Journal articles on the topic 'Saxophone with orchestra'

The article examines the characteristic features of the ensemble performance of Jean-Denis Michat’s Saxophone Concerto Shams by the American saxophonist Thomas Kurtz with an orchestra of saxophones. The article emphasizes the interpretative features of the performance and indicates that the special nature of the ensemble interpretation lies in the composition of the orchestra: 11 saxophones (from bass saxophone to soprano) instead of 11 string and wind instruments, which leads to a special artistic reading and performance of the work. The article argues that combining a solo saxophone part with the accompaniment of an ensemble of saxophones is carried out due to the related timbral sound and specific saxophone touches, which creates a new sound of the Concerto and emphasizes its unique flavor. The search and reproduction of modern means of musical expressiveness and imitation of the manner of virtuoso playing characterizes the modern stage performance practice of a saxophonist. From the perspective of forming a modern instrumental performance style, this concert significantly contributes to enriching and embodying instrumental music’s artistic and symbolic world, strengthening its dramatic nature and enhancing the thematic content. The features of the style of ensemble concert performance of the 21st century are exciting reading for a modern saxophonist. These are, first of all, technical complexity, emotional expressiveness, and concert brightness.

The purpose of scientific article is studying of the definite reasons, particular preconditions in relation to increasing the quantity of original compositions for saxophone with wind orchestra in academic musical-performing art in the period of the 20th – the beginning of the 21st centuries. The round of methods concerning this scientific investigation is delineated, first of all, by historical approach, which stipulated by marking of the wide period regarding academic art of saxophone playing, a namely by the frames of the 20th – the beginning 21st centuries. The comparative method is also applied by author in this work for the possibility as touching the detection of certain differences into academic masterpieces for saxophone with wind professional orchestra by various composers and culturally historical periods. The structurally analytical and generalizing methods of the research are used by investigator for making of determined sequence in reference to exposition of scientific material and implementation of conclusions as well as the prospects relatively further exploration of the noted theme. The scientific newness of the represented disquisition is postulated by absence of the process comparatively studying by scholars of the reasons, preconditions concerning writing of the original academic compositions for saxophone with wind orchestra as well as by lack of the specialized works, which were dedicated to the revealing of the phenomenon regarding establishment of the academic saxophone repertoire in the European professional music of the 20th – the beginning of the 21st centuries. Conclusions. The historical process relatively the development of academic masterpieces for saxophone with wind orchestra was observed by author in this investigation. The reasons for essential activity of composers’ interest to a saxophone and, as a result, appearance of the various original academic compositions for saxophone with wind orchestra are hiding into the impetuous improvement of the saxophonists’ professional performing mastery, which is beginning from the middle of the 20th century. The saxophone conquers the confession on the academic musical stage and becomes the most requested for contemporary audience because it is the youngest academic professional wind instrument.

The leading research topic in this article is the analysis of the specifics of the development of saxophone art in a symphony orchestra. The chosen problem requires the study of this direction from the perspective of a broader socio-historical context, within which it is possible to identify special signs of musical culture, both in the general context and in individual genres. In this vein, the study of saxophone music in a symphony orchestra allows us to outline, firstly, the origins of the origin of interest and the introduction of a special instrument into the cultural panorama, secondly, to trace the ways and impulses of its spread, and thirdly, to find out the problems of the saxophone as part of a symphony orchestra. In order to fully understand its special place in the cultural continuum of a certain place and epoch, music for the saxophone should be considered not just as a specific artifact that has been embodied in creativity, performance, education, but as a multi-level and three-dimensional concept in the musical art of the XIX-XXI centuries. The disclosure of the role of the saxophone as part of a symphony orchestra in the article is not just carried out through the prism of the representation of a certain number of facts, names, events, and can be traced as the correspondence of the development of the instrument to those historical, political, socio-economic and, above all, cultural and artistic processes that have formed a kind of creative reinterpretation of one of the most popular modern instruments. The purpose of the study is to substantiate the genesis, development trends and the current state of saxophone art in general, as well as, in particular, in the composition of a symphony orchestra. In the study, the author focuses on iconic performers and teachers, whose personal achievements in the field of concert, research and musical and social activities had a significant impact on the formation of the saxophone as part of a symphony orchestra.

The text examines Ivan Brkljačić's most recent orchestral work entitled: Love!-Saxophone Concerto, composed in 2018 as commissioned by the Belgrade Philharmonic. Love! was chosen as a universal theme, but also as the moving force behind the composer's personal and creative life. The composition corresponds to the stylistic expression that is characteristic of Brkljačić. His contemporary musical language is complemented by his own quotes and unequivocal references to popular, primarily rock music, but also to pop, jazz, and other genres that have formed his artistic persona. This work will remain chronicled as the first performed concert for saxophone and symphony orchestra in the history of Serbian music.

Statement of the problem. Creativity for saxophone by the French composer Pierre-Max Dubois (1930-1995) reflects in its sound palette many style tendencies of music art of the twentieth century. A student of D. Milhaud, he inherited from his teacher the desire for vivid character and imagery of music, which were achieved by various artistic possibilities of modern musical styles and trends. For the saxophone, he wrote such compositions as Characteristic pieces in the form of a suite, Quartet, Divertissement, Sonata and Concerto for saxophone and string orchestra which is quite relevant for the repertoire of the modern saxophonist. Taking into account specific features of the author’s style of P. Dubois, the performer faces the problem of mastering a number of technical and artistic expressive techniques aimed at revealing the figurative content of the piece. For a contemporary performer, the awareness of style components of P. Dubois’ music, which make up the logic of the performance interpretation, is of particular importance. These are the main aspects of work at this composition in the class of saxophone. Analysis of recent publications on the topic. Saxophone performance is considered in many publications, including those written by the author of this paper. However, there are very few works related to the study of P.-M. Dubois’ creative work, and all of them are bibliographic or encyclopedic in nature. Therefore, the analysis of compositions by P.-M. Dubois seems relevant. The purpose of the study is to develop methodology guidelines on search for performance interpretation of Concerto for Saxophone and String Orchestra by P. Dubois. Presentation of the main research material. The Concerto for Saxophone and String Orchestra by P. Dubois was written in 1956 and was a striking embodiment of the instrumental style of the French composer. Adhering generally to traditional ideas about instrumental genres, P. Dubois greatly expands the sound palette of his works and develops the expressive capabilities of the saxophone. As a student of the famous and one of the most extravagant representatives of the French "Group of Six" – D. Milhaud, P. Dubois in many ways inherits the principle of distinctness of musical language and bright, expressive musical and artistic imagery. P. Dubois’ concerto is a traditional three-part cycle, built on the principle of contrasting extreme fast and medium slow parts, which in the overall contexture of the composition are very different in their imaginative content and musical language. Highlighting the stylistic origins of music of the Concerto, the composer is obviously focused on artistic principles of such musical directions as neoclassicism, impressionism-symbolism and expressionism. Conclusions of the study. From the viewpoint of performance, works for saxophone by P. Dubois have undoubted merits. They are instrumental in nature, written in the light of instrumental specificity, though not without technical and imaginary difficulties. Summarizing the analysis of the Concerto for the saxophone by P. Dubois, it can be argued that this piece clearly fits into the artistic context of the development of French music in the second half of the twentieth century, since it reflects the process of synthesizing various style complexes in the original author’s concept. 1. Concerto for Saxophone and String Orchestra by P. Dubois is an original interpretation of the concerto genre in the context of French music of the second half of the twentieth century. Preserving national traditions of instrumental thinking – programmability, genre, beauty of the timbre palette – P. Dubois enriches the musical language of his work significantly and freely interprets the compositional structure of the concerto (the ratio of form sections, their scales, cadence at the very beginning of the sonata allegro, "removed" thematic contrast and a departure from conflict dramaturgy). On the whole, we can speak of a shift from the sonata form and priorities of the variative development of the musical thematism. 2. In identifying the stylistic origins of the Concert’s music, the composer’s focus on artistic principles of such musical directions as neoclassicism, impressionism-symbolism and expressionism are evident. Moreover, each of these style complexes is as if personified in a specific author’s "manner", causing reminiscence with the music of D. Shostakovich, S. Rachmaninov, P. Hindemith, M. Ravel. Such a “multicomponibility” of the Concerto style introduces the multifaceted nature of the musical language of the piece and assigns the performer the task of differentiating expressive means – mainly the timbre palette and articulation technique. The prospect of further study of the topic is related to the performance analysis of other works by P. Dubois for saxophone, comparison of interpretations made by contemporary prominent artists.

The purpose of this scientific article is in determination of specialized reasons, relatively reduced concerning decreased composers attention to concert-solo academic saxophone performing in the creation of Ukrainian professional authors. The methodology of research is represented by historical method, which is conditioned by maximally wide period of academic art playing saxophone exactly the time of middle of the 19th – the beginning of the 21st centuries. The comparative method is also used by researcher in the article, as segment of methodological instruments regarding detecting of the differences between solo saxophone masterpieces by Ukrainian and foreign composers. The structurally-analytical and generalizing methods are used for making sequence of exposition of scientific material and approving conclusions and also the outlooks of studying of denoted subject. The novelty of scientific research is defined by absence of treatment of the scientists to cause-problem reasons of the decreased attention Ukrainian composers into sphere of contemporary academic concert-solo saxophone performing. The novelty of this article is also delineating remained scarcely explored masterworks for saxophone of Ukrainian composers exactly Sonata for saxophone with piano accompaniment by V. Falkova and piece „In the morning from the high castle” for saxophone solo by Z. Kovpak. Conclusions. The cause-consecutive preconditions, reasons of decreased composer’s attention to concert-solo academic saxophone performing in the creation of Ukrainian authors are determining as historical conditionality, specifically by facts appearance of saxophone family with their ensemble-orchestra nature functioning, and absence composer’s practice from the side of famous saxophonists-players. Among the reasons of low number of domestic solo musical works for saxophone are the low level of creative communication artistic creative communicability of artist with native composers.

