Journal articles on the topic 'Scandinavian Poets'

Abstract The Hungarian literary translator Henrik Hajdu (1890–1969) was one of the most extraordinary persons in the history of translating Scandinavian literature into Hungarian. Aside his activity as a translator from Norwegian and Swedish, Hajdu was also an important promoter of Danish authors of the 19th and 20th century. He held lectures on Nordic culture and literature, wrote reviews in prominent Hungarian journals and maintained regular contact to many of the Scandinavian publishers, writers, dramatists and poets. He translated novels by Henrik Pontoppidan, Martin Andersen Nexø and Sigrid Undset, made an edition of Ibsen's complete works and a great amount of short stories and poems. His oeuvre numbers about a hundred separate publications. This paper focuses on how he contributed to the general acceptance and reception of Danish literary works written between 1850 and 1930 among the Hungarian readers.

AbstractThis paper investigates the reception history of the Danish Poet and fairytale writer Hans Christian Andersen in 19th-century Germany and its influence on his (auto)biographical depiction. Like many Scandinavian poets, Andersen discovered Germany’s literary potential and took advantage of it to further his career. In most cases, he was pictured as a genius who suffered systematic underestimation in Denmark. This narrative which determined his reception plays a central role in his German autobiography Märchen meines Lebens (Fairy Tale of my Life). Analyzing Andersen’s autobiographical discourse, I will reconstruct the process of the construction of Andersen’s (auto)biographical myth, emphasizing translation’s role in shaping autobiographical narratives.

The 19th century in Sweden, like in many other European countries, saw a large decline in the quantity of Neo-Latin literary production. However, a range of skillful Latin poets may be named from this period: Johan Lundblad, Johan Tranér, Emil Söderström, Johan Bergman and others, engaged as well in translating from Swedish into Latin as in composing poems of their own. It was also in the 19th century that the longest Latin poem ever written in Sweden came out – “De diis arctois libri VI” by Carl Georg Brunius (1792–1869), remarkably neglected by the scholars, although it was published twice during the lifetime of its author (1822 and 1857). The subject of the poem fits perfectly in the intellectual movement of the period, namely national romantic interest in the Nordic antiquities. The six books represent a summary of Eddaic mythology from the creation of the Universe until the Ragnarök. Brunius’ admiration for the Scandinavian Middle Ages is apparent; later it turned out to be productive in architecture, the field in which Brunius is most remembered nowadays. Brunius does not seek to turn Scandinavian gods into Greek ones. He accurately follows his sources (both the prosaic and, to a somewhat smaller extent, the poetic Edda) in content, sometimes even in wording. However, it should be born in mind that the writer was a classicist by his education. Although many compositional traits of ancient epos are lacking in the poem, it is full of the allusions to classical authors at the phrasal level. Some of them are formulaic verse elements, others deliberate and exquisite quotations. It is this elegant combination of close adherence to the sources with the use of the ancient authors (Virgil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace) that the paper is mainly focused on.

AbstractDuring Cnut’s two decades on the throne, his English court was the most vibrant centre in the North for the production and performance of skaldic praise poetry. Icelandic poets composing for earlier Anglo-Saxon kings had focused on the predictive power of royal ‘speaking’ names: for example, Æthelstan (‘Noble-Rock’) and Æthelred (‘Noble-Counsel’). The name Cnut presented problems, vulnerable as it was to cross-linguistic gaffes and embarrassing associations. This article reviews the difficulties faced by Cnut’s skalds when referring in verse to their patron and the solutions they devised. Similar techniques were used when naming other figures in the king’s vicinity. The article concludes with a look at two cruces in an anonymous praise poem celebrating Cnut’s victory in battle in 1016/17 against the English. Both onomastic allusions — to a famed local hero and a female onlooker — seem to poke fun at the ‘colonial’ pronunciation of Danish names in Anglo-Scandinavian England. Norse court poetry was nothing if not a combative game.

The poet and artist Öyvind Fahlström (1928–1976) was the leader of the Scandinavian avant-garde during the fifties and the beginning of the sixties. He wrote his only collection of poetry Bord [Tables] in 1952–1955, but it was not published until 1966. In this book he applies the aesthetic ideas of his two manifestos – signification is what matters in poetry but signification emanates out of the visual materiality of letters and the sounds of speech. Bord contains advanced visual poetry as well as sound poetry. We may notice that the same tools for description and analysis can be utilized for both these modalities, something that can be explained with the help of gestalt psychology and the image schemas of cognitive poetics.Fahlström’s poem “Den svåra resan” [“The hard journey”] is a three-pages score for speech choir and a beautiful visual poem as well. A harmonious, strict picture contrasts to the turbulent sounds. What you see and what you hear express different moods and supply different significations.The printed picture of elder free verse typically has a straight left margin and a wavering right one. After Fahlström, poets more and more tended to pattern the whole page. With time, Fahlströms ideas met with American language poetry, creating a special quality we recognize in contemporary poetry.

This paper is about a poet and two cartographers. The poet is Marianne Moore, one of the most lauded and loved American poets of the twentieth century. In 1924 she published “Sea Unicorns and Land Unicorns,” a poem examining four exotic beasts—narwhals, unicorns, sea lions, lions—and their celebrated, if unreal, relationships to one another. While describing sea unicorns early in the poem, Moore specifies “the cartographers of 1539.” The date can only allude to the Carta Marina of the Swedish mapmaker and historian Olaus Magnus, whose famous 1539 “marine map” features a profusion of Scandinavian land and sea creatures. Moore’s “cartographers of 1539” compels us, in turn, to consider other mapmakers who crowded their maps with animals. The plural phrase also balances and anticipates her comparison, near the end of the poem, of the unicorn and “an equine monster of an old celestial map.” Though vague, the simile may suggest the winged figure of Pegasus on a celestial chart by Peter Apian. This popular German cartographer and astronomer originally designed his chart in 1536, then reproduced it—a year after the Carta Marina—in his exquisite Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). In the end, Moore’s portrayal of animals in “Sea Unicorns and Land Unicorns” captures the spirit that animated mapping, art, and science during the sixteenth-century Age of Exploration.

Resumo: Este artículo versa sobre diferentes tradições de matadores de dragões na Escandinávia medieval, a saber, Sigurðr Fáfnisbani e são Miguel arcanjo. A partir das transformações religiosas do período, das adequações poéticas ao novo credo e conforme a audiência, os skáld teciam suas composições, no intuito de permanecer com os favores da aristocracia escandinava. É verossímil, portanto, que a influência cristã tenha contribuído para moldar algumas composições poéticas semilegendárias e mitológicas desde a etapa de criação. É verossímil, portanto, que a influência cristã era sentida na composição de poemas semilegendários e mitológicos em língua vernacular. Palavras-chave: Sigurðr; Miguel; Poesia Escáldica; Escandinávia Medieval. Abstract: This article explores two traditions on dragon slayers in Medieval Scandinavia, i.e., Sigurðr Fáfnisbani and saint Michael theArchangel. Considering the religious transformations at that time, the poetical changes with the introduction of a new faith, and the audience reception, the skáld “wove” their compositions to maintain their favorable positions among the scandinavian aristocracy. Possibly the christian influence was present since the composition of semi legendary and mythological poems in vernacular language. Keywords: Sigurðr; Michael; Skaldic Poetry; MedievalScandinavia.

Sustainable development, a new interdisciplinary paradigm, is attracting increasing attention from the global research community. It is an enhancement of sustainability principles. This study documents the findings from applying a sustainability assessment model framework by Koo and Ariaratnam (2008) for decision support in connection with the projection of major infrastructure investment in a port. The objective of this study is to support the decision-making process in a port development project and to verify the applicability of sustainability assessment using a sustainability assessment model for a terminal development project in an urban area of Scandinavia. The sustainability assessment model is based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). A literature review of sustainability assessment models was conducted to find indicators for the AHP approach. Subsequently, a questionnaire was compiled and six decision-makers for projects in Scandinavian Ports in urban areas were selected for the case study. The hypothesis is that decision-makers of major infrastructure investment projects in publicly owned ports must adhere to sustainable development principles and support the United Nations sustainable development goals that are a call for action by all countries. When documenting a sustainable design of port projects, decision-makers use theoretical sustainability models to conceptualize features of a sustainable society. However, a major challenge for the decision-makers was that the sustainability assessment results did not show, as expected, the same results as those of three existing theoretical sustainability models. The results of the sustainability assessment model were scrutinised and benchmarked against existing theoretical sustainability models, namely: a sustainability stool, a 3-overlappingcircles model, and a 3-nesteddependencies model. The benchmark results indicate a disparity between the importance of what sustainability models describe and what is important in practice.

