaztelurrutia, T., A. Sánchez-Lavega, A. Antuñano, J. Legarreta, E. García-Melendo, K. M. Sayanagi, R. Hueso, et al. "A planetary-scale disturbance in a long living three vortex coupled system in Saturn's atmosphere." Icarus 302 (March 2018): 499–513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2017.11.029.

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41

Waite, J. H., R. S. Perryman, M. E. Perry, K. E. Miller, J. Bell, T. E. Cravens, C. R. Glein, et al. "Chemical interactions between Saturn’s atmosphere and its rings." Science 362, no. 6410 (October 4, 2018): eaat2382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aat2382.

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The Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft made close-up measurements of Saturn’s ionosphere and upper atmosphere in the 1970s and 1980s that suggested a chemical interaction between the rings and atmosphere. Exploring this interaction provides information on ring composition and the influence on Saturn’s atmosphere from infalling material. The Cassini Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer sampled in situ the region between the D ring and Saturn during the spacecraft’s Grand Finale phase. We used these measurements to characterize the atmospheric structure and material influx from the rings. The atmospheric He/H2 ratio is 10 to 16%. Volatile compounds from the rings (methane; carbon monoxide and/or molecular nitrogen), as well as larger organic-bearing grains, are flowing inward at a rate of 4800 to 45,000 kilograms per second.
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42

Mousis, O. "An Evolutionary Turbulent Model of Saturn's Subnebula: Implications for the Origin of the Atmosphere of Titan." Icarus 156, no. 1 (March 2002): 162–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/icar.2001.6782.

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43

Smith, C. G. A. "On the nature and location of the proposed twin vortex systems in Saturn's polar upper atmosphere." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 119, no. 7 (July 2014): 5964–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014ja019934.

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44

Sanz-Requena, J. F., S. Pérez-Hoyos, A. Sánchez-Lavega, T. del Rio-Gaztelurrutia, and Patrick G. J. Irwin. "Hazes and clouds in a singular triple vortex in Saturn's atmosphere from HST/WFC3 multispectral imaging." Icarus 333 (November 2019): 22–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2019.05.037.

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45

Spilker, Linda. "Cassini-Huygens’ exploration of the Saturn system: 13 years of discovery." Science 364, no. 6445 (June 13, 2019): 1046–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aat3760.

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The Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn provided a close-up study of the gas giant planet, as well as its rings, moons, and magnetosphere. The Cassini spacecraft arrived at Saturn in 2004, dropped the Huygens probe to study the atmosphere and surface of Saturn’s planet-sized moon Titan, and orbited Saturn for the next 13 years. In 2017, when it was running low on fuel, Cassini was intentionally vaporized in Saturn’s atmosphere to protect the ocean moons, Enceladus and Titan, where it had discovered habitats potentially suitable for life. Mission findings include Enceladus’ south polar geysers, the source of Saturn’s E ring; Titan’s methane cycle, including rain that creates hydrocarbon lakes; dynamic rings containing ice, silicates, and organics; and Saturn’s differential rotation. This Review discusses highlights of Cassini’s investigations, including the mission’s final year.
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46

Fegley, B. ,. Jr, and R. G. Prinn. "Equilibrium and nonequilibrium chemistry of Saturn's atmosphere - Implications for the observability of PH3, N2, CO, and GeH4." Astrophysical Journal 299 (December 1985): 1067. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/163775.

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47

Cowley, S. W. H., and G. Provan. "Saturn's magnetospheric planetary period oscillations, neutral atmosphere circulation, and thunderstorm activity: Implications, or otherwise, for physical links." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 118, no. 11 (November 2013): 7246–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013ja019200.

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48

Gustin, J., J. C. Gérard, W. Pryor, P. D. Feldman, D. Grodent, and G. Holsclaw. "Characteristics of Saturn's polar atmosphere and auroral electrons derived from HST/STIS, FUSE and Cassini/UVIS spectra." Icarus 200, no. 1 (March 2009): 176–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2008.11.013.

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49

Chen, Fengzhong, D. L. Judge, C. Y. Robert Wu, J. Caldwell, H. Peter White, and R. Wagener. "High-resolution, low-temperature photoabsorption cross sections of C2H2, PH3, AsH3, and GeH4, with application to Saturn's atmosphere." Journal of Geophysical Research 96, E2 (1991): 17519. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/91je01687.

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50

Giri, Chaitanya, Christopher P. McKay, Fred Goesmann, Nadine Schäfer, Xiang Li, Harald Steininger, William B. Brinckerhoff, Thomas Gautier, Joachim Reitner, and Uwe J. Meierhenrich. "Carbonization in Titan Tholins: implication for low albedo on surfaces of Centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects." International Journal of Astrobiology 15, no. 3 (December 28, 2015): 231–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550415000439.

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Abstract:
AbstractAstronomical observations of Centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) yield two characteristic features – near-infrared (NIR) reflectance and low geometric albedo. The first feature apparently originates due to complex organic material on their surfaces, but the origin of the material contributing to low albedo is not well understood. Titan tholins synthesized to simulate aerosols in the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan have also been used for simulating the NIR reflectances of several Centaurs and TNOs. Here, we report novel detections of large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nanoscopic soot aggregates and cauliflower-like graphite within Titan tholins. We put forth a proof of concept stating the surfaces of Centaurs and TNOs may perhaps comprise of highly ‘carbonized’ complex organic material, analogous to the tholins we investigated. Such material would apparently be capable of contributing to the NIR reflectances and to the low geometric albedos simultaneously.
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