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Journal articles on the topic 'Second-life batteries'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 31 January 2023

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1

Mubenga, Ngalula Sandrine, and Thomas Stuart. "Capacity Measurements for Second Life EV Batteries." Electricity 3, no. 3 (August 13, 2022): 396–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electricity3030021.

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After they reached the end of their useful EV life, lithium-ion batteries are still satisfactory for second life (SL) energy storage applications. However, the spread in their SL cell capacities may be much wider than in the EV, and this raises a question as to what type of cell voltage equalizer (EQU) should be used. Most users plan to retain the same passive EQU (PEQ) from the EV, but this means the battery capacity will be the same as the worst cell in the battery, just as it was in the EV. Unfortunately, the SL cell capacity spread may be much wider than it was in the EV, and if so, most of the cells will be under-utilized. This can be corrected by using an active EQU (AEQ) or a hybrid, such as the bilevel EQU (BEQ), to provide a capacity close to the cell average; but first, measured data is needed on the actual size of the cell capacity spread. To simplify and reduce the cost of these measurements, a new method is proposed that provides the capacities of the worst cell and the cell average.

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2

Williams, Brett. "Second Life for Plug-In Vehicle Batteries." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2287, no. 1 (January 2012): 64–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/2287-08.

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3

Milojevic, Zoran, Pierrot S. Attidekou, Mohamed Ahmeid, Simon Lambert, and Prodip Das. "(Digital Presentation) Reusing Li-Ion Batteries in Second-Life Applications: Impact of Cell Orientation in Electric Vehicle Pack." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 5 (July 7, 2022): 615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-015615mtgabs.

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Li-ion batteries (LiBs) in electric vehicles (EVs) finish their life with a significant amount of capacity left in them (about 80% of the nominal capacity), which provides a promising avenue for reusing the spent EV-batteries in less demanding second-life applications, such as grid-scale energy storage for peak shaving, EV charging, storage for intermittent energy sources (solar or wind power), backup storage for industries and property owners, and less demanding vehicle propulsion (ferries or forklifts) [1, 2]. However, reusing spent EV batteries in second-life applications is not as straightforward as taking a battery pack from an EV then installing it directly into a second-life application. One must consider the state-of-health (SoH) of the battery packs and hence the modules and cells to avoid any mismatch in terms of capacity, state-of-charge/depth-of-discharge (SoC/DoD). Even within the batteries suitable for reuse, cells must be sorted by similar remaining capacity and identical degradation state, or else the second-life system performance would suffer. The SoH needs careful assessment and ageing conditions evaluated to send heavily degraded batteries to recycling facilities. Whilst assessing the SoH is straightforward [3], identifying the ageing condition is complex, as ageing and degradation of LiBs over time are caused by various factors, including charging/discharging rate (C-rate), operating temperature, lifetime, SoC, and cycling [2]. Moreover, pack design, configuration, cooling methods as well as cell/module’s orientation in a pack can influence the battery degradation. In the present study, the effect of cell orientation on battery ageing and degradation has been investigated that can have an impact on the life of a battery in second-life applications. Eight large-size pouch batteries from two differently orientated modules from a dismantled first-generation Nissan Leaf retired battery pack have been analysed utilising infrared (IR) thermography and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques along with a brand-new second-generation Nissan Leaf battery which has almost the same geometry as batteries from the retired pack. Temperature derivative maps over the battery surface during discharging have been analysed, which show a direct correlation with the battery’s heat generation rates. Obtained results show that the thermal behaviour of brand-new batteries in orientations mimicking aged battery's orientation in the pack during EV life are very similar showing that the temperature derivative map’s hot spot is more towards the edge opposite to gravity vector (Figure 1 left). Also, EIS results (RCT+RSEI, charge transfer and solid electrolyte interphase layer resistances) show a wider range over SoCs for rotated-aged than flat-aged cells (Figure 1 right). It is worth noting that cells aged in flat orientation retained higher capacity compared to the cells aged in rotated orientation. These results show that different LiB orientations in EV batteries cause ageing non-uniformities over the battery surface, which would impact their second-life applications [4]. Non-uniform ageing is found to be more pronounced for the rotated module compared with the flat orientation inside the battery pack (Figure 1). Based on the present results, it is clear that avoiding different orientations in the battery pack can be a sustainable design for future EV battery back if reusing of spent EV batteries is envisaged. This work was part of the ReLiB project (https://relib.org.uk) and was supported by the Faraday Institution (https://www.faraday.ac.uk; grant numbers FIRG005 and FIRG027). References [1] ReLiB: Reuse and Recycling of Lithium-ion Batteries, accessed 12 December 2021, <https://relib1.relib.org.uk>. [2] P.S. Attidekou, Z. Milojevic, M. Muhammad, M. Ahmeid, S. Lambert, P.K. Das, “Methodologies for large-size pouch lithium-ion batteries end-of-life gateway detection in the second-life application,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society, vol. 167, pp. 160534, 2020, DOI: 10.1149/1945-7111/abd1f1. [3] M. Muhammad, M. Ahmeid, P. Attidekou, Z. Milojevic, S. Lambert, P. Das, “Assessment of spent EV batteries for second-life application”, 2019 IEEE 4th International Future Energy Electronics Conference (IFEEC), IEEE, pp. 1-5, 2019, DOI: 10.1109/IFEEC47410.2019.9015015. [4] Z. Milojevic, P.S. Attidekou, M. Muhammad, M. Ahmeid, S. Lambert, P.K. Das, “Influence of orientation on ageing of large-size pouch lithium-ion batteries during electric vehicle life,” Journal of Power Sources, vol. 506, pp. 230242, 2021, DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230242 Figure 1