The concerto evidently appeals to HK Gruber, as symphonies do not. He has so far written four works that are unambiguously in this form: ‘…aus schatten duft gewebt…’, a concerto for violin and orchestra of 1977–8; the concerto for percussion and orchestra Rough Music (Rauhetöne) of 1982–3; Nebelsteinmusik, for solo violin and string orchestra, of 1988; and the Concerto for Cello and Chamber Orchestra of 1989. Ambiguous examples of the form are his early Concerto for Orchestra (1960–64) – concertos for orchestra are by definition ambiguous – and Frankenstein!!, his ‘pan–demonium’ (rather than ‘concerto’) for baritone chansonnier and orchestra (on children's rhymes by H.C. Artmann), finalized in 1977. Then there are four works which remain in manuscript (withdrawn from circulation): Concerto No. l for flute, vibraphone, xylophone and percussion (1961); Concerto No. 2 for tenor saxophone, double bass and percussion (1961); ‘furbass’ for double bass and orchestra; and an unsatisfactory forerunner of the violin concerto, Arien (1974–5). The symphony he has not touched; and one is tempted to see in this reliance on solo/ensemble confrontation an attempt to hold together the self–splintered, all too globally diversified language of the late 20th century by an eloquent soloist's sheer persuasiveness, by musical force, so to speak, the soloist being dramatized as a kind of Atlas. In the same way Gruber's recourse to popular songs and idioms of ‘light music’ in these works can seem like a desperate attempt to find a tonal prop and sanction for a language so pervasively threatened by tone–deafness and gobbledygook.

It is shown that a gold-plated device mounted on a tenor saxophone, forming a small bridge between the mouthpiece and the S-bow, can change two characteristics of the radiated sound: (1) the radiated acoustic energy of the harmonics with emission maxima around 1500–3000 Hz, which is slightly reduced for tones played in the lower register of the saxophone; (2) the frequency jitter of all tones in the regular and upper register of the saxophone show a two-fold increase. Through simulated phase-shifted superimpositions of the recorded waves, it is shown that the cancellation of acoustic energy due to antiphase superimposition is significantly reduced in recordings with the bridge. Simulations with artificially generated acoustic waves confirm that acoustic waves with a certain systematic jitter show less cancelling of the acoustic energy under a phase-shifted superimposition, compared to acoustic waves with no frequency jitter; thus, being beneficial for live performances in small halls with minimal acoustic optimization. The data further indicate that the occasionally hearable “rumble” of a wind instrument orchestra with instruments showing slight differences in the frequency of the harmonics might be reduced (or avoided), if the radiated acoustic waves have a systematic jitter of a certain magnitude.

Abstract Instrument preferences of third and fifth-grade students (N = 90) were investigated for eight instruments commonly found in orchestra and band: flute, clarinet, saxophone, violin, cello, trumpet, French horn, and trombone. Participants were divided into two groups and asked to identify their favorite and least favorite instrument from a list of the eight instruments. One class each of third and fifth-grade students, Group A, listened to aural examples of the instruments and rated preferences for each instrument. The other two classes, Group B, rated pictures of each instrument. Overall ratings placed the eight instruments in the following order of preference: violin, flute, cello, saxophone, clarinet, trumpet, trombone, and French horn. A significant interaction between grade, gender, and instruments indicated little difference between genders in instrument preference at the third-grade level, but in fifth-grade, females preferred flute, violin, and cello more than males. No significant difference was found between the two methods of testing.

Surviving in an environment that seems to be not encouraging music performances for entertainment or for mental contemplation, Malaysian musicians have to strive very hard in order to earn a living. The situation gets worse when it comes to a particular group of musicians who have no choice but share the similar job opportunities. Apparently, the market is not offering enough opportunities for flautists compared to pianists and string instrument players. This eventually leads to a very competitive situation in both the performing and teaching scene. The time frame of this observation reaches back to the time between 2011 and 2016, a cut in cultural market matters caused by the last general election. By and large, watching pure instrumental performances is yet a new controversy for local audiences. This is the major reason stopping potential sponsors to support local arts though musicians have no way to showcase their passion for music without funding. The situation is more frustrating when focussing on flute performance alone as there is no commonly organised major flute event in Kuala Lumpur. For instance, "The Flute Festival in Malaysia" in 2007 was the first and only flute festival so far, in Malaysia. It was organized by the Japan Foundation, Kuala Lumpur (JFKL) together with The Kuala Lumpur Performing Arts Centre (KLPac), the Embassy of Japan and the Flute Festival in Malaysia Organizing Committee. The flute festival opened the eyes and ears of the local flute lovers by giving flute masterclasses, bringing in different kinds of flute brands and models for free trials on the spot and having a flute orchestra to perform. It consisted of 60 professional and amateur musicians from Malaysia, Japan and other countries, who came hoping to inspire each other and to purely enjoy flute music. Not to forget the famous saxophone ensemble from Japan, the “Mi-bemol Saxophone Ensemble” that gave a marvellous performance which was greatly inspiring Malaysian audiences of wind instruments. However, this also shows that flute performances alone might not get to stand resolutely in the local market.

<p><em>The main goal of the work</em> is to study the level of physical fitness of students of music specialties. The objectives of the study reflect the gradual achievement of the goal. It also gives the analysis of the static strength endurance of the muscles of the body <em>Methods of research</em>: analysis and generalization of data in literature, pedagogical methods of research (experiment, testing), methods of mathematical statistics. 154 students of the first and second year of the Vinnitsa School of Culture and Arts named after M. D. Leontovich participated in the pedagogical experiment. Such as students of the specialty “Music Art”, the specializations “piano, orchestra, string instruments” (violin, viola, cello, double bass); “Orchestral wind instruments and percussion instruments” (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, saxophone, horn, trumpet, trombone, tubo, percussion instruments), “folk instruments” (accordion, accordion, domra, bandura, guitar); “Vocal, choral conducting”. <em>Results</em><em>.</em><strong> </strong> It is noted that the level of work capacity, health status and occupations depends on the effectiveness of their physical education. It is possible to increase the effectiveness of the process of physical education of students through optimization and development of professionally important physical qualities. Student’s educational and further activity of the specialty "Musical art" provides an unpleasant work pose and peculiarities of the manifestation of physical qualities, which level of development depends on the effectiveness of professional activity. <em>Findings.</em> The estimation of indicators of the physical readiness of students with the use of battery tests, which characterize the static strength endurance of the muscles of the torso is evaluated. Evaluation of the students' physical fitness made it possible to determine the general tendency of significant deterioration of the indicators for the period of study. </p>

Objectives, methodology and innovation of the study. The research aim is to identify of specifics of the saxophone “image” in light of esthetical and communicative paradigms of jazz. The paradigmatic approach to the objects of musical composition, including the art of jazz, allows reviewing the most general aspects of its development, including varietal instrumental (in particular, saxophone) stylistics. The appearance and strengthening of the position of saxophone in jazz that took place in the first decades of the 20th century heralded the general flourishing of this type of instrumental art, elevating it to the level of the most in-demand ones in the public music practice. This article puts forward and proves the thesis that the course of evolution of saxophone in jazz – traditional (before bebop) and modern (after it) – has synchronized, in terms of esthetical and communicative features, with the general movement and the changes of its paradigms: from realistic and transitional (conventional-autonomous), in terms by Aleksandr Soloviev (1990) to radical-phenomenal. This study outlines, for the first time, the path of movement of jazz saxophone from collective (ensemble and orchestral) forms toward free improvisation in the spirit of esthetics of the newest free jazz, which does not rule out retrospection of former paradigms realized via the styles of outstanding jazz saxophone players: from Coleman Hawkins, Lester Young and Charlie Parker to John Coltrane, Ornette Coleman and Sonny Rollins. The results of the study. It was noted that the sound image of saxophone, distinguishable for a paradoxical combination of certain “sweetness” and extremely expression, turned out to be the most consonant with the stylistics of jazz instrumentalism, where a number of aerophones tested by European academic practice, such as trumpet, clarinet, trombone and other, appeared in a fundamentally new light. The sources of saxophone’s penetration into jazz were entertainment dancing genres that were popular both in Europe and in the United States at the turn of the 20th century. The solo practice of saxophone improvisation, typical for jazz, was not used back then. An ensemble featuring several saxophones was used either in dance orchestras or in jazz bands that appeared later (the first example is the sweet-band founded by Arthur Hickman in San Francisco in 1914). The ensemble practice helped bring saxophone to the leading positions in solo instrumental jazz concerting. The first virtuoso jazz saxophone players were representatives of Chicago school of the 1920s: Lawrence “Bud” Freeman, Sidney Bechet, Benny Carter, Joe Poston, Don Redman, Jimmy Strong and Frankie Trumbauer. Decades later, saxophone improvisations in swing style became an unalienable component of swing choruses, an example of which is the works by such outstanding musicians as Coleman Hawkins and Lester Young who prepared the ground for bebop with its free improvisations of original tunes (an example is the works by Charlie Parker). The article notes that the taking of front stage by an improvising saxophone player in esthetical and communicative aspect was reflected in the formation of a sort of object paradigms (according to A. Soloviev), the first among which were “realistic” ones based on the syncretism (inseparable unity) of musicians and listeners. The “interchangeability” principle applied there, when any participant of communication was poly-functional in terms of the ruling function (the examples include saxophone sweet bands of the 1920s, communicatively related to blues). The conventional-autonomous paradigmatics in saxophone jazz art began developing in the bebop era, which saw the appearance of a clear demarcation line between musicians and the audience. Saxophone improvisations of such musicians as Charlie Parker and his followers heralded formation of the saxophone concert style, which in many aspects is close to academic practice. “Phenomenologization” of saxophone jazz performance became a direct continuation of “autonomization”, walking off via the complete freedom from any stylistic norms (an example is the works and esthetics by Ornette Coleman with his “no any wave” principle). In these conditions, the esthetics of the complete “freedom from…” were joined by the radical demand for “otherness”, i.e. the quality of a unique order when a jazz musician shows something new, something that “never existed” before in almost every improvisation. However, as we know, anything “new” most often means well-forgotten “old”, which is reflected in saxophone jazz stylistics via the combination of the “free” and “fusion” principles. Jazz, including its saxophone version, went quite a long way of development, and along this way, its paradigms were not historical “milestones” per se, but rather logical principles potentially preserved in the memory of jazzmen who think in the language of their art. There is another important point: continuous struggle that took place (and which still takes place) between elite and mass culture, concerning the language of this art in which one can expect the appearance of the most diverse elements, from the improvisation techniques created by the traditional folk cultures towards the academic avant-garde esthetics and writing techniques marked as collage and polystylistics. Such a “splitting” in saxophone jazz stylistics allows to identify a whole complex of means and techniques mirroring esthetical-communicative paradigms of jazz in their separate and interrelated combination: 1) the “free” principle that has appeared within the framework of jazz “realism”; 2) the idea of dramatization typical for “conventions”; 3) the category of “freedom from…” denying previous paradigms but at the same time having direction toward genetic origins. Conclusions. The saxophone in jazz has gone through a rather complicated path of formation, but has retained the status of one of the “title” instruments symbolizing this art. Like jazz in general, its saxophone “branch” developed in line with a kind of aesthetic “splitting”, in which the instrument was thought as belonging to pop culture (pop jazz), then used as part of an elitist style close to academic avant-garde (free jazz). The path of the saxophone in jazz is traced in connection with aesthetically communicative paradigms, in the context of which the attitude to this instrument was formed among the jazzmen themselves and the public. In the early stages (“realistic” paradigms), the “pop” role of the saxophone was cultivated; then there was “autonomy”, the main feature of which was the selection of virtuoso soloists; under the latest phenomenological paradigms, saxophone art is divided into various stylistic movements, from folk and funk trends to complete freedom from any style standards in individual solo improvisations. The prospects for further research of this theme are seen in the study of individual styles and patterns of jazz saxophone improvisation, both “schoolish” (the paradigm of a particular school of saxophone playing) and “personal” (the work of leading jazz saxophonists). The stylistic approach will make it possible to single out and correlate the “general” and “individual” in the sound image of this instrument, which has become one of the personifications of modern music.

The article is devoted to the modern repertoire for saxophone – works of Russian and foreign composers of the 20th century, demonstrating the wide technical and expressive capabilities of the instrument. The work gives an overview of compositions, systematises the expressive articulation, techniques and methods of playing the saxophone used by composers of various schools, styles and directions from Glazunov to Birtwistle, analyses the scores for orchestras that include the saxophone. The purpose of the study is to establish a connection between new saxophone techniques that entered performing practice in the 20th century, expressive effects that enriched the expressive potential of the saxophone, and the creative use of the instrument by composers. The objectives of the study are tracing the path of the formation of the saxophone as a concert instrument, considering the early and modern repertoire, determining the reasons for the popularity of the saxophone in 20th century music and the factors that led to the expansion of the arsenal of its technical and expressive capabilities, as well as analysing the most famous compositions in terms of interpretation of the instrument and demonstration of its rich timbre palette. While jazz pieces for instrumental ensembles, including saxophone, and the performing technique of variety performers are widely covered in scientifi c literature, avant-garde opuses for saxophone remain unexplored in musicological work. This article attempts to correct the unjustly “indifferent” attitude of scientists to saxophone music of the 20th century.

The saxophone can be modified with alternative non-single-reed tone generators, including double and free reeds and brass-instrument mouthpieces. It can also be played as a rim flute on the neck, which is a known extended technique for the saxophone. Flutes differ fundamentally from the other tone-generator types as they do not act like a valve, and their flutes are so-called open-open resonator instruments, while reeds and the lips in brass instruments effectively close one end of the resonator. As a practical consequence, all open-close hole key combinations result in fundamentally different pitches known from the regular saxophone. The fact that the saxophone is conically shaped, while the flute is typically cylindrical or inverse conical, further complicates the matter. Approaches to playing the saxophone as flute using alternative fingering combinations will be discussed along with measures of pitch accuracy, timbral, and level balance. While the achievable range aligns with many orchestral wind instruments, complex cross-fingerings make it difficult to play fast chromatic lines. The large bore of the saxophone gives the flute sound a dark character, more like a Native American flute or shakuhachi than a Western concert flute or recorder.

Statement of the problem. Recent research and publications. The absence of works by European and Ukrainian scholars devoted to the study of style peculiarities of the opera «The Tempest» written by F. Martin, an outstanding Swiss composer of the 20th century, actualizes the need for its comprehensive research. Foreign musicology already has some experience in analyzing F. Martin’s works. In the studies of Ch. W. King (1990), S. Bruhn (2011), A. Corbellari (2021) we can find a biography of the composer and generalizations about his musical thinking. The memoirs of M. Martin (2009), the composer’s widow, explain some specific features of his creative process. R. Glasmann’s research (1987) reveals the essence of the Martins’ principle of “gliding tonality”. The author of this paper was the first in the national musicology to research F. Martin’s vocal and choral pieces in terms of their stylistic features and comparative interpretation (Kozyk, 2022 a, b). Objectives, methods, and novelty of the research. The purpose of the article is to define the phenomenon of F. Martin’s late style through a holistic analysis of interpretation of W. Shakespeare’s play in the opera “The Tempest” and the peculiarities of vocal and scenic embodiment of its characters. In the concept of the study, the analysis of the opera is offered as the embodiment of the best qualities of F. Martin’s late style. In Ukrainian musicology, this is the first experience of a holistic analysis of F. Martin’s opera. As research methods the principles of holistic analysis of the artistic content of the work (when studying its score) and comparative analysis (when determining the features of F. Martin’s vocal-scenic interpretation of W. Shakespeare’s characters) were used. Results and conclusion. “The Tempest” is one of F. Martin’s most inventive opuses, which synthesizes all the composer’s previous experience. All groups of characters have a clearly defined musical characteristic that helps to identify them even beyond their scenic embodiment. Thus, a group of noble Italians is characterized by various stylistic references that evoke associations with a certain historical era; comic characters are embodied through reliance on conversational dialogues and awkward songs; for lyrical characters, the composer chooses the sphere of lyric utterances. To characterize Caliban, the composer chooses a dodecaphonic series and the saxophone timbre, while for his opposite Ariel he introduces a dance with choral lines and a separate hidden orchestra, thus creating a sense of elusiveness and weightlessness of the air spirit. The composer uses the widest range of expressive means in the musical characterization of Prospero: there is off-pitch recitation, expressive melodic declaration, and extended ariosos. Such a multifaceted style of the opera is due to the multidimensionality of Shakespeare’s play. F. Martin managed to achieve the unity of stage and musical action, the equivalence of orchestral and vocal parts. Despite the fact that the style of “The Tempest” combines various techniques (dodecaphony, serial structures, polystylistics with quotations from different eras), the music is not perceived eclectically. All groups of the music characteristics are united by the composer’s individual method of writing (“gliding tonality”), which contributes to richness of F. Martin’s lyrical expression. Thus, the genre and stylistic complex of F. Martin’s opera represents the phenomenon of the late style as an expected regularity – the crown of the evolution of the composer’s thinking.

An essay on the modern history related to the domra has been offered in the light of the jubilee event – the 95th anniversary of the Department of Folk Instruments of Ukraine of Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I. P. Kotlyarevsky. The aim of the research is to assess the current state of the domra art in Kharkiv on the basis of systematization of scholarly and methodological materials. Among the tasks of the research there is a description of the activities of modern teachers-domrists, who represent the Kharkiv Domra School; to systematize historical periods and provide a generalization of the events of the modern history of the domra performance. The presentation of the main material requires the involvement of historiographical, biographical and systematic methods of modelling. The object of the research is academic folk-instrumental art; the subject is domra art in the cultural spacetime of Kharkiv. The material is the historiography of the modern domra research and the experience of concert-performing and pedagogical activities of the staff of the Department of Folk Instruments of Ukraine at Kharkiv National University of Arts named after I. P. Kotlyarevsky. The presentation of the main material. On the basis of historiography and systematization, an assessment of the events that have taken place in the domra performance and science over the past 20 years is provided. Historical periods in the system of higher education of Ukraine and personalities of domrists who played a significant role in the cultural life of Ukraine are identified. The current state of the domra performance, competition and festival events, methodological and pedagogical resources are highlighted. In the process of updating the repertoire of the domra players of the 21st century an important role belongs to the compositions of a large form accompanied by a symphony or folk orchestra, arrangements from the repertoire of other instruments (the flute, the violin, and the saxophone). The repertoire is traditionally based on original compositions by Kharkiv composers. Conclusions. We have provided essays on modern teachers who are the successors of prominent figures of the domra art of the Department of Folk Instruments of Ukraine at KhNUA named after I. P. Kotlyarevsky. The most complete list of recent data has not previously been provided. A characteristic feature of the new period in the history of the domra class is the involvement of promising young people in the work. Their achievements in the creative, scientific and organizational-educational plane are quite significant and form the foundation for the future glory of the domra performance.

The purpose of article is consist of opening processe concerning the development trends of the sonata genre for saxophone – a new generation instrument that emerged in the postclassical period, after the heyday of the sonata genre in the works of classical composers. This instrument entered the symphony and wind orchestras much earlier than the number of solo instruments, so sonatas for saxophone appeared only in the twentieth century. The material for the analysis was a sonata for saxophone by P. Craston, created in 1937. The research methodology is to apply an analytical method that provides a basis for a comprehensive analysis of the sonata and to identify traditional and innovative features. The scientific novelty of this work is to identify traditional and innovative features in the content and musical style of this P. Craston’s sonata. It is proved that these features arise in the context of new musical universals of the instrumental sonata genre in the twentieth century. The specifics of their transformation in the musical text and the content of the analyzed work are indicated. The scientific article proves that P. Crаston’s sonata combines the features of the traditional sonata cycle with the musical language and style characteristic of the art of the twentieth century, and is quite complex for ensemble performance. The saxophone part is characterized by increased complexity due to extreme mobility, a large number of virtuoso passages, the use of wide jumps from one register to another, the presence of long musical constructions. It is pointed out that the complexity of the saxophone part is due primarily to the fact that in America the performing school of saxophone playing, in comparison with other countries, occupied a leading position in the 30s. The conclusions indicate that in the twentieth century the sonata genre underwent significant changes that distanced it from the classical invariant, as a result of which the analyzed sonata for saxophone organically synthesized a whole set of different stylistic features.

Adolphe Sax invented the last widely spread orchestral wind instrument in 1846, and the saxophone has hardly changed since its inception. Also, outside of classical music, wind instruments have not evolved with very few exceptions in popular music, like the melodica. The latter was popular in the mid 20th century, because it was one of the cheapest instruments with a piano-style keyboard before mass-produced electronic keyboards. Since its inception, jazz drew from traditional orchestral wind instruments that were invented long before jazz came up. They were easily available as they were widely spread in military ensembles. This presentation looks into the factors that stalled the evolution of mainstream wind instruments during the 19th century, such as instrument affordability, practice habits, conservatory education practices, standardization, and cultural identification. While individual instrument makers and musicians continue to develop fundamentally new wind instruments, they no longer exceed experimental status. Instead, widespread innovations now focus on electronic and digital musical instruments.

Thisarticle offers a comprehensive overview of the “saxophonejazzimprovisation” phenomenon. It was noted that in the contemporary jazz studies, the components of this notion are, as a rule, not combined but studied separately. This work is the first study that proposes to combine them based on the textureandsyntaxparameters. For that purpose, a number of perceptions already developed in academic music studies have been corrected in this work, including the perception of the instrument’s textural style (A. Zherzdev), specifics of its reflection in improvisation, syntax as a “system of anticipations” (D. Terentiev), which has its own specifics in saxophonejazzimprovisation. Being one of the style “emblems” of jazz, saxophone combines the specifics and universalism of its aggregate sound, which makes its sound image communicatively in-demand. It was emphasized that the methodology and methodic of the topic presented in this work need to be concretized on the example of saxophone jazz styles, which offers prospects for further studies of this topic. The theory of jazz improvisation inevitably includes the question of instrument (instruments, voices) used to make it. At this point, we need to tap into information about the instrumental-type style (style of any types of music according to V. Kholopova) available in jazz practice in both of its historical forms: traditional and contemporary. Saxophone becomes one of the key objects of this study, being an instrument of new type capable of conveying the entire range of jazz intoning shades represented in such origins of jazz as blues, ballad, religious chants, popular “classical music”, academic instruments. To generalize, it is worth noting that information about saxophonejazzimprovisation is concentrated in two areas of study: organological (jazz instruments and their use: solo, ensemble, orchestral) and personal (portraits of outstanding jazz saxophonists made, as a rule, in an overview and opinionbased style). The historical path of saxophone as one of the most in-demand instruments of jazz improvisation was quite tortuous and thorny. The conservative public considered this instrument “indecent” and believed that its use in jazz does not meet the requirements of high taste (A. Onegger). It was emphasized that specifics of jazz saxophone sound indeed lay in the instrumentalization of expressive vocal and declamatory intonations originating from blues with its melancholy and “esthetics of crying”. It is manifested especially vividly, and with even greater share of shock value than in jazz, in the use of saxophone in rock music, which exerted reverse influence over jazz that gave birth to it (V. Ivanov). The timbre-articulatory diversity found in saxophone is identified when taking its organological characteristics out of the dialectics of the pair of notions “specifics – universalism”, where the deepening of the former (specifics) means overcoming thereof towards the latter, universalism (E. Nazaikinskyi). As a result, we have a textural style of saxophone based on melodic nature of this instrument, its specific timbre enriched by the influence of other instrumental sounds, including trumpet, piano, and later, electric guitar. Among the existing definitions of texture in music, there are three key, determinant parameters of the approach to the study of texture style of saxophone in jazz. The first of them is spatial-configurative (E. Nazaikinskyi), the second is procedural-dynamic (G. Ignatchenko), and the third is performance-based (V. Moskalenko). On aggregate, the textural style of jazz saxophone is defined in this article as the synthesis of the instrument’s “voice” and the “voice” of the improviser saxophonist. The former defines the typical in this style, and the latter defines the individual, unique. The specifics of texture in jazz, including saxophone jazz, are special, because this improvisation art does not have the component of final “finishing” of musical fabric. The formulas existing in saxophone jazz texture are divided into three types: specific (typical for jazz itself), specifized (stemming from the folklore and “third” layers), and transduction-reduction (according to S. Davydov, borrowed from the academic layer). The syntactic composition of saxophone jazz improvisation correlates by the textural one, taking the shape of textural-structural components (a term by G. Ignatchenko) – units of the first scaled level of the perception of form, which are related to the one and the other. The mechanism of anticipation – a forestalling perception of the next segment of the process of improvisation, and the intuitionallogical orientation of an improviser saxophonist toward the number “7” have great significance (E. Barban). Like in academic practice, syntax in jazz improvisation is built on the basis of “stability” and “instability” semantics (D. Terentiev), forming a complex system of paradigms and syntagmas (the former are typical for traditional jazz, the latter for contemporary one). The rules of jazz improvisation semantize, because the most important thing for a jazz musician is the process, not the result. At this point, the aspect of temporal distance from the “cause” to the “effect” becomes especially distinguishable: the farther they are from each other the less predictable improvisation becomes, and vice versa. The process of improvisation is largely structured by choruses, which represent sections of a form related to variant reproduction of a theme (standard theme or author’s theme). In addition, improvisation (including saxophone improvisation) may contain elements of general forms of sound used as the bridges connecting sections inside choruses.

AbstractThe present study sets out to analyze and to present the main aspects of composer C. Țăranu’s symphonic works in the 21st century. The fourteen symphonic works composed from 2005 to 2018 represent an important contribution to the contemporary symphonic landscape. Due to the extremely extensive material, I divided the work in two parts: in the first one, I presented the symphonic works with historical-cultural references and in the second part the concertante works for the saxophone and the symphonies themselves. To the diversity of chosen there themes corresponds an enormous variety of means of expression in which we detect the permanence of a complex post-serial “post-Enescian” language of synthesis of the most innovative compositional procedures of the 20th century, with essences of ancient Romanian or universal music. The conclusions include a synthesis of the strategies of musical dramaturgy, comprising common elements of language that configure composer C. Țăranu’s original, unique and unitary style in the seven symphonic works on display.

Opera Zora D., composed by Isidora Zebeljan during 2002 and 2003, and which was premiered in Amsterdam in June 2003, is the first Serbian opera that had a world premiere abroad. It is also the first Serbian opera that has been staged outside Serbia since 1935, after being acclaimed at a competition organized by the Genesis Foundation from London. Isidora Zebeljan was commissioned (granted financial backing) to compose a complete opera with a secured stage realization. The Dutch Chamber Opera (Opera studio Nederland) and the Viennese Chamber Opera (Wiener Kammeroper) were the co-producers of the first production. The opera was directed by David Pountney, the renowned opera director, while an international team of young singers and celebrated artists assisted the co-production. The opera was played three times in Amsterdam. Winfried Maczewski conducted the Amsterdam Nieuw Ensemble whereas Daniel Hoyem Cavazza conducted the Wiener Kammeroper on twelve performances. The Viennese premier of Zora D. opened the season of celebrations, thus marking the 50th anniversary of the Wiener Kammeroper. The libretto, based on the script for a TV film by Dusan Ristic, was co-written by Isidora Zebeljan, Milica Zebeljan and Borislav Cicovacki. Speaking of genre, the libretto represents a m?lange of thriller, melodrama and mystery, with elements of fiction. The opera consists of the prologue and seven scenes. The story, set in the present-day Belgrade, also goes back to the 1930?s and the periods interweave. The opera was written for four vocalists: the soprano, the baritone, and two mezzo-sopranos. The chamber orchestra has fifteen musicians. The story: One summer day in 1935, Belgrade poetess Zora Dulijan mysteriously disappears. Sixty years later, Mina, an ordinary girl from Belgrade, quite unexpectedly becomes part of an incredible story, which gradually unravels as time goes by. Led by a dream (recurring night after night, with some vague verses about poplar trees and contours of a mysterious woman with a silver scarf being all that Mina remembers) she sets out to solve the mystery that seems to haunt her for no apparent reason. Part of the secret is also an invisible force, which Mina uses to gradually piece together the story of a great love that was brutally brought to an end 60 years ago and now seeks fulfillment. At the same time, Vida, a woman in her 80s, who has just returned to Belgrade from a long exile, begins to feel tortured and haunted by ghouls from the past, the very same she has been trying to escape all those years. Mina, desperate to solve the mystery, and Vida, in search of final rest and redemption, meet to disclose to us the answer and tell us what really happened to Zora D. The leading characters of the opera, whose main attribute is illusiveness, undergo transformation that is something rarely found in opera literature. This quality of the characters and the story, as well as the absence of a real drama in the libretto, matches the specific idea of a contemporary opera. Unlike composers who insist on giving characters psychological quality, thus reducing their emotions to clich?s for reasons of clarity, Isidora Zebeljan demonstrates a need for a completely different type of opera. Her idea is to have an opera which focuses on the sensual exploits of music itself. This is the very type of opera sought after by Isidora Zebeljan. The first and most striking feature of her music is a very unique melodic invention. Opera Zora D. could be described as a necklace of thickly threaded music pearls. Microelements of the traditional music from Serbia (Vojvodina), Romania and the south of the Balkans give her melodies a very special quality. Those elements, however, have not been taken over in their entirety, nor do they exist in the form that would link this music to any particular type of folk music. Music elements of the traditional music, incorporated in the music expression of Isidora Zebeljan, provide additional distinctiveness and the colour, while being experienced as an integral part of Zebeljan?s creative being which carries within itself the awareness of the composer?s musical roots. Melodic elements of the opera expressed in such a manner give form to vocal parts, which require of performers great musicality and perfect technique without compromising the nature of their vocal expression. Specific chords with a diminished fifth, resulting from the use of folk music scales with augmented second, give the opera a distinct harmonic quality. The rhythmic and metric components of music are complex, naturally stemming from the melody and are characterized by a mixture of rhythms and changeable metrics. The rhythmic patterns of percussion are incorporated in the whole by parallel lining up of melodic and rhythmic layers, so that they produce sonorous multiplicity. Very often the rhythmic elements have characteristics of a dance. The chamber orchestra consists of flute (piccolo and alto), clarinet and bass-clarinet, saxophone (soprano and alto) bassoon, French horn, trumpet, harp, piano, percussion, and string quintet. By providing specific orchestration and coloring, Isidora Zebeljan manages to completely shift the real dramatic suspense from words to music particularly the orchestra, thus causing various emotional states to quickly change. Speaking of structure, the opera represents an infinite sequence of melodies. Although rarely, melodic entities have, in some places, the form of arias. There are no real recitatives in the entire opera. Each segment of the opera belongs to a corresponding melodic section of the stage that they are part of. The extraordinary quality of the music in Zora D. lies in the music surprise that it provides, which is an element of the composer?s language and style rarely seen in the music literature but is a symbol of a special talent. Emotional states are not merely evoked through particular musical clich?s, the unusual origin of which may be found in the exceptional parallel quality of states stemming from the very music. The listener, in his or her initial encounter with the music of the opera, will never hear dark and disconsolate music when tragic and dramatic happenings are taking place. Listening to the music will, however, help them feel the sound layer of the tragedy that is present in the offered sound. They will not follow it consciously but, instead, they will be leaded to the exact emotional stimulus that they will not be able to defy rationally. Such a music expression we call a music fiction. Artistic team involved in the first production of Zora D. has discovered a HVS technique, which helps shifting elements of scenography, from one set into the next, very efficiently and effectively. Isidora Zebeljan?s opera Zora D. represents a great success of Serbian music on the international scene, and undoubtedly the greatest success of Serbian opera. Her music liberates listeners from the compulsion of reflecting upon the content they are listening to. Instead, her music compels them to feel.

La démarche esthétique et sémantique, celle qui part à la recherche du sens de l'œuvre d'art, est l'une des plus difficiles, mais indispensable à sa compréhension profonde. Le niveau sonore, purement acoustique, n'est qu'une couche de surface, qui ne donne pas accès aux valeurs supérieures qu'incarne l'œuvre. Seule la recherche dans le plan sémantique, esthétique (au-delà du plan strictement stylistique qui concerne les paramètres techniques de la création) et, si nécessaire, au niveau herméneutique, peut clarifier les profondeurs de signification de chaque chef-d'œuvre. La situation architecturale du Concert pour saxophone et orchestre est similaire à celle de la fin du concert d'accordéon et d'ensemble solo, ce qui signifie que depuis le début de la dernière décennie du siècle dernier, Aurel Stroe avait finalisé cette nouvelle formule d'expression architecturale, créant au moins deux chefs-d'œuvre dans le sens analysé jusqu'à présent.

The article covers the modern composition of a brass band, the main musical instruments that make up performing groups; the features of sound, range, tessitura of traditional musical instruments. Attention is also paid to the peculiarities of brass band leadership and professional skills of the conductor. One of the main differences of a brass band is the possibility of its use outdoors. Its powerful and loud sound does not need to be amplified by various technical devices – microphones, etc. Therefore, this type of performance of wind music is used mainly to accompany the solemn processions of various kinds, as well as to perform dance music. The highest type of brass band is the "large mixed brass band", which has the ability to perform works of considerable complexity. The composition of the "large mixed brass band" has been characterised, first of all, by the introduction of three or four trombones, three parts of trumpets, four parts of horns. In addition, the "large mixed brass band" has a much more complete group of wooden wind instruments, consisting of three flutes (piccolo flute and two large flutes), two oboes, the English horn, a large group of clarinets with their varieties, two bassoons, contraphagot and saxophones. To provide low-register sounds, helicons are introduced into the "large mixed brass band" – a low-sounding brass instrument arranged in a circle. In the modern composition of the orchestra helicons are replaced by tubes. The effective functioning of the brass band and its management is a historically established process of a special kind of musical and creative activity, which includes constructive and technical inventions of musical instruments, skills and abilities of performance, effective management of the orchestra through professional, communicative and personal qualities of the orchestra leader (conductor).

Problem statement. Among Kharkiv composers, one of the significant places is occupied by Igor Kovach (1924–2003), a representative of the Kharkiv School of composers and Ukrainian musical culture of the 20th century. His works include music and stage, orchestra, concert, song, choral and literary-musical compositions, music for theatre performances, music for films and TV films. The creative legacy of Igor Kostyantynovych Kovach has a close connection with the children’s audience; it includes both instrumental music for young performers and theatrical music, where children from performers become listener, among them the fairy-tale ballets “The Northern Tale” and “Bambi”. The children’s music by I. K. Kovach did not receive proper consideration except for short newspaper essays and magazine notes, M. Bevz’s (2007) article devoted to children’s piano music. Thus, the problem of holistic study of children’s stage music by Igor Kovach still remains open. Objectives. The present article is devoted to the identification of musicalthematic, timbre-texture, genre-stylistic features, with the help of which the multifaceted figurative world of the ballet “Bambi” is embodied. The aim and the tasks of this research – to reveal the specifics of the figurative world of the fairytale ballet “Bambi” and to identify the musical means by which it is embodied. The role of the orchestra is established, the means of thematic characteristics of the characters are traced, and the peculiarities of the musical language stipulated by the requirements of the chosen genre are noted. Methodology. To achieve the aim we have used special scientific methods: genre, stylistic, intonation-dramaturgical and compositional ones. The presentation of the main material. The music for the fairy-tale ballet “Bambi” belongs to two authors: Igor Kovach and his son Yuri. The new features inherent in the sound palette are manifested in the instrumentation, where along with the usual composition of a modern symphony orchestra there are saxophones, rhythm- and bass-guitars, drums, which due to their timbres bring a sharp taste of emotional and behavioural looseness. Introducing the qualities of non-academic tradition into the academic orchestra, the authors, on the one hand, use them according to their origin, on the other – turn them into an organic part of the symphonic score. By making a “concession” to pop music, simplifying harmonious language, freeing it from the extreme manifestations of expanded tonality, bringing it closer, on the one hand, to classical-romantic, on the other – to jazz, Igor Kovach showed his inherent sense of modernity, “address quality” of creativity. Conclusions. Thus, the fabulous multifaceted world of “Bambi” is revealed in the ballet owing to the bright thinking and language of the composer. The action of the ballet takes place against the background of bright genre sketches, which are as if immersed in the very density of life. This impression arises due to the dynamics of rhythms, colourful orchestration, and a variety of styles, addressed to the sound world of today. Generalized intonations of academic art organically coexist with the turns of song quality of different origins, dance quality, march quality, jazz improvisations, which was facilitated by the co-authorship with Yuri Kovach.

The purpose of the research is to determine the historical ties between Sweden and Ukraine, which allows the analysis of the Concerto for saxophone and string orchestra by L.-E. Larsson to mark the distinctive national features that stand out against the background of the lyrical reserves of the Swedish and Ukrainian artistic parties. As a methodological basis, we put forward the intonation approach of the school of B. Asafyev in Ukraine, as it developed in the works of D. Androsova, O. Markova, O. Muravska, with emphasis on hermeneutic and stylistic-comparative analysis. The scientific novelty is determined by the primacy in highlighting the national characteristics of the Swedish composer's thinking in comparison with the achievements of the composer's output of Ukraine, as well as the fact that, for the first time in the musicology of Ukraine and China, the Saxophone Concerto of L.-E. Larsson became the subject of musicological analysis. Conclusions. The memory of the historical conditioning by the Byzantine grounding of the culture of Kyivan Rus and Viking-Varyangs of the future Sweden, the contacts of the Ukrainian Cossacks and Sweden of the 17th century allows us to trust the lyrical and melodic coincidences in the musical expressions of Sweden and Ukraine, of which the former stands out from the Scandinavian environment by its credibility to the popular sphere and to the academicism of professional-composer expression. Analysis of Concerto for saxophone with string orchestra by L. - E. Larson, performed for the first time in Ukrainian and Chinese musicology, testified to the prominence of national features of the Swedish master's expression precisely in the academic lyricism of thinking, which stands out against the background of the clear correlation of his composition with the achievements of H. Mahler and J. Sibelius. Key words: concert genre in music, style in music, national style, historical traditions and music, Swedish music, Ukrainian music.

The purpose of the research is to understand the stylistic quality of A. Waingnein's Rhapsody in the direction of the musical-instrumental specificity of the post-post-avant-garde stage of music, which we call "new academicism" within the post-avant-garde stratum of creativity. As a methodological basis, we put forward the intonation approach of the B. Asafiev school in Ukraine, as it developed in the works of D. Androsova, O. Markova, O. Muravska, with an emphasis on hermeneutic and stylistic-comparative analysis, as well as relying on the developments of the post-post-avant-garde in works Drozdovskyi, I. Navoieva, and others. Scientific novelty is determined, firstly, by the primacy in Ukrainian and Chinese musicology of the analysis of the named work by A. Waingnein, and secondly, by the originality of theoretical conclusions regarding the "new academicism" within the framework of post-avant-garde stylistics. Conclusions. The post-post-avant-garde stage of the development of art from the 2000s to the 2010s emphasises, despite the playful stylistic eclecticism of post-avant-garde creativity, the revival of the pathos beginning indicative of classical art, which tends to put forward the popular layer as a pathos-accentuation of expression in the work. Waingnein's academic approach unfolds the traditionalist stylistic dimensions inherited from the last century, emphasising as culminating "surges" (the absence of dramatic antitheticity in the composition "relieves" the tension of the dramaturgically essential) genre fragments of the work's thematics, which have been tested by the popular musical layer. Keywords: musical genre, style in music, rhapsody, post-avant-garde, "new academicism", musical instrumentalism.

Käesolev Eesti hilisstalinismiaegset džässi käsitlev artikkel väidab, et dualistlik mudel avalik/privaatne on ebapiisav džässi kui kultuurilise praktika mõistmiseks nõukogude ühiskonnas ning vaatleb kultuuri toimivana kolmes sotsiaalses ruumis – avalikus, mitteformaalses avalikus ja privaatses. Avalikus riigipoolse kontrolli all olevas sfääris eksisteeris džässikultuur avalikus meedias ja riiklike džässorkestrite tegevuses. Mitteformaalses avalikus kultuuriruumis tegutsesid džässmuusika huvilistest koosnevad amatöörorkestrid. Kõige privaatsemana, avalikkuse eest suhteliselt varjatud kujul arenes džässikultuur fanaatikutest sõpruskondade seas, kes muusikat kuulasid ja selle üle teoretiseerisid; samuti oli privaatne muusikaliste oskuste omandamine mitteformaalse õppimise kaudu. The article aims to discuss the significance of jazz culture in Estonia during the late Stalinist era. In order to explicate the functioning of jazz as a cultural practice, the private/public division is employed while it is suggested that employing a ternary typology in which culture is seen as functioning in the public, the informal public and the private cultural spaces are best suited for conducting the analysis. The division makes it possible to: (1) show how jazz as a cultural practice functioned in Soviet sociocultural space; (2) to approach jazz culture as a whole, simultaneously creating a differentiation between different forms of jazz as a cultural practice; (3) to determine to which extent Soviet power succeeded in the regulation/ideologisation of jazz culture; and (4) to avoid a dualistic mode of thought that would oppose the private and the public.Jazz culture existed in two forms in the state-controlled public sphere. One of them comprised the discourse of public media and the other consisted of state jazz orchestras. The discourse of public media is discussed on the basis of the articles that were published on the topic of jazz in the cultural weekly Sirp ja Vasar (Hammer and Sickle). It is in the journalistic discourse that the dynamics of the anti-jazz activities of the state authorities of the late Stalinist era appear as the most obvious; jazz gradually disappeared from the public scene as the political climate changed. In journalistic coverage, jazz was primarily turned into a tool of the ideological battle with the West that was led by pro-Soviet rhetoric and stayed separate from the actual music scene.There were two state jazz orchestras during the period observed – the Jazz Orchestra of the Estonian State Philharmonic and the Jazz Orchestra of the Estonian Radio, and these functioned as part of the Soviet system of regulated and controlled cultural activities. The orchestras followed an all-Union pattern of institutionalisation according to which professional orchestras would be affiliated with local concert organisations and radio broadcasters. The sphere of activities of the orchestras was limited by their institutional affiliation. While the jazz orchestra of the philharmonic was a collective that mostly offered entertainment on all-Union concert tours, the Jazz Orchestra of the Radio was broadcast live twice a day in the 1940s. The orchestra reform that reflected the change in the ideological paradigm influenced the activities of both orchestras, bringing along changes in their names, repertoires and rosters.The amateur orchestras active in the informal public sphere belonged to a cultural scene that was relatively less strictly regulated in comparison with the public sphere. The activities of amateur orchestras were institutionalised as well – generally, they would be affiliated with an institution and were thus guaranteed space for rehearsals, some of the musical instruments and professional leadership. The orchestras were obliged to perform on state holidays and at events arranged by the host institution. Still, amateur collectives had a considerably greater freedom as concerned the organisation of their activities in the field of music. An important mode of activities was playing on dance nights; the moonlighting or haltura performances, as playing at dances was colloquially called by the musicians, constituted an important source of additional income for them. The activities of amateur orchestras were less strongly influenced by the changes related to the anti-jazz campaign of the late-1940s. Although obligatory ballroom dances were included, also “forbidden” pieces stayed in the repertoire; neither were saxophones excluded from among the orchestras’ instruments. Inventiveness, ritualization, humour and an ability to manoeuvre around in order to enact their musical goals were of vital importance in the daily lives of the musicians.The example of the collective named Swing Club can illustrate the activities of musicians in the private sphere – among a circle of friends who were musicians and jazz fanatics. In a society that was anything but supportive of jazz, a microenvironment was built up in order to gain new knowledge and hone the existing skills in which discussions of music took place and musical experiments were made. Under the circumstances of Soviet scarcity, Estonian musicians had no access to records and radio and were the primary source of music. It was with the help of the radio that information was obtained about the latest trends in music and new repertoire was acquired. The main method of learning music was imitation, which is a typical mode of learning in the practice of jazz.On the one hand, the ternary division of the private and the public enables us to see how jazz could exist in the Soviet sociocultural space; on the other hand, it makes it possible to approach jazz culture as a whole and speak of its different forms of manifestation. The journalistic discourse that traditionally should function as a reflection of and on the jazz scene rather turned into a mirror of the political situation under late Stalinism. Jazz became a tool in the battle against America and capitalism. As musical culture, jazz mostly appeared in two forms; as entertainment-oriented concert music and dance music. Considering the traditionally practical and theory-avoidant nature of both jazz as well as jazz musicians, Estonian jazz was exceptional due to the intellectualisation of the music in theoretical discussions. As an evidence of this tendency, the almanac of the Swing Club is a unique document that also deserves attention in a broader context of jazz history in general. Late Stalinism can be considered politically the most intolerant period in Estonian jazz history, when disappearance was immanent for the whole of jazz culture. Yet this did not happen, as also shown in the present article. Although jazz had been virtually obliterated from the state-controlled public sphere by 1950, it still survived on the more private, less controlled cultural scenes. The thoughts of Ustus Agur expressed in an interview concerning the activities of the Swing Club in the late 1940s and early 1950s can serve as proof of this:We were rehearsing underground in the very sense of the word. As luck would have it, the control was not strict and we never had to cross paths with the officials. The director of the Sakala House of Culture, Fred Raudberg, supported our activities. Although he was a communist and aware of what we were doing, he protected us and helped us to keep our activities in secret. And he was honest. He was red on the outside and white on the inside – ’a radish’ as we would say in those times.The situation in which jazz had disappeared from the public scene, yet lived on in private spaces can be referred to as a Soviet paradox. Aleksei Yurchak speaks of Soviet life as a paradoxical simultaneous existence of positive and negative values (Yurchak 2006: 10). In the case of jazz, we can figuratively speak of its simultaneous existence and non-existence – although jazz was forbidden, it could not be silenced.

My dissertation at the Department of Music Education and Culture at the University of West Bohemia is entitled “Milan Kostohryz. His contribution to music interpretation and pedagogy.” The dissertation focuses on an extraordinary musician, Milan Kostohryz (1911–1998), who had a significant impact on both the Czech and worldwide music community. He was highly professional, passionate, and meticulous, which was reflected in the wide scope of his activities. He was a reliable and sought-after player (in opera orchestras, chamber ensembles and as a soloist); a respected and successful teacher (almost all his students were successful in the field); an exceptional methodologist (he wrote a number of methodical articles and papers, which are relevant to this day); a researcher in the field of music history (he investigated the development of wind instruments in Czechia and revised dozens of old compositions). Many contemporary composers wrote works specifically for him, which he then premiered. Thanks to his extensive correspondence with dozens of music personalities all over the world, he contributed to several specialized international publications and was regularly invited to music conferences abroad (e.g. USA, Germany). His niche specialisation included official reviews of the quality of instruments (clarinets and saxophones) and mouthpieces available on the market at that time. He took part in the reconstruction of “Mozart’s basset clarinet” based on period sketches and built a working quarter-tone clarinet. His extensive interest in his field sets him apart from his contemporar - ies, many of whom were “just players”, rather than researchers. This dissertation is concerned mainly with his above-mentioned research. The principal resource for the research is an extensive written estate, with which I have been entrusted. It is currently deposited in the Czech museum of music in Prague (CMM). There are very few printed resources, as M. Kostohryz was not permitted to make substantial publications due to political reasons (see Bibliography).

Murray Forman’s text The ‘Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop provides insightful commentary on the workings of and relationship between place and space. To highlight the difference of scale between these two parameters, he writes that, “place defines the immediate locale of human interaction in the particular, whereas space is the expanse of mobile trajectories through which subjects pass in their circulation between or among distinct and varied places” (25). This statement reflects Doreen Massey’s earlier observation from her book Space, Place, and Gender that “one view of a place is as a particular articulation” of the spatial (5). These descriptions clarify how human action shapes, and is shaped by, what Forman describes as the “more narrowly circumscribed parameters” of place (25) and the broader realm of space. Clearly, these two terms describe interconnected components that are socially constructed and dynamic: that is, they operate at different scales but are constructed in time, constantly reshaped by human action and perception. “Space and time are inextricably interwoven,” states Massey. She continues: “It is not that the interrelations between objects occur in space and time; it is these relationships themselves which create/define space and time” (261). If place and space represent different scales of social interaction and space and time are interconnected, place and time must be linked as well.While this indicates that human experience and representation operate on different scales, it is important to note that these two factors are also interrelated. As Stuart Hall writes, “[I]t is only through the way in which we represent and imagine ourselves that we come to know how we are constituted and who we are” (473). There is no objective experience, only that which is subjectively represented through various means. Through depictions of these relationships between place, space, and time, rap music shapes listeners’ comprehension of these parameters. DJs, MCs, producers, and other creative artists express personal observations through the influence of both the local and global, the past and present. In rap lyrics and their musical accompaniment, countries, cities, neighbourhoods, and even specific government housing developments inform the music, but the identities of these places and spaces are not fixed – for the performers or for the audience. They are more than the backdrop for what happens, inanimate structures or coordinates of latitude and longitude. Their dynamic nature, and their representation in music, serves to continually redefine “how we are constituted and who we are” (473).In MC Solaar’s Léve-toi et Rap from his 2001 album Cinquième as and his song Nouveau Western, from 1994’s Prose Combat, this is demonstrated in two very different ways. Léve-toi et Rap, a personal history told in the first person, clearly demonstrates both American hip-hop lineage and the transnational influences of Solaar’s upbringing. This song serves as an example of the adoption of American musical and lyrical techniques as means through which personally empowering, often place-based stories are told. In Nouveau Western, the narrative demonstrates the negative effects of globalization through this story about a geographically and temporally transported American cowboy. This track employs musical materials in a way that reflects the more critical lyrical commentary on the repercussions of American cultural and economic power. Through the manner of his storytelling, and through the stories themselves, MC Solaar explicitly demonstrates his own agency in representing, and thus constructing the meaning of, dynamic place and space as they are defined from these two perspectives.As a Paris-based French rapper, MC Solaar often makes his affiliation to this geographic focal point significant in his lyrics. This is especially clear in Léve-toi et Rap, in which Parisian banlieues (HLM government housing projects), nightclubs, and other places figure prominently in the text. From the lyrics, one learns a great deal about this rapper and his background: MC Solaar was born in Senegal, but his parents brought him to France when he was young (MC Solaar, “Léve-toi et Rap”; Petetin, 802, 805). He grew up struggling with the isolation and social problems of the banlieues and the discrimination he faced as an immigrant. He began rapping, established a musical career, and now encourages others to rap as a means of making something constructive out of a challenging situation. In the excerpt below, MC Solaar explains these origins and the move to the banlieues (Solaar, “Lève-toi et rap;” All translations by the author).Lève-toi et rap elaborates on the connection between the local and global in rap music, and between place, space, and time. The lyrics and music represent these properties in part by appropriating American rap’s stylistic practices. The introductory chorus incorporates sampled lyrics of the American artists Lords of the Underground, the Beastie Boys, Nas, and Redman (Various Contributors, “‘Lève-toi et rap’ Direct Sample of Vocals/Lyrics,” whosampled.com.). A bassline originally recorded by the funk group The Crusaders grounds the musical accompaniment that begins with the first verse (partially printed above), in which MC Solaar begins to depict his own place and space as he has experienced it temporally.In this chorus, the first sample is “I remember way back in the days on my block” from Lords of the Underground’s song Tic-Toc. This leads to “Oh My God” and “Ah, Ah, Ah,” both samples from Q-Tip’s contribution to the Beastie Boys’ song Get It Together. “I Excel,” which appears in Nas’s It Ain’t Hard to Tell comes next. The last sample, “Who Got the Funk,” is from Can’t Wait by Redman (Lords of the Underground, “Tic-Tic;” Beastie Boys and Q-Tip, “Get It Together;” Nas, “It Ain’t Hard to Tell;” The Crusaders, “The Well’s Gone Dry”).Scratching begins the introductory chorus (printed below), which ends with a voice announcing “MC Solaar.” At this point, the sampled bassline from The Crusaders’ 1974 song The Well’s Gone Dry begins.[Scratching]I remember back in the days on my block... Lords of the UndergroundOh my God... Ah, Ah, Ah... Beastie Boys and Q-TipI excel… NasWho got the funk... RedmanMC Solaar[Crusaders sample begins] The rap samples all date from 1994, the year Solaar released his well-received album Prose Combat and most are strategically placed: the first sample originated in the last verse of Tic-Toc, the Q-Tip samples in the middle are from the middle of Get It Together, and the last sample, “I Excel,” is from the first line of It Ain’t Hard to Tell. As Lève-toi et rap continues, MC Solaar’s statement of the song title itself replaces the iteration “MC Solaar” of the first chorus. In a sense, “Lève-toi et rap” becomes the last sample of the chorus. Through these American references, Solaar demonstrates an affiliation with the place in which rap is commonly known to have originally coalesced. For French rappers consciously working to prove their connection to rap’s lineage, such demonstrations are useful (Faure and Garcia, 81-82). Achieved by sampling music and lyrics from 1974 and 1994 from sources that are not all that obvious to a casual listener, Solaar spatially connects his work to the roots of rap (Shusterman, 214). These particular samples also highlight a spatial relationship to particular styles of rap that represent place and space in particular ways. Nas and Lords of the Underground, for instance, have added to the discourse on street credibility and authenticity, while Q-tip has provided commentary on social and political issues. MC Solaar’s own story widens the parameters for illustrating these concepts, as he incorporates the personally significant places such as Senegal, Chad, and the Saint Denis banlieue to establish street credibility on a transnational scale; the lyrics also describe serious social and political issues, including the “skinheads” he encountered while living in Paris. Dynamic place is clear throughout all of this, as everything occurring in these places is meaningful in part because of the unavoidable relationship with the passing of time – Solaar’s birth, his upbringing, and his success occurred through his choices and social interactions in specific places.Looking more closely at the representation of place and time, Lève-toi et rap is less than straightforward. As discussed previously, some of the vocal samples are rearranged, demonstrating purposeful alteration of pre-recorded material; in contrast, the use of a repeated funk bassline sample during a clear narrative of Solaar’s life juxtaposes a linear story with a non-linear musical accompaniment. To this, MC Solaar made a contemporary textual contribution to later choruses, with the title of the song added as the chorus’s last line. Such manipulation in the context of this first-person narrative to express this movement supports the conclusion that, far from being a victim of political and economic forces, MC Solaar has used them to his advantage. After all, the title of the song itself, Lève-toi et rap, translates roughly to “get up and rap.”In addition to manipulating the materials of American rap and funk for this purpose, Solaar’s use of verlan, a type of slang used in the banlieues, brings another level of locality to Lève-toi et rap. The use of verlan brings the song’s association with French banlieue culture closer: by communicating in a dialect fluently understood by relatively few, rappers ensure that their message will be understood best by those who share the constellation of social and temporal relations of these housing developments (Milon, 75). Adding verlan to other slang and to unique grammatical rules, the rap of the banlieues is to some extent in its own language (Prévos, “Business” 902-903).Referring to MC Solaar’s 1994 album Prose Combat, André Prévos observed that this material “clearly illustrates the continuity of this tradition, all the while adding an identifiable element of social and personal protest as well as an identifiable amount of ‘signifying’ also inspired by African American hip-hip lyrics” (Prévos, “Postcolonial” 43). While it is clear at this point that this is also true for Lève-toi et rap from Cinquème as, Nouveau Western from Prose Combat demonstrates continuity in different way. To start, the samples used in this song create a more seamless texture. A sample from the accompaniment to Serge Gainsbourg’s Bonnie and Clyde from 1967 undergirds the song, providing a French pop reference to a story about an American character (Various Contributors, “Nouveau Western” whosampled.com). The bassline from Bonnie and Clyde is present throughout Nouveau Western, while the orchestral layer from the sample is heard during sections of the verses and choruses. Parts of the song also feature alto saxophone samples that provide continuity with the jazz-influenced character of many songs on this album.The contrasts with Lève-toi et rap continue with the lyrical content. Rather than describing his own process of acquiring knowledge and skill as he moved in time from place to place, in Nouveau Western MC Solaar tells the story of a cowboy named “Harry Zona” who was proud and independent living in Arizona, hunting for gold with his horse, but who becomes a victim in contemporary Paris. In the fabled west, the guns he carries and his method of transportation facilitate his mission: Il erre dans les plaines, fier, solitaire. Son cheval est son partenaire [He wanders the plains, proud, alone. His horse is his partner.]. After suddenly being transported to modern-day Paris, he orders a drink from an “Indian,” at a bistro and “scalps” the foam off, but this is surely a different kind of person and practice than Solaar describes Harry encountering in the States (MC Solaar, “Nouveau Western”).After leaving the bistro, Harry is arrested driving his stagecoach on the highway and shut away by the authorities in Fresnes prison for his aberrant behaviour. His pursuit of gold worked for him in the first context, but the quest for wealth advanced in his home country contributed to the conditions he now faces, and which MC Solaar critiques, later in the song. He raps, Les States sont comme une sorte de multinationale / Elle exporte le western et son monde féudal / Dicte le bien, le mal, Lucky Luke et les Dalton [The States are a kind of multinational”/ “They export the western and its feudal way/ Dictate the good the bad, Lucky Luke and the Daltons] (MC Solaar, “Nouveau Western”).Harry seems to thrive in the environment portrayed as the old west: as solitary hero, he serves as a symbol of the States’ independent spirit. In the nouveau far west [new far west] francophone comic book characters Lucky Luke and the Daltons sont camouflés en Paul Smith’s et Wesson [are camouflaged in Paul Smith’s and Wesson], and Harry is not equipped to cope with this confusing combination. He is lost as he negotiates le système moderne se noie l’individu [the modern system that drowns the individual]. To return to Bonnie and Clyde, these ill-fated and oft-fabled figures weren’t so triumphant either, and in Gainsbourg’s song, they are represented by 1960s French pop rather than by even a hint of local 1930s musical traditions. “Harry Zona” is not the only person whose story unfolds through the lens of another culture.While Solaar avoids heavy use of verlan or other Parisian slang in this song, he does use several American cultural references, some of which I have already mentioned. In addition, the word “western” refers to western movies, but it also serves as another term for the United States and its cultural exports. “Hollywood” is another term for the west, and in this context MC Solaar warns his listeners to question this fictional setting. Following his observation that John Wayne looks like Lucky Luke, “well groomed like an archduke,” he exclaims Hollywood nous berne, Hollywood berne! [Hollywood fooled us! Hollywood fools!]. This is followed by, on dit gare au gorille, mais gare à Gary Cooper [as they say watch out for the gorilla, watch out for Gary Cooper]. Slick characters like the ones Gary Cooper played have ultimately served as cultural capital that has generated economic capital for the “multinational” States that Solaar describes. As Harry moves “epochs and places,” he discovers that this sort of influence, now disguised in fashion-forward clothing, is more influential than his Smith and Wesson of the old west (MC Solaar, “Nouveau Western”).It is important to note that this narrative is described with the language of the cultural force that it critiques. As Geoffrey Baker writes, “MC Solaar delves into the masterpieces and linguistic arsenal of his colonizers in order to twist the very foundations of their linguistic oppression against them” (Baker, 241). These linguistic – and cultural – references facilitate this ironic critique of the “new Far West”: Harry suffers in the grip of a more sophisticated gold rush (MC Solaar, “Nouveau Western”).Lève-toi et rap transforms musical and verbal language as well, but the changes are more overt. Even though the musical samples are distinctly American, they are transformed, and non-American places of import to MC Solaar are described with heavy use of slang. This situates the song in American and French cultural territory while demonstrating Solaar’s manipulation of both. He is empowered by the specialized expression of place and space, and by the loud and proud references to a dynamic upbringing, in which struggle culminates in triumph.Empowerment through such manipulation is an attractive interpretation, but because this exercise includes the transformation of a colonizer’s language, it ultimately depends on understanding rap as linked to some extent to what Murray Forman and Tricia Rose describe as “Western cultural imperialism” (Rose, 19; Forman, 21). Both Rose and Forman point out that rap has benefitted from what Rose describes as “the disproportionate exposure of U.S. artists around the world,” (Rose, 19) even though this music has provided an avenue through which marginalized groups have articulated social and political concerns (Rose, 19; Forman 21). The “transnational circulation of contemporary culture industries” that Forman describes (21) has benefitted multinational corporations, but it has also provided new means of expression for those reached by this global circulation. Additionally, this process has engendered a sense of community around the world among those who identify with rap’s musical and lyrical practices and content; in many cases, rap’s connection to the African diaspora is a significant factor in the music’s appeal. This larger spatial connection occurs alongside more locally place-based connections. Lève-toi et rap clearly manifests this sense of simultaneously negotiating one’s role as a global citizen and as an individual firmly grounded in the place and space of local experience.Even though rap has been a music of resistance to hegemonic social and economic forces for people around the world, it is nonetheless important to recognize that the forces that have disseminated this music on a global scale have contributed to the unequal distribution of wealth and power. Working within this system is almost always unavoidable for rappers, many of whom criticize these conditions in their music, but depend on these transnational corporations for their success. Paul A. Silverstein writes that “hip-hop formations themselves, while enunciating an explicit critique of both state interventionism and the global market, have directly benefited from both and, to be sure, simultaneously desire their end and their continuation” (47-48). This is very clear in Nouveau Western, which Silverstein writes “portrayed neo-liberalism as a ‘new Far West’ where credit cards replace Remingtons.” (48) That this critique has reached a large audience in the francophone world and elsewhere highlights the irony of the situation: under the current system of popular musical production and circulation, such material often must reach its audience through complicity with the very system it denounces. This view on the mixture of the local and global presented in these songs illustrates this confusing situation, but from another perspective, the representation of social interaction on varying scales connects to the factors that have contributed to rap since its inception. Local places and geographically broad spatial connections have been articulated in constantly changing ways through musical and lyrical sampling, original lyrical references, and the uses that creators, listeners, and the industry enact vis-à-vis global rap culture. Whether revealed through clear references to American rap that facilitate a personal narrative or through a more complicated critique of American culture, MC Solaar’s songs Lève-toi et rap and Nouveau Western expose some accomplishments of a French rapper whose work reveals personal agency both outside and within the “multinational” United States. ReferencesBaker, Geoffrey. “Preachers, Gangsters, Pranksters: MC Solaar and Hip-Hop as Overt and Covert Revolt.” The Journal of Popular Culture 44 (2011): 233-54.Beastie Boys and Q-Tip. “Get It Together.” Ill Communication. Grand Royal Records, 1994. CD.Faure, Sylvia, and Marie-Carmen Garcia. “Conflits de Valeurs et Générations.” Culture Hip Hop Jeunes des Cités et Politiques Publiques. Paris: La Dispute SNÉDIT, 2005. 69-83. Forman, Murray. “Space Matters: Hip-Hop and the Spatial Perspective.” The ‘Hood Comes First: Race, Space and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop. Middletown: Wesleyan UP, 2002. 1- 34. Hall, Stuart. “What Is This ‘Black’ in Black Popular Culture?” Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies, Edited by David Morley and Kuan-Hsing Chen. London: Routledge, 1996. 465-475. Lords of the Underground. “Tic-Tic.” Keepers of the Funk. Pendulum Records, 1994. CD.Massey, Doreen. Space, Place and Gender. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota Press, 1994. 19-24.Milon, Alain. “Pourquoi le Rappeur Chante? Le Rap comme Expression de la Relégation Urbaine.” Cités 19 (2004): 71-80.MC Solaar (Claude M’Barali). “Lève-toi et rap.” Cinquème as. Wea International, 2001. CD.———. “Nouveau Western.” Prose Combat. Cohiba, 1994. CD.Nas. “It Ain’t Hard to Tell.” Illmatic. Columbia Records, 1994. CD.Petetin, Véronique. “Slam, Rap, et ‘Mondialité.” Études 6 (June 2009): 797-808.Prévos, André J.M. “Le Business du Rap en France.” The French Review 74 (April 2001): 900-21.———. “Postcolonial Popular Music in France.” Global Noise: Rap and Hip-Hop outside the USA. Ed. Tony Mitchell. Middletown: Wesleyan UP, 2001. 39-56. Rose, Tricia. Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. Middletown: Wesleyan UP, 1994.Shusterman, Richard. “L’Estitique Postmoderne du Rap.” Rue Deseartes 5/6 (November 1992): 209-28.Silverstein, Paul A. “‘Why Are We Waiting to Start the Fire?’: French Gangsta Rap and the Critique of State Capitalism.” Black, Blanc, Beur: Rap Music and Hip-Hop Culture in the Francophone World. Ed. Alain-Philippe Durand. Oxford: Scarecrow Press, 2002. 45-67. The Crusaders. “The Well’s Gone Dry.” Southern Comfort. ABC/Blue Thumb Records, 1974. CD.Various Contributors. “‘Lève-toi et rap’ Direct Sample of Vocals/Lyrics.” whosampled.com.———. “‘Nouveau Western’ Direct Sample of Hook/Riff.” whosampled.com.Various Contributors. “MC Solaar – ‘Lève-toi et rap’ Lyrics.” Rap Genius.