The paper addresses the question of self-perceived identity in children attending international schools in Norway. In this population, the distinction between “home culture” and “host culture” is no longer relevant, since most of the children represent “hyphenated” (e.g. Asian-British or American-Scandinavian) or merged nationalities and cultures. The goal of the study is to investigate how these pupils define themselves and the notion of “home”. To achieve at least a preliminary picture of the children’s self-perception, the authors have analysed poems on two topics: Me and Home, written by pupils of an international school and a Norwegian school, both informant groups aged 11-13. A semantic analysis of the poems indicates that the international school children present strong assertions of individual identity as defined against societal roles, while the Norwegian school pupils do not conceptualize identity formation as a struggle and their poems reflect a high degree of social, familial and national integration.

On Danishness and the Mother Tongue. A Speech by Grundtvig November 5th, 1839By Flemming Lundgreen-NielsenIn the last half of 1838 Grundtvig delivered a series of lectures on European history from 1788 to the present which gained him the wider public acceptance he for many years had been striving for. In early 1839 some former members of his audience set up a regular society for common citizens dedicated to the promotion of Danishness, Danske Samfund (the Danish Society), with Grundtvig as chairman. The idea was to have conversations and discussions after a short introduction from one of the elected leaders of the club - often Grundtvig himself. Singing songs by Grundtvig and other nationally inclined poets as well as old heroic ballads also helped to create an atmosphere of solidarity and popular and national community.The history of Danske Samfund can be pieced together from the texts of more than 100 introductions which Grundtvig gave, statements by individual members and anonymous police reports on some of the actual sessions. A detailed examination of Danske Samfund has recently been published by the present editor in Dansk Identitetshistorie, III, Copenhagen 1992, p. 31-79.On Tuesday evening of November 5, 1839, Grundtvig in an introduction spoke about his mother tongue.He first claims the historical independence and venerable age of the Danish language, emphasizing its principal difference from Old Norse as well as from a hodge-podge of old Danish and Low German. In his eyes precisely these qualities make the vernacular the only natural means of thinking and feeling for the Danes. Thus the general use of Danish becomes a necessary condition for a thriving culture and national life of the Danish people.Grundtvig continues with an account of his own road to the Danish language. A native Zealander being reared in Jutland, he grew up with the two major Danish dialects, and as a school-boy he on his own read Danish books such as the old chronicle about Holger the Dane. At the university he had to speak Latin and did so (also to evade boredom), but was not permanently tainted by the experience. As a private tutor at the manor house of Egel.kke he resisted the temptation to speak German like the master and the mistress. When at this time he made his d.but as a writer, he clearly favoured Old Norse or Icelandic as the alma mater of Scandinavia and almost considered Danish to be her illegitimate daughter. Following the separation between Denmark and Norway in 1814 he happily realized that he did possess a mother tongue that in fact was nothing but Danish. He recollects this to have occurred in 1816, as he studied the medieval Rhyming Chronicle (printed for the first time in 1495 with several later reprints). Since then he managed to learn to speak and understand spoken English and also became more familiar with the other Scandinavian languages and dialects, and he translated Saxo’s Deeds of the Danes from the Latin, Snorri’s Chronicle of the Norwegian Kings from the Old Norse and the Beowulf epic from the Anglo-Saxon. However, he never doubted that from ancient times Danish is the mother tongue of the Danes. Accordingly he never ceased to regret that those who identify themselves as enlightened and educated persons use the vernacular as if it were a foreign language, not realizing its richness, depth and beauty. It is one of Grundtvig’s declared aims in Danske Samfund to promote the use of the Danish language outside trivial everyday life. In an alternative, but incomplete draught Grundtvig, by way of introduction, mentions a misleading article in a German periodical by a Holstein citizen who claims High German to be an already widespread and ever expanding language in Denmark.Grundtvig’s introduction of Nov. 5, 1839 is another of several retrospective autobiographical interpretations in his works. In this case he concentrates in a deliberately cool and detached manner on his relationship to the Danish language. This was just before the death of Frederik 6. released growing national tensions in the United Monarchy and brought up the burning issue of Danish versus German that finally led to the Schleswig-Holstein war 1848-51.

In this paper the author assembles the evidence for Mesolithic dwelling places surviving as posts, floors and assemblages. This evidence can be used to show how space was organised, where men and women slept, and how some of the implied family relationships anticipated Neolithic practice.

There are 10 operating ports in Latvia and 3 of them – Liepaja, Ventspils and Riga ports are regarded as the leading commercial ports. Role of port operation in the economics of region and country is essential from the point of view of employment and entrepreneurship. This is based with data on investment of operation of Latvian ports in GDP, on average it is assessed to be 5-7% annually. In the context of employment, Liepaja Port gives work to 6.9% of human resources of the city. However, concern about the competitiveness of Liepaja Port influenced by the proximity of more developed competitive ports, technical possibilities of the port and dynamics of freight turnover has occurred in recent years. Therewith in framework of this article in the context of such criteria as location of ports and their technical parameters, volumes of freight, specialization and costs of ports, the operation of leading ports of Latvia is intercompared and analyzed by clarifying whether Liepaja Port is competitive among other ports of Latvia. Opinions of port experts on perspectives of port development and statistical data of ports from 2011-2013 are analyzed within the framework of the article. The aim of the research is to clarify the comparative advantages of ports of Latvia. The research revealed that the provision of competitiveness of Liepaja Port is to be related with application of the available free territories, advantages of location in relation to the Scandinavian market, and the necessity to develop the cooperation among ports of Latvia to offer joint freight acquisition, distributions and unified logistics solution and strengthen the position of ports in the circumstances of international competition. Key words: competitiveness of ports, freight turnover, port parameters.

Abstract The concept of autonomously operated ships is beginning to take hold in Europe, Japan and the United States, but primarily in Scandinavia. Some 1,300 kilometers north of Rotterdam, a Norwegian fertilizer company is building what will be the world’s first autonomously operated, zero-emission, all-electric container vessel to haul fertilizer to Norwegian ports for distribution. This article takes a closer look at the vessel’s development.

Polish ferry market has become one of the prime segments of ferry shipping in Baltic Sea Region. It dominates in ferry industry in South Baltic. The ferry cargo and passenger traffic has been growing steadily since Poland’s accession to the European Union. The estimates show that in 2017 the operators transported more than 1,2 million passengers and over 520 thousand cargo vehicles between ports in Poland and Sweden. The increase in trade turnover between Scandinavia and Central Europe as well as growth of tourism affect the demand for ferry transport. The aim of this paper is to explore the prime determinants influencing the development of Polish ferry shipping and to research the challenges that carriers operating the ferry services from Poland to Sweden must face such as internal competition between the operators in Polish market, competition from German and Lithuanian routes and low cost airlines as well as increasing trade volumes. The research hypothesis is: the growth of trade between Scandinavia and Central Europe as well as tourism traffic will increase the demand for ferry transport from Polish ports. Detailed research hypotheses are that: ferry services between Poland and Sweden constitute the primary market on the South Baltic and new tonnage investments to increase the capacity have to be taken.

A scenario well known to Beowulf scholars alleges that after Beowulf has slain the monsters and gone home, Hrothulf, nephew of the Danish king Hrothgar, will murder prince Hrethric to gain the throne when the old king dies. This story, that many Anglo-Saxonists assume is integral to the ancient legend of these kings, is a modern misreading of the poet's allusions to events associated with the Scylding dynasty — a legendary history that the poet arguably takes care to follow. The present essay, in two parts, first shows how the idea of Hrothulf's treachery arose and became canonical under the influence of prestigious English and American scholars, then finds fault with this idea, refuting its “proof” from Saxo Grammaticus and showing how some Anglo-Saxonists have doubted that Beowulf supports an interpretation making Hrothulf a murderer. But when the poet's allusions to future treachery are ambiguous, at least for modern readers, in order to exonerate Hrothulf fully one must go to traditions about the Scylding dynasty outside the poem. Scandinavian regnal lists (including one that Saxo himself incorporates) consistently contradict the event the Saxo passage has been used to prove, as they agree on a sequence of Scylding rulers with names corresponding to those of persons in Beowulf. Attention to this traditional sequence exposes Hrothulf's murder of Hrethric as a logical impossibility. Moreover, the early medieval method of selecting rulers suggests that neither did Hrothulf usurp the throne of Denmark. In sum, careful scrutiny of the best Scandinavian evidence and rejection of the worst reveals Beowulf's “treacherous Hrothulf” to be a scholarly fantasy.

Palisaded enclosures were huge enclosed spaces with timber boundaries found across Britain, Ireland, and Scandinavia in the Neolithic. Five such sites have been identified in Scotland dating to the later Neolithic, four of which have been excavated to varying degrees. These sites form the main focus of this paper, which draws in particular on interim results from the authors' excavations at Forteviot, Perth and Kinross, during 2007–2009. The palisaded enclosures of Scotland are part of a wider British and Irish tradition and there are a number of European parallels, the closest of which lie in southern Scandinavia. The palisaded enclosures in Scotland are tightly clustered geographically and chronologically, constructed in the centuries after 2800 cal BC. This paper explores the function, role, and meaning of palisaded enclosures in Scotland and more generally, drawing not just on the architecture of the monuments, but also the individual posts that were used to create the enclosures. The role of these monuments in reconstituting nature is also considered.

Between 1749 and 1771 the Swede Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) wrote and published eighteen religious works in Latin that he claimed were the foundation of a new Christian religion. He wrote that he had been called by God to unlock the spiritual secrets of the Bible through the doctrine of correspondences; to reveal the nature of the spiritual world based on experience in that realm; and to explain the keys to living a heavenly life. Stating in his last work, True Christianity (paragraph no. 779) that he was called only to write and publish, Swedenborg never­ attempted to found a church. Swedenborg published his books in Amsterdam and London, and if his 1758 print runs of 1,000 for five different works are typical, he had thousands of books available to distribute throughout Europe and he did so. However, the number of books in Scandinavia at the time of his death was probably fairly small. In 1772 there were less than a dozen readers in all of Europe, and only a small handful in Scandinavia. While awareness, education, and access are necessary prerequisites to the possibility of responding to these works, interest is essential. From the beginning, and over the years since their publication, individuals motivated to explore them seem to fall into the following categories: religious virtuosi/seekers; philosophers; occultists; artists, poets, and, writers. In this article the author, after a few remarks about issues on scholarship, turns her attention to three men with three different relationships to Swedenborg‘s religious writings, they are Edvard Munch (1863–1944), Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55), and August Strindberg (1850–1912). Then she makes an assessment of Swedenborg’s contribution to Scandinavia.

It has been customary, since comparative scholarship in the field of Germanic literatures began, to explain perceived similarities between Old English and Old Norse poetry in terms of their derivation from common cultural roots and closely cognate languages. Similarities in the two poetic systems have been regarded as evidence of the conservation of ideas, figures of speech and poetic forms. Such similarities have then been used to reveal what the ‘original’ Germanic customs, ideas and literary expressions might have been before the various tribal groups dispersed to their historical medieval locations. This way of thinking assumes the persistence into early medieval times of archaic modes of thought and expression wherever cultural similarities are perceived. The Old English, Old Norwegian and IcelandicRune Poemshave usually been considered in this light. It is widely accepted that they reflect a shared cultural prototype. Moreover, their texts span a considerable period of time and yet show significant similarities. The Old EnglishRune Poemhas often been compared with its Scandinavian counterparts to reveal older forms of thought. Andreas Heusler offered a fairly typical assessment: ‘Die wenigen Anklänge an die nordischen Reihen … erklären sich unbedenklich aus einer alten Grundform der Wanderungszeit, als Angeln und Nordleute Nachbarn waren.’

The Finland-Swedish and Finnish Translation History of Russian Modernist Poetry, 1918–1930 This article examines the arrival of Russian modernist and avant-garde poetry in Finland in the 1920s by mapping its translation history. The material employed in the article consists of translations into Swedish and Finnish that were published in anthologies or in journals (such as Ultra, Nuori Voima, Quosego, and Tulenkantajat), translation bibliographies, and translators’ personal archives. The article shows that Finland-Swedish translations are considerably earlier than the Finnish ones, which are also very few. Moreover, some of the Finland-Swedish translations are early also in comparison with translations into other European languages. This concerns the anthology Sånger i rött och svart (1924, “Songs in Red and Black”) in particular, which introduced poets that have never been translated into Finnish or that have been translated only decades later. The anthology also introduces poetry that has not been translated into European languages. The article further demonstrates the significance and influence of individual translators in mediating Russian literature into Finland and Scandinavia. The controversial translator Rafael Lindqvist’s position is particularly important, since his early translations of radical Russian avant-garde poetry were published also in Sweden. Furthermore, mostly due to Edith Södergran’s efforts, the ego-futurist Igor Severyanin was translated into Swedish earlier than Blok, Mayakovsky and Esenin, i.e. the poets who were usually the first ones to be translated elsewhere in Europe.

In the early twentieth century, transatlantic migration peaked. Transmigrants, i.e. migrants who travelled through third countries on the way to their destination, comprised more than half of all emigrants departing from German, Belgian, Dutch and British ports which together were the most important. The most important countries of origin were Russia and Austria-Hungary, in addition to Italy. Because of this, shipping companies had to deal with networks and manage a transport system extending far beyond their traditional sphere of economic interest. In the process, the companies became ever more dependent on influencing state actors in Europe as well as in North America to keep their long-established business structures going. In many ways, the transatlantic passenger business between the 1890s and 1914 should therefore be viewed more as a transmigrant business rather than an emigrant business, which is the most common understanding of this massive human movement. The article focuses on the transmigration phenomenon from the point of view of three very different shipping companies/initiatives in Norway, Sweden and Denmark respectively. Norway and Sweden had among the highest rates of transatlantic migration, and Norway had the third largest merchant fleet in the word by the turn of the twentieth century. Yet only Denmark provided a direct transatlantic service throughout the most important period for transatlantic migration. What possibilities were there for these three countries to engage in the transatlantic passenger business and what constrained their efforts? By concentrating on the transmigration phenomenon and three countries with differing points of departure, the article provides a deeper understanding of the mechanisms and dynamics involved in shaping the transatlantic passenger business, of how the business worked, and of how the companies could influence the flow and pattern of migratory movements between Europe and North America.

This paper assesses the impact of a major disruptive event at the port of Gothenburg, Scandinavia’s largest container port. Automatic Identification System (AIS) data is analyzed, in combination with official port statistics on container handling in the four main container ports in Sweden, from 2014–2018. Particular attention is paid to the relationship between container volumes handled and calculated performance metrics at the specific times of the intense labour dispute at the port of Gothenburg during the periods Q2 (2016) and Q4 (2016)–Q2 (2017). The paper concludes that the decline in container volumes handled at Gothenburg over the period is specifically due to fewer ships calling at the port following each of the intense periods of the labour dispute. It is also concluded that the effect on competitor ports in the region were significant in terms of both increased volumes of gateway container traffic and the resulting short-term and medium term impacts on both port user profiles and port efficiency levels.

En historisk Theodice[A Historical Theodicy]By Ole VindGrundtvig’s first World Chronicle from 1812 (VK 1812) is noted especially for itssharp criticism of contemporary culture. It can be read as a Lutheran revivalistsermon passing judgment on great historical as well as contemporary figures who are condemned for their lack of orthodox Christian faith. Read in the light of Grundtvig’s later works, however, the book carries the seeds of that philosophy of history which from 1832 onwards became the mainstay of all his writings.Thus, in VK 1812 are found the first traces of that original vision which inChristenhedens Syvstjerne (The Seven Sisters of Christendom, Grundtvig’s greatcycle of church historical poems written 1854-55, published 1860) follows churchhistory through seven national Churches of which the future Hindu (Christian)Church is the last. Likewise, in the chronicle are found Grundtvig’s first speculations on ethnic origins, later clarified into his idea of four principal peoples in World History (i.e. the Jews, the Greeks and the Romans in antiquity and the Scandinavians in modern times).In spite of his harsh condemnation of his contemporaries, Grundtvig concludesVK 1812 optimistically, prophesying a spiritual and Christian renewalin Scandinavia through the future university in Kristiania (i.e. Oslo) in Norway(founded 1811 and opened 1813). Such a trust in learning and scholarship wascharacteristic of the European age of Enlightenment with its belief in progress. In later major works, Grundtvig expressed this attitude in an original Nordic version which also formed the basis of his thoughts about education and folk high schools.In VK 1812 Grundtvig briefly characterizes the German thinkers who werethe foundation of his philosophy of history. Even if they are all blamed fortheir lack of orthodox faith, his delineation of them is remarkably mild. Later,rather surprisingly, Grundtvig appeared to reconcile himself to a great extentwith the German “naturalists imbued with spirit”.The quite positive words about those German philosophers whom he otherwiserather criticized, presage the deep inspiration in Grundtvig’s mature worksparticularly from Herder and Fichte. An exceptional role is played to Grundtvigby Lessing who raised the principal question of Protestant religious philosophyabout the relationship between Christianity and history. Already in VK 1812,Grundtvig’s philosophy of history is also a philosophy of religion in the shapeof a historical theodicy. As in his works to come, Grundtvig’s answer to Lessing’s question is thus quite the opposite of Søren Kierkegaard’s to whom Lessing, too, meant a serious philosophical challenge.

Abstract. A reliable and up-to-date ship emission inventory is essential for atmospheric scientists quantifying the impact of shipping and for policy makers implementing regulations and incentives for emission reduction. The emission modelling in this study takes into account ship type and size dependent input data for 15 ship types and 7 size categories. Global port arrival and departure data for more than 32 000 merchant ships are used to establish operational profiles for the ship segments. The modelled total fuel consumption amounts to 217 Mt in 2004 of which 11 Mt is consumed in in-port operations. This is in agreement with international sales statistics. The modelled fuel consumption is applied to develop global emission inventories for CO2, NO2, SO2, CO, CH4, VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds), N2O, BC (Black Carbon) and OC (Organic Carbon). The global emissions from ships at sea and in ports are distributed geographically, applying extended geographical data sets covering about 2 million global ship observations and global port data for 32 000 ships. In addition to inventories for the world fleet, inventories are produced separately for the three dominating ship types, using ship type specific emission modelling and traffic distributions. A global Chemical Transport Model (CTM) was used to calculate the environmental impacts of the emissions. We find that ship emissions is a dominant contributor over much of the world oceans to surface concentrations of NO2 and SO2. The contribution is also large over some coastal zones. For surface ozone the contribution is high over the oceans but clearly also of importance over Western North America (contribution 15–25%) and Western Europe (5–15%). The contribution to tropospheric column ozone is up to 5–6%. The overall impact of ship emissions on global methane lifetime is large due to the high NOx emissions. With regard to acidification we find that ships contribute 11% to nitrate wet deposition and 4.5% to sulphur wet deposition globally. In certain coastal regions the contributions may be in the range 15–50%. In general we find that ship emissions have a large impact on acidic deposition and surface ozone in Western North America, Scandinavia, Western Europe, western North Africa and Malaysia/Indonesia. For most of these regions container traffic, the largest emitter by ship type, has the largest impact. This is the case especially for the Pacific and the related container trade routes between Asia and North America. However, the contributions from bulk ships and tank vessels are also significant in the above mentioned impact regions. Though the total ship impact at low latitudes is lower, the tank vessels have a quite large contribution at low latitudes and near the Gulf of Mexico and Middle East. The bulk ships are characterized by large impact in Oceania compared to other ship types. In Scandinavia and north-Western Europe, one of the major ship impact regions, the three largest ship types have rather small relative contributions. The impact in this region is probably dominated by smaller ships operating closer to the coast. For emissions in ports impacts on NO2 and SO2 seem to be of significance. For most ports the contribution to the two components is in the range 0.5–5%, for a few ports it exceeds 10%. The approach presented provides an improvement in characterizing fleet operational patterns, and thereby ship emissions and impacts. Furthermore, the study shows where emission reductions can be applied to most effectively minimize the impacts by different ship types.

Abstract. A reliable and up-to-date ship emission inventory is essential for atmospheric scientists quantifying the impact of shipping and for policy makers implementing regulations and incentives for emission reduction. The emission modelling in this study takes into account ship type and size dependent input data for 15 ship types and 7 size categories. Global port arrival and departure data for more than 32 000 merchant ships are used to establish operational profiles for the ship segments. The modelled total fuel consumption amounts to 217 Mt in 2004 of which 11 Mt is consumed in in-port operations. This is in agreement with international sales statistics. The modelled fuel consumption is applied to develop global emission inventories for CO2, NO2, SO2, CO, CH4, VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds), N2O, BC (Black Carbon) and OC (Organic Carbon). The global emissions from ships at sea and in ports are distributed geographically, applying extended geographical data sets covering about 2 million global ship observations and global port data for 32 000 ships. In addition to inventories for the world fleet, inventories are produced separately for the three dominating ship types, using ship type specific emission modelling and traffic distributions. A global Chemical Transport Model (CTM) was used to calculate the environmental impacts of the emissions. We find that ship emissions is a dominant contributor over much of the world oceans to surface concentrations of NO2 and SO2. The contribution is also large over some coastal zones. For surface ozone the contribution is high over the oceans but clearly also of importance over western North America (contribution 15–25%) and western Europe (5–15%). The contribution to tropospheric column ozone is up to 5–6%. The overall impact of ship emissions on global methane lifetime is large due to the high NOx emissions. With regard to acidification we find that ships contribute 11% to nitrate wet deposition and 4.5% to sulphur wet deposition globally. In certain coastal regions the contributions may be in the range 15–50%. In general we find that ship emissions have a large impact on acidic deposition and surface ozone in western North America, Scandinavia, western Europe, western North Africa and Malaysia/Indonesia. For most of these regions container traffic, the largest emitter by ship type, has the largest impact. This is the case especially for the Pacific and the related container trade routes between Asia and North America. However, the contributions from bulk ships and tank vessels are also significant in the above mentioned impact regions. Though the total ship impact at low latitudes is lower, the tank vessels have a quite large contribution at low latitudes and near the Gulf of Mexico and Middle East. The bulk ships are characterized by large impact in Oceania compared to other ship types. In Scandinavia and north-western Europe, one of the major ship impact regions, the three largest ship types have rather small relative contributions. The impact in this region is probably dominated by smaller ships operating closer to the coast. For emissions in ports impacts on NO2 and SO2 seem to be of significance. For most ports the contribution to the two components is in the range 0.5–5%, for a few ports it exceeds 10%. The approach presented provides an improvement in characterizing fleet operational patterns, and thereby ship emissions and impacts. Furthermore, the study shows where emission reductions can be applied to most effectively minimize the impacts by different ship types.

The Three Seas Initiative, which gathers 12 European countries located from the Baltic Sea, the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea, is both an opportunity and a challenge for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. The concept has primarily a regional dimension, while its global impact is appreciated and supported by, among others, Scandinavian countries and the U.S. government. While the potential for economic development within the scope this initiative is high, in order to develop it, there is a need to modernize the transporting, energetic and digital infrastructure necessary for the implementation of logistic processes. It is also necessary to change legal regulations. The article describes the international economic and political initiative gathering selected countries in the Three Seas area and characterizes the purposefulness of the application of European Modular Systems. On the basis of previously selected features influencing the increase of economic efficiency and appropriately selected weights, a comparative analysis of selected cargo means was conducted. The Bellinger’s method was applied in order to conduct the comparative analysis. Based on the analysis of the obtained research results, the benefits of using sets with increased loading capacity on a selected route between the ports of the Baltic Sea and the Adriatic Sea were demonstrated.

Abstract Inspired by the spatial turn in literary criticism, this article seeks to combine a traditional biographical approach of the versatile oeuvre of the late 19th Century Danish poet, painter and bon vivant Holger Drachmann (1846–1908), with a space-oriented perspective. One of the key concepts of the Scandinavian literature of the latter half of the 19th Century, the era of the so-called Modern Breakthrough, was to promote a literature that dealt with contemporary social issues; at the same time, many of the artists who adhered to this program turned their backs on everyday routine, by frequently travelling and living abroad for long periods. Especially Southern Europe, and in particular Italy was a favorite destination. In Drachmann’s oeuvre too, the lure of the South is omnipresent, but his initial infatuation with Italy shifts radically between his first (1867) and second (1876) journey to the country, from an Orientalist notion of Italy as an eroticised Nirvana, to a horrendously degenerate country. This case study proposes a spatial reading of one of Drachmann’s still well-known poems, ”Sakuntala” (1879), where the lure of travel, exoticism and erotic enticement are brought together in a poem, in which travel is a mere metaphor for the state of mind in which exotic landscapes morph into erotic spaces, while eroticist desire remains forever unfulfilled.

Eddic poetry constitutes one of the most important genres in Old Norse or Scandinavian literature and has been studied since the earliest time of modern-day philology. The progress we have made in that field is impressive, considering the many excellent editions and translations, not to mention the countless critical studies in monographs and articles. Nevertheless, there is always a great need to revisit, to summarize, to review, and to digest the knowledge gained so far. The present handbook intends to address all those goals and does so, to spell it out right away, exceedingly well. But in contrast to traditional concepts, the individual contributions constitute fully developed critical article, each with a specialized topic elucidating it as comprehensively as possible, and concluding with a section of notes. Those are kept very brief, but the volume rounds it all off with an inclusive, comprehensive bibliography. And there is also a very useful index at the end. At the beginning, we find, following the table of contents, a list of the contributors, unfortunately without emails, a list of translations and abbreviations of the titles of Eddic poems in the Codex Regius and then elsewhere, and a very insightful and pleasant introduction by Carolyne Larrington. She briefly introduces the genre and then summarizes the essential points made by the individual authors. The entire volume is based on the Eddic Network established by the three editors in 2012, and on two workshops held at St. John’s College, Oxford in 2013 and 2014.

The Children of the Sweet South in the Northern Land of Death. On the Opposition of North and South in Russian Literature from Romanticism up to Socialist Realism The starting point of the article is the semiotic theory of culturally coherent “semio-spheres”. The analysis focusses on the changing pictures of the northern parts of the Russian cultural area – Siberia, Karelia, and, in the 19th century, also Finland – in the works of Russian writers from Romanticism into the middle of the 20th century. The traditional juxtaposition of ‘north’ and ‘south’ as cultural, climatic and emotional opposites in Romanticism was inspired in part by admiration for Scandinavian sagas and landscapes. The European idealisation of the South was still valid in the poems of the Russian Romanticism. Embedded into the pictures of a wild and untouched northern nature was the ideal of a simple, rural society and the romantic imagery of the lonesome hero. In the Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century ‘north’ became an emotional centre in opposition to a spoiled, western cultural centre. Nevertheless, the Russian and Ukrainian South continued to be a place of longing for the imprisoned or exiled heroes in the hostile North. In Soviet literature, the communist project to improve the social situation of the toiling masses around the world led to a missionary’s attitude toward the outskirts of the Soviet Union. Russian heroes did not only bring civilisation to the uneducated Northern aborigines but by cultivating the harsh land they also added more civilized Southern nature to the Northern landscape.

From the beginning of the 20th century the crisis of world religions caused to the search for autochthonous spiritual alternatives. There is a steady trend towards the revival of ethnic religions in Europe for the whole century. In the article was considered the history and main conceptual foundations of The European Congress of Ethnic Religions (ECER) as an international forum for communication of European ethnoreligious communities, which revive authentic spiritual traditions and practices in their countries. In particular, a detailed ХVІ ECER (2018) report from the direct participant and Declaration XIV ECER (2014) were presented for illustration, as well as observations on the development of traditionalism in the Italian organization "Movimento Tradizionale Romano", which will have a scientific and applied value for religious studies. A conclusion was drawn about the historical patterns of ethnoreligious Renaissance. The Roman ethnic religion, whose development was interrupted by the expansion of Christianity in the 4th century, did not disappear suddenly after the decrees of the Emperor Theodosius I, but continued to exist in deeply veiled forms. Many literary sources of faith have been preserved, which gives the opportunity for Italian traditionalists to reliably revive their worldview, theological and ritual traditions. Now, the authentic Italian confession of the native faith is "Movimento Tradicionale Romano". The existence of common Indo-European sources of faith, such as the Vedas in India, the poems of Homer, the works of Hesiod, the orphan hymns in Greece, the works of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers, the German and Scandinavian epics, Slavic folklore, etc., provide an opportunity for scientific comparative methods to restore the ancient spiritual heritage of European nations with the aim of returning it in the living national environment.

Abstract. Emissions from the marine transport sector are one of the least-regulated anthropogenic emission sources and contribute significantly to air pollution. Although strict limits were introduced recently for the maximum sulfur content in marine fuels in the SECAs (sulfur emission control areas) and in EU ports, sulfur emissions outside the SECAs and emissions of other components in all European maritime areas have continued to increase in the last two decades. We have used the air quality model CAMx (Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions) with and without ship emissions for the year 2006 to determine the effects of international shipping on the annual as well as seasonal concentrations of ozone, primary and secondary components of PM2.5, and the dry and wet deposition of nitrogen and sulfur compounds in Europe. The largest changes in pollutant concentrations due to ship emissions were predicted for summer. Concentrations of particulate sulfate increased due to ship emissions in the Mediterranean (up to 60 %), the English Channel and the North Sea (30–35 %), while increases in particulate nitrate levels were found especially in the north, around the Benelux area (20 %), where there were high NH3 land-based emissions. Our model results showed that not only are the atmospheric concentrations of pollutants affected by ship emissions, but also depositions of nitrogen and sulfur compounds increase significantly along the shipping routes. NOx emissions from the ships, especially in the English Channel and the North Sea, cause a decrease in the dry deposition of reduced nitrogen at source regions by moving it from the gas phase to the particle phase which then contributes to an increase in the wet deposition at coastal areas with higher precipitation. In the western Mediterranean region, on the other hand, model results show an increase in the deposition of oxidized nitrogen (mostly HNO3) due to the ship traffic. Dry deposition of SO2 seems to be significant along the shipping routes, whereas sulfate wet deposition occurs mainly along the Scandinavian and Adriatic coasts. The results presented in this paper suggest that evolution of NOx emissions from ships and land-based NH3 emissions will play a significant role in future European air quality.

Abstract. Ship emissions in and around ports are of interest for urban air quality management in many harbour cities. We investigated the impact of regional and local ship emissions on urban air quality for 2012 conditions in the city of Gothenburg, Sweden, the largest cargo port in Scandinavia. In order to assess the effects of ship emissions, a coupled regional- and local-scale model system has been set up using ship emissions in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea as well as in and around the port of Gothenburg. Ship emissions were calculated with the Ship Traffic Emission Assessment Model (STEAM), taking into account individual vessel characteristics and vessel activity data. The calculated contributions from local and regional shipping to local air pollution in Gothenburg were found to be substantial, especially in areas around the city ports. The relative contribution from local shipping to annual mean NO2 concentrations was 14 % as the model domain average, while the relative contribution from regional shipping in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea was 26 %. In an area close to the city terminals, the contribution of NO2 from local shipping (33 %) was higher than that of road traffic (28 %), which indicates the importance of controlling local shipping emissions. Local shipping emissions of NOx led to a decrease in the summer mean O3 levels in the city by 0.5 ppb (∼2 %) on average. Regional shipping led to a slight increase in O3 concentrations; however, the overall effect of regional and the local shipping together was a small decrease in the summer mean O3 concentrations in the city. In addition, volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from local shipping compensate up to 4 ppb of the decrease in summer O3 concentrations due to the NO titration effect. For particulate matter with a median aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM2.5), local ship emissions contributed only 3 % to the annual mean in the model domain, while regional shipping under 2012 conditions was a larger contributor, with an annual mean contribution of 11 % of the city domain average. Based on the modelled local and regional shipping contributions, the health effects of PM2.5, NO2 and ozone were assessed using the ALPHA-RiskPoll (ARP) model. An effect of the shipping-associated PM2.5 exposure in the modelled area was a mean decrease in the life expectancy by 0.015 years per person. The relative contribution of local shipping to the impact of total PM2.5 was 2.2 %, which can be compared to the 5.3 % contribution from local road traffic. The relative contribution of the regional shipping was 10.3 %. The mortalities due to the exposure to NO2 associated with shipping were calculated to be 2.6 premature deaths yr−1. The relative contribution of local and regional shipping to the total exposure to NO2 in the reference simulation was 14 % and 21 %, respectively. The shipping-related ozone exposures were due to the NO titration effect leading to a negative number of premature deaths. Our study shows that overall health impacts of regional shipping can be more significant than those of local shipping, emphasizing that abatement policy options on city-scale air pollution require close cooperation across governance levels. Our findings indicate that the strengthened Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) fuel sulphur limit from 1 % to 0.1 % in 2015, leading to a strong decrease in the formation of secondary particulate matter on a regional scale was an important step in improving the air quality in the city.

Abstract. Emissions from the marine transport sector are one of the least regulated anthropogenic emission sources and contribute significantly to air pollution. Although strict limits were introduced recently for the maximum sulfur content in marine fuels in the SECAs (sulfur emission control areas) and in the EU ports, sulfur emissions outside the SECAs and emissions of other components in all European maritime areas have continued to increase in the last two decades. We have used the air quality model CAMx with and without ship emissions for the year 2006 to determine the effects of international shipping on the annual as well as seasonal concentrations of ozone, primary and secondary components of PM2.5 and the dry and wet deposition of nitrogen and sulfur compounds in Europe. Our results suggest that emissions from international shipping affect the air quality in northern and southern Europe differently and their contributions to the air concentrations vary seasonally. The largest changes in pollutant concentrations due to ship emissions were predicted for summer. Increased concentrations of the primary particle mass were found only along the shipping routes whereas concentrations of the secondary pollutants were affected over a larger area. Concentrations of particulate sulfate increased due to ship emissions in the Mediterranean (up to 60 %), in the English Channel and the North Sea (30–35 %) while increases in particulate nitrate levels were found especially in the north, around the Benelux area (20 %) where there were high NH3 land-based emissions. Our model results showed that not only the atmospheric concentrations of pollutants are affected by ship emissions, but also depositions of nitrogen and sulfur compounds increase significantly along the shipping routes. NOx emissions from the ships especially in the English Channel and the North Sea, cause a decrease in the dry deposition of reduced nitrogen at source regions by moving it from the gas-phase to the particle phase which then contributes to an increase in the wet deposition at coastal areas with higher precipitation. In the western Mediterranean region on the other hand, model results show an increase in the deposition of oxidized nitrogen (mostly HNO3) due to the ship traffic. Dry deposition of SO2 seems to be significant along the shipping routes whereas sulfate wet deposition occurs mainly along the Scandinavian and Adriatic coasts. The results presented in this paper suggest that evolution of NOx emissions from ships and land-based NH3 emissions will play a significant role in the future European air quality.

The article examines some historical and legal prerequisites for the formation and development of transport law as a complexbranch of law. It is emphasized that the regulation of transport activities in the ancient and medieval world was carried out mainlythrough trade and maritime customs, and points to the application of legal customs in transport law today.Transport law is a complex branch of law, and depending on the prevailing legal relationship, it can be considered as part of civil,commercial or administrative law. There was no separate school of transport law in the former USSR and Ukraine. Today, research onthe problems of transport law and the development of proposals to overcome them are carried out by scientists belonging to the scientificschools of commercial, civil and administrative law. Within these schools, there are separate groups of scientists or research departmentsthat carry out research to improve transport legislation.In transport law, the regulation of shipping and maritime trade developed first of all. It was there that the first legal customsappeared. Among the legal customs used in transport law, port customs (customs of the port) stand out.In Russia, trade was conducted mainly by river and sea “from the Vikings to the Greeks”, which ran from the Scandinavian Peninsula,the Baltic Sea, the Dnieper and the Black Sea to Byzantium. Thanks to this trade route, the inhabitants of Kievan Rus built boatsand developed a transport system. In addition to sea and river routes, the territory of modern Ukraine was a land route from Asia toEurope, stretching from southeast to northwest of our country – the legendary “Aryan route”, which according to some historians thousandsof years ago from the Indian subcontinent to Western and Northern Europe came the Aryan tribe, which gave development to theEuropean peoples. The possibility of applying port customs is provided by Art. 78 of the Code of Merchant Shipping of Ukraine. In addition to ports,the customs of merchant shipping are widely used. For example, in accordance with Art. 6 (concerning the permission to include in theagreements provided by the Code of Merchant Shipping of Ukraine, conditions on application of foreign legislation and customs ofmerchant shipping in case the parties may deviate from its rules in accordance with the current Code); art. 71 (in emergency cases, whenthe vessel has to be on the high seas for a long time and the body of the deceased cannot be saved, the captain of the vessel has the rightto give the body to the sea according to maritime customs, about which the corresponding act is made and the corresponding record ismade; Art. 146 (cargo is placed on the ship at the discretion of the captain, but can not be placed on deck without the written consentof the sender, except for cargo, the carriage of which on deck is allowed in accordance with applicable rules and customs); art. 293(concerning the possibility of determining the type of accident, calculating the size of the general accident and compiling the dispatchby the dispatcher in conditions of incompleteness of the law) of the Merchant Shipping Code of Ukraine of May 23, 1995.

AbstractA newly surfaced copy of Norwegian poet Dorothe Engelbretsdatter’s work in The United States is evidence of the seventeenth-century’s author’s enduring hold on nineteenth-century readers. This article places the book in the context of the poet’s Scandinavian reception since her own time and today. The travelling book forms an appropriate illustration of the spread of women’s writing, as studied by the EU-funded project

Information production, dissemination, and consumption are contingent upon cultural and financial dimensions. This study attempts to find cultures of engagement that reflect how audiences engage with news posts made by either commercial or state-owned news outlets on Facebook. To do so, we collected over a million news posts ( n = 1,173,159) produced by 482 news outlets in three Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) and analyzed over 69 million interactions across three metrics of engagement (i.e. comments, likes, and shares). More concretely, we investigate whether the patterns of engagement follow distinct patterns across national boundaries and type of outlet ownership. While we are skeptical of metrics of engagement as markers of specific cultures of engagement, our results show that there are clear differences in how readers engage with news posts depending on the country of origin and whether they are fully state-owned or private-owned outlets.

Artiklen undersøger ligestillingsdebatten og -holdninger i de skandinaviske lande med særligt fokus på repræsentationen af kvinder på ledende poster i idrættens verden.Ulla Habermann, Laila Ottesen, Gertrud Pfister, Berit Skirstad: »It will solve itself« (?) – On the Attitudes of Scandinavian Sports Managers to Equal OpportunitiesThe authors of this article have been jointly involved in an international research project entitled »Women at the Top«, the aim of which was to document and analyse the reasons why (Scandinavian) women are underrepresented in leadings posts in the world of sport. Identical surveys were conducted among sports managers in Norway, Sweden and Denmark – both men and women were part of the study. During the research period we have been struck by the apparently very different reactions and attitudes to the issue of equal opportunities in the three Scandinavian countries which otherwise are regarded as being very similar societies. This article examines what could be the factors that cause these differences. Our conclusion is that even if the typical sports manager can be said to possess a very uniform profile (age, gender, education, income and family relations) in all three Scandinavian countries, the issue of equal opportunities ( in sport management) is not only perceived but also solved in different ways. Denmark stands out as the country in which interest in equal opportunities is apparently most »relaxed« or »indifferent «, and where men often are more positive to changes than women. In Sweden the sport managers (men as well as women) show much more »political correctness « in their answers, whereas in Norway amore marked feminist attitude towards the issue divides men and women. In Norway and Sweden there seems to be more awareness than in Denmark of structural explanations (such as power relations and traditions) for the lack of women in sports management. And the Norwegian case in particular shows how initiative such as quota schemes can have a positive effect on attitudes to equal opportunities – or perhaps vice versa.

During the last twenty years, the category ‘grave’ has been the subject of increasing debate in Swedish archaeology. It has been recognized that monuments commonly regarded as graves are sometimes also found in cultic contexts other than those associated with death and burial. In many cases, for instance, monuments similar to graves have been erected at cult sites, and seem to have been used in sacrificial practices rather than for burials. According to archaeological, textual and onomastic sources, it was common practice in Old Norse religion to suspend sacrificial victims from trees of from upraised posts, or to deposit offerings at the base of sacred rocks and boulders. In all these cases, the trees, posts and boulders seem to be representation of the World Axis, depicted in cosmological myths as a Cosmic Tree, Pillar or Mountain. I argue that these various representations of the World Axis are also incorporated in the architectonic symbolism of several forms of grave monuments in pre-Christian Scandinavia. The architectonic shape of these monuments could thus be used in several different contexts, since they represented a ‘Cosmic Center’ and a ‘doorway’ to the Other World.

Politics are becoming increasingly personalized, the focus shifting from party policies to individual candidates. Throughout the world, social media plays a significant role in this transformation (Enjolras & Karlsen,2016; Garzia, 2011; Kruikemeier, et.al., 2016; Larsson, 2014; Small 2010; McAllister,2007; Meeks, 2017). The most common definition of the term personalisation phrases it simply as a dichotomous relationship between the importance placed on the candidate on the one hand and the party on the other (Chan, 2018). Compared to other countries, Icelanders are very active on social media with 92% of the population owning a Facebook account, while 62% use Snapchat. Other social media are used less, Instagram 44% and Twitter 20% (Gallup, 2017). Electoral volatility has furthermore been on the rise in the last two decades with diminishing party loyalty and partisan dealignment (Harðarson, 2008, 2016). Dealignment in turn creates a dynamic context for personalization and leadership focus vis-á-vis party attachments (Garzia, 2011; Garzia, et. al. 2018). This rising trend of dealignment, as Lobo (2018) has pointed out, correlates with the phenomenon of personalization (Lobo, 2018). Precisely this tendency was felt in Iceland before the 2017 parliamentary elections, e.g. in the case of the now prime minister of Iceland, Katrín Jakobsdóttir, who had become more popular in the polls than her party (Jóhannsson, 2016. Magnússon, 2017). Traditional media and their news values are partly responsible for keeping up the visibility of political leaders on the news agenda, as normally they are considered more newsworthy than ordinary MPs or candidates. Thus, personalization is enhanced by the media, not only traditional media but social media as well. There are two cornerstones to all recent research into social media and politics: the Obama campaign of 2008 and the Trump campaign of 2016. These elections were not exclusively held nor won on social media but innovated its use to attract more attention and votes (Chadwick, 2017). However, Scandinavian research has shown that in the fragmented hybrid media environment in European parliamentary democracies, social media have as well become a vehicle for non- leaders and newcomers who use these platforms proportionally more than their leaders (Blach-Örsten, et.al, 2016; Larson and Moe, 2014). The aim of this paper is to find out if politician´s usage of social media, not only of leaders, contributes to the personalization of the Icelandic political system, which has historically been party centred (Harðarson, 2008). This will be done through a content analysis of the posts on social media of top two candidates of every party in every constituency before the 2017 parliamentary elections and with post- election semi-standardized interviews with 5 party officials. We will explore whether social media is more party, or candidate centred, gaining insight into why that is and what we can expect to see in the future through the interviews. As no research exists on the effect of social media on personalization in Iceland, this will be the first attempt at such analysis.

Introduction When a text is said to be re-appropriated, it is at times unclear to what extent this appropriation is secondary, repeated, new; certainly, the difference between a reiteration and an iteration has more to do with emphasis than any (re)duplication. And at a moment in the development of crime fiction in France when the retranslation of now apparently dated French translations of the works of classic American hardboiled novels (especially those of authors like Dashiell Hammett, whose novels were published in Marcel Duhamel’s Série Noire at Gallimard in the decades following the end of the Second World War) is being undertaken with the ostensible aim of taking the French reader back (closer) to the American original, one may well ask where the emphasis now lies. In what ways, for example, is this new form of re-production, of re-imagining the text, more intimately bound to the original, and thus in itself less ‘original’ than its translated predecessors? Or again, is this more reactionary ‘re-’ in fact really that different from those more radical uses that cleaved the translation from its original text in those early, foundational years of twentieth-century French crime fiction? (Re-)Reading: Critical Theory and Originality My juxtaposition of the terms ‘reactionary’ and ‘radical’, and the attempted play on the auto-antonymy of the verb ‘to cleave’, are designed to prompt a re(-)read of the analysis that so famously took the text away from the author in the late-1960s through to the 1990s, which is to say the critical theory of poststructuralism and deconstruction. Roland Barthes’s work (especially 69–77) appropriated the familiar terms of literary analysis and reversed them, making of them perhaps a re-appropriation in the sense of taking them into new territory: the text, formerly a paper-based platform for the written word, was now a virtual interface between the word and its reader, the new locus of the production of meaning; the work, on the other hand, which had previously pertained to the collective creative imaginings of the author, was now synonymous with the physical writing passed on by the author to the reader. And by ‘passed on’ was meant ‘passed over’, achevé (perfected, terminated, put to death)—completed, then, but only insofar as its finite sequence of words was set; for its meaning was henceforth dependent on its end user. The new textual life that surged from the ‘death of the author’ was therefore always already an afterlife, a ‘living on’, to use Jacques Derrida’s term (Bloom et al. 75–176). It is in this context that the re-reading encouraged by Barthes has always appeared to mark a rupture a teasing of ‘reading’ away from the original series of words and the ‘Meaning’ as intended by the author, if any coherence of intention is possible across the finite sequence of words that constitute the written work. The reader must learn to re-read, Barthes implored, or otherwise be condemned to read the same text everywhere. In this sense, the ‘re-’ prefix marks an active engagement with the text, a reflexivity of the act of reading as an act of transformation. The reader whose consumption of the text is passive, merely digestive, will not transform the words (into meaning); and crucially, that reader will not herself be transformed. For this is the power of reflexive reading—when one reads text as text (and not ‘losing oneself’ in the story) one reconstitutes oneself (or, perhaps, loses control of oneself more fully, more productively); not to do so, is to take an unchanged constant (oneself) into every textual encounter and thus to produce sameness in ostensible difference. One who rereads a text and discovers the same story twice will therefore reread even when reading a text for the first time. The hyphen of the re-read, on the other hand, distances the reader from the text; but it also, of course, conjoins. It marks the virtual space where reading occurs, between the physical text and the reading subject; and at the same time, it links all texts in an intertextual arena, such that the reading experience of any one text is informed by the reading of all texts (whether they be works read by an individual reader or works as yet unencountered). Such a theory of reading appears to shift originality so far from the author’s work as almost to render the term obsolete. But the thing about reflexivity is that it depends on the text itself, to which it always returns. As Barbara Johnson has noted, the critical difference marked by Barthes’s understandings of the text, and his calls to re-read it, is not what differentiates it from other texts—the universality of the intertext and the reading space underlines this; instead, it is what differentiates the text from itself (“Critical Difference” 175). And while Barthes’s work packages this differentiation as a rupture, a wrenching of ownership away from the author to a new owner, the work and text appear less violently opposed in the works of the Yale School deconstructionists. In such works as J. Hillis Miller’s “The Critic as Host” (1977), the hyphenation of the re-read is less marked, with re-reading, as a divergence from the text as something self-founding, self-coinciding, emerging as something inherent in the original text. The cleaving of one from and back into the other takes on, in Miller’s essay, the guise of parasitism: the host, a term that etymologically refers to the owner who invites and the guest who is invited, offers a figure for critical reading that reveals the potential for creative readings of ‘meaning’ (what Miller calls the nihilistic text) inside the transparent ‘Meaning’ of the text, by which we recognise one nonetheless autonomous text from another (the metaphysical text). Framed in such terms, reading is a reaction to text, but also an action of text. I should argue then that any engagement with the original is re-actionary—my caveat being that this hyphenation is a marker of auto-antonymy, a link between the text and otherness. Translation and Originality Questions of a translator’s status and the originality of the translated text remain vexed. For scholars of translation studies like Brian Nelson, the product of literary translation can legitimately be said to have been authored by its translator, its status as literary text being equal to that of the original (3; see also Wilson and Gerber). Such questions are no more or less vexed today, however, than they were in the days when criticism was grappling with translation through the lens of deconstruction. To refer again to the remarkable work of Johnson, Derrida’s theorisation of textual ‘living on’—the way in which text, at its inception, primes itself for re-imagining, by dint of the fundamental différance of the chains of signification that are its DNA—bears all the trappings of self-translation. Johnson uses the term ‘self-différance’ (“Taking Fidelity” 146–47) in this respect and notes how Derrida took on board, and discussed with him, the difficulties that he was causing for his translator even as he was writing the ‘original’ text of his essay. If translation, in this framework, is rendered impossible because of the original’s failure to coincide with itself in a transparently meaningful way, then its practice “releases within each text the subversive forces of its own foreignness” (Johnson, “Taking Fidelity” 148), thereby highlighting the debt owed by Derrida’s notion of textual ‘living on’—in (re-)reading—to Walter Benjamin’s understanding of translation as a mode, its translatability, the way in which it primes itself for translation virtually, irrespective of whether or not it is actually translated (70). In this way, translation is a privileged site of textual auto-differentiation, and translated text can, accordingly, be considered every bit as ‘original’ as its source text—simply more reflexive, more aware of its role as a conduit between the words on the page and the re-imagining that they undergo, by which they come to mean, when they are re-activated by the reader. Emily Apter—albeit in a context that has more specifically to do with the possibilities of comparative literature and the real-world challenges of language in war zones—describes the auto-differentiating nature of translation as “a means of repositioning the subject in the world and in history; a means of rendering self-knowledge foreign to itself; a way of denaturalizing citizens, taking them out of the comfort zone of national space, daily ritual, and pre-given domestic arrangements” (6). In this way, translation is “a significant medium of subject re-formation and political change” (Apter 6). Thus, translation lends itself to crime fiction; for both function as highly reflexive sites of transformation: both provide a reader with a heightened sense of the transformation that she is enacting on the text and that she herself embodies as a reading subject, a subject changed by reading. Crime Fiction, Auto-Differention and Translation As has been noted elsewhere (Rolls), Fredric Jameson made an enigmatic reference to crime fiction’s perceived role as the new Realism as part of his plenary lecture at “Telling Truths: Crime Fiction and National Allegory”, a conference held at the University of Wollongong on 6–8 December 2012. He suggested, notably, that one might imagine an author of Scandi-Noir writing in tandem with her translator. While obvious questions of the massive international marketing machine deployed around this contemporary phenomenon come to mind, and I suspect that this is how Jameson’s comment was generally understood, it is tempting to consider this Scandinavian writing scenario in terms of Derrida’s proleptic considerations of his own translator. In this way, crime fiction’s most telling role, as one of the most widely read contemporary literary forms, is its translatability; its haunting descriptions of place (readers, we tend, perhaps precipitously, to assume, love crime fiction for its national, regional or local situatedness) are thus tensely primed for re-location, for Apter’s ‘subject re-formation’. The idea of ‘the new Realism’ of crime, and especially detective, fiction is predicated on the tightly (self-)policed rules according to which crime fiction operates. The reader appears to enter into an investigation alongside the detective, co-authoring the crime text in real (reading) time, only for authorial power to be asserted in the unveiling scene of the denouement. What masquerades as the ultimately writerly text, in Barthes’s terms, turns out to be the ultimate in transparently meaningful literature when the solution is set in stone by the detective. As such, the crime novel is far more dependent on descriptions of the minutiae of everyday life (in a given place in time) than other forms of fiction, as these provide the clues on which its intricate plot hinges. According to this understanding, crime fiction records history and transcribes national allegories. This is not only a convincing way of understanding crime fiction, but it is also an extremely powerful way of harnessing it for the purposes of cultural history. Claire Gorrara, for example, uses the development of French crime fiction plots over the course of the second half of the twentieth century to map France’s coming to terms with the legacy of the Second World War. This is the national allegory written in real time, as the nation heals and moves on, and this is crime fiction as a reaction to national allegory. My contention here, on the other hand, is that crime fiction, like translation, has at its core an inherent, and reflexive, tendency towards otherness. Indeed, this is because crime fiction, whose origins in transnational (and especially Franco-American) literary exchange have been amply mapped but not, I should argue, extrapolated to their fullest extent, is forged in translation. It is widely considered that when Edgar Allan Poe produced his seminal text “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” (1841) he created modern crime fiction. And yet, this was made possible because the text was translated into French by Charles Baudelaire and met with great success in France, far more so indeed than in its original place of authorship. Its original setting, however, was not America but Paris; its translatability as French text preceded, even summoned, its actualisation in the form of Baudelaire’s translation. Furthermore, the birth of the great armchair detective, the exponent of pure, objective deduction, in the form of C. Auguste Dupin, is itself turned on its head, a priori, because Dupin, in this first Parisian short story, always already off-sets objectivity with subjectivity, ratiocination with a tactile apprehension of the scene of the crime. He even goes as far as to accuse the Parisian Prefect of Police of one-dimensional objectivity. (Dupin undoes himself, debunking the myth of his own characterisation, even as he takes to the stage.) In this way, Poe founded his crime fiction on a fundamental tension; and this tension called out to its translator so powerfully that Baudelaire claimed to be translating his own thoughts, as expressed by Poe, even before he had had a chance to think them (see Rolls and Sitbon). Thus, Poe was Parisian avant la lettre, his crime fiction a model for Baudelaire’s own prose poetry, the new voice of critical modernity in the mid-nineteenth century. If Baudelaire went on to write Paris in the form of Paris Spleen (1869), his famous collection of “little prose poems”, both as it is represented (timelessly, poetically) and as it presents itself (in real time, prosaically) at the same time, it was not only because he was spontaneously creating a new national allegory for France based on its cleaving of itself in the wake of Georges-Eugène Haussmann’s massive programme of urbanisation in Paris in the 1800s; it was also because he was translating Poe’s fictionalisation of Paris in his new crime fiction. Crime fiction was born therefore not only simultaneously in France and America but also in the translation zone between the two, in the self-différance of translation. In this way, while a strong claim can be made that modern French crime fiction is predicated on, and reacts to, the auto-differentiation (of critical modernity, of Paris versus Paris) articulated in Baudelaire’s prose poems and therefore tells the national allegory, it is also the case, and it is this aspect that is all too often overlooked, that crime fiction’s birth in Franco-American translation founded the new French national allegory. Re-imagining America in (French) Crime Fiction Pierre Bayard has done more than any other critic in recent years to debunk the authorial power of the detective in crime fiction, beginning with his re-imagining of the solution to Agatha Christie’s The Murder of Roger Ackroyd and continuing with that of Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Hound of the Baskervilles (1998 and 2008, respectively). And yet, even as he has engaged with poststructuralist re-readings of these texts, he has put in place his own solutions, elevating them away from his own initial premise of writerly engagement towards a new metaphysics of “Meaning”, be it ironically or because he has fallen prey himself to the seduction of detectival truth. This reactionary turn, or sting-lessness in the tail, reaches new heights (of irony) in the essay in which he imagines the consequences of liberating novels from their traditional owners and coupling them with new authors (Bayard, Et si les œuvres changeaient d’auteur?). Throughout this essay Bayard systematically prefers the terms “work” and “author” to “text” and “reader”, liberating the text not only from the shackles of traditional notions of authorship but also from the terminological reshuffling of his and others’ critical theory, while at the same time clinging to the necessity for textual meaning to stem from authorship and repackaging what is, in all but terminology, Barthes et al.’s critical theory. Caught up in the bluff and double-bluff of Bayard’s authorial redeployments is a chapter on what is generally considered the greatest work of parody of twentieth-century French crime fiction—Boris Vian’s pseudo-translation of black American author Vernon Sullivan’s novel J’irai cracher sur vos tombes (1946, I Shall Spit on Your Graves). The novel was a best seller in France in 1946, outstripping by far the novels of the Série Noire, whose fame and marketability were predicated on their status as “Translations from the American” and of which it appeared a brazen parody. Bayard’s decision to give credibility to Sullivan as author is at once perverse, because it is clear that he did not exist, and reactionary, because it marks a return to Vian’s original conceit. And yet, it passes for innovative, not (or at least not only) because of Bayard’s brilliance but because of the literary qualities of the original text, which, Bayard argues, must have been written in “American” in order to produce such a powerful description of American society at the time. Bayard’s analysis overlooks (or highlights, if we couch his entire project in a hermeneutics of inversion, based on the deliberate, and ironic, re-reversal of the terms “work” and “text”) two key elements of post-war French crime fiction: the novels of the Série Noire that preceded J’irai cracher sur vos tombes in late 1945 and early 1946 were all written by authors posing as Americans (Peter Cheyney and James Hadley Chase were in fact English) and the translations were deliberately unfaithful both to the original text, which was drastically domesticated, and to any realistic depiction of America. While Anglo-Saxon French Studies has tended to overlook the latter aspect, Frank Lhomeau has highlighted the fact that the America that held sway in the French imaginary (from Liberation through to the 1960s and beyond) was a myth rather than a reality. To take this reasoning one logical, reflexive step further, or in fact less far, the object of Vian’s (highly reflexive) novel, which may better be considered a satire than a parody, can be considered not to be race relations in the United States but the French crime fiction scene in 1946, of which its pseudo-translation (which is to say, a novel not written by an American and not translated) is metonymic (see Vuaille-Barcan, Sitbon and Rolls). (For Isabelle Collombat, “pseudo-translation functions as a mise en abyme of a particular genre” [146, my translation]; this reinforces the idea of a conjunction of translation and crime fiction under the sign of reflexivity.) Re-imagined beneath this wave of colourful translations of would-be American crime novels is a new national allegory for a France emerging from the ruins of German occupation and Allied liberation. The re-imagining of France in the years immediately following the Second World War is therefore not mapped, or imagined again, by crime fiction; rather, the combination of translation and American crime fiction provide the perfect storm for re-creating a national sense of self through the filter of the Other. For what goes for the translator, goes equally for the reader. Conclusion As Johnson notes, “through the foreign language we renew our love-hate intimacy with our mother tongue”; and as such, “in the process of translation from one language to another, the scene of linguistic castration […] is played on center stage, evoking fear and pity and the illusion that all would perhaps have been well if we could simply have stayed at home” (144). This, of course, is just what had happened one hundred years earlier when Baudelaire created a new prose poetics for a new Paris. In order to re-present (both present and represent) Paris, he focused so close on it as to erase it from objective view. And in the same instance of supreme literary creativity, he masked the origins of his own translation praxis: his Paris was also Poe’s, which is to say, an American vision of Paris translated into French by an author who considered his American alter ego to have had his own thoughts in an act of what Bayard would consider anticipatory plagiarism. In this light, his decision to entitle one of the prose poems “Any where out of the world”—in English in the original—can be considered a Derridean reflection on the translation inherent in any original act of literary re-imagination. Paris, crime fiction and translation can thus all be considered privileged sites of re-imagination, which is to say, embodiments of self-différance and “original” acts of re-reading. References Apter, Emily. The Translation Zone: A New Comparative Literature. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2006. 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