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4

Casals, Lluc Canals, B. Amante García, and Camille Canal. "Second life batteries lifespan: Rest of useful life and environmental analysis." Journal of Environmental Management 232 (February 2019): 354–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.046.

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5

Wolff, Deidre, Lluc Canals Casals, Gabriela Benveniste, Cristina Corchero, and Lluís Trilla. "The Effects of Lithium Sulfur Battery Ageing on Second-Life Possibilities and Environmental Life Cycle Assessment Studies." Energies 12, no. 12 (June 25, 2019): 2440. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12122440.

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The development of Li-ion batteries has enabled the re-entry of electric vehicles into the market. As car manufacturers strive to reach higher practical specific energies (550 Wh/kg) than what is achievable for Li-ion batteries, new alternatives for battery chemistry are being considered. Li-Sulfur batteries are of interest due to their ability to achieve the desired practical specific energy. The research presented in this paper focuses on the development of the Li-Sulfur technology for use in electric vehicles. The paper presents the methodology and results for endurance tests conducted on in-house manufactured Li-S cells under various accelerated ageing conditions. The Li-S cells were found to reach 80% state of health after 300–500 cycles. The results of these tests were used as the basis for discussing the second life options for Li-S batteries, as well as environmental Life Cycle Assessment results of a 50 kWh Li-S battery.

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6

Canals Casals, Lluc, Beatriz Amante García, and Lázaro V. Cremades. "Electric vehicle battery reuse: Preparing for a second life." Journal of Industrial Engineering and Management 10, no. 2 (May 15, 2017): 266. http://dx.doi.org/10.3926/jiem.2009.

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Purpose: On pursue of economic revenue, the second life of electric vehicle batteries is closer to reality. Common electric vehicles reach the end of life when batteries loss between a 20 or 30% of its capacity. However, battery technology is evolving fast and the next generation of electric vehicles will have between 300 and 400 km range. This study will analyze different End of Life scenarios according to battery capacity and their possible second life’s opportunities. Additionally, an analysis of the electric vehicle market will define possible locations for battery repurposing or remanufacturing plants.Design/methodology/approach: Calculating the barycenter of the electric vehicle market offers an optimal location to settle the battery repurposing plant from a logistic and environmental perspective.This paper presents several possible applications and remanufacture processes of EV batteries according to the state of health after their collection, analyzing both the direct reuse of the battery and the module dismantling strategy.Findings: The study presents that Netherlands is the best location for installing a battery repurposing plant because of its closeness to EV manufacturers and the potential European EV markets, observing a strong relation between the EV market share and the income per capita.15% of the batteries may be send back to the an EV as a reposition battery, 60% will be prepared for stationary or high capacity installations such as grid services, residential use, Hybrid trucks or electric boats, and finally, the remaining 25% is to be dismantled into modules or cells for smaller applications, such as bicycles or assisting robots.Originality/value: Most of studies related to the EV battery reuse take for granted that they will all have an 80% of its capacity. This study analyzes and proposes a distribution of battery reception and presents different 2nd life alternatives according to their state of health.

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7

Mubenga, Ngalula Sandrine, Boluwatito Salami, and Thomas Stuart. "Bilevel vs. Passive Equalizers for Second Life EV Batteries." Electricity 2, no. 1 (February 7, 2021): 63–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electricity2010004.

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Once lithium-ion batteries degrade to below about 80% of their original capacity, they are no longer considered satisfactory for electric vehicles (EVs), but they are still adequate for second-life energy storage applications. However, once this level is reached, capacity fade increases at a much faster rate, and the spread between the cell capacities becomes much wider. If the passive equalizer (PEQ) from the EV is still used, battery capacity remains equal to that of the worst cell in the stack, just like it was in the EV. Unfortunately, the worst cell eventually becomes much weaker than the cell average, and the other cells are not fully utilized. If operated while the battery is in use, an active equalizer (AEQ) can increase the battery capacity to a much higher value close to the cell average, but AEQs are much more expensive and are not considered cost effective. However, it can be shown that the bilevel equalizer (BEQ), a PEQ/AEQ hybrid, also can provide a capacity very close to the cell average and at a much lower cost than an AEQ.

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8

Canals Casals, Lluc, Mattia Barbero, and Cristina Corchero. "Reused second life batteries for aggregated demand response services." Journal of Cleaner Production 212 (March 2019): 99–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.005.

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9

Janota, Lukáš, Tomáš Králík, and Jaroslav Knápek. "Second Life Batteries Used in Energy Storage for Frequency Containment Reserve Service." Energies 13, no. 23 (December 3, 2020): 6396. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13236396.

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The new Li-ion battery systems used in electric vehicles have an average capacity of 50 kWh and are expected to be discarded when they reach approximately 80% of their initial capacity, because they are considered to no longer be sufficient for traction purposes. Based on the official national future development scenarios and subsequent mathematical modeling of the number of electric vehicles (EVs), up to 400 GWh of storage capacity in discharged batteries will be available on the EU market by 2035. Therefore, since the batteries still have a considerable capacity after the end of their first life, they could be used in many stationary applications during their second life, such as support for renewables, flexibility, energy arbitrage, peak shaving, etc. Due to the high output power achieved in a short time, one of the most promising applications of these batteries are ancillary services. The study assesses the economic efficiency of the used batteries and presents several main scenarios depending on the likely future development of the interconnected EU regulatory energy market. The final results indicate that the best results of second-life batteries utilization lie in the provision of Frequency Containment Reserve Service, both from a technical and economic point of view. The internal rate of return fluctuates from 8% to 21% in the realistic scenario, and it supports the idea that such systems might be able to be in operation without any direct financial subsidies.

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10

Zhu, Juner, Ian Mathews, Dongsheng Ren, Wei Li, Daniel Cogswell, Bobin Xing, Tobias Sedlatschek, et al. "End-of-life or second-life options for retired electric vehicle batteries." Cell Reports Physical Science 2, no. 8 (August 2021): 100537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100537.

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11

Ma, Linkang, Caiping Zhang, Jinyu Wang, Kairang Wang, and Jie Chen. "Study on Capacity Estimation Methods of Second-Life Application Batteries." World Electric Vehicle Journal 12, no. 4 (September 26, 2021): 163. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj12040163.

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For the capacity estimation problem of cells in series-retired battery modules, this paper proposed three different methods from the perspective of data-driven, battery curve matching and recession characteristics for different applications. Firstly, based on the premise that the battery history data are available, the features of the IC curve are selected as input for the linear regression models. To avoid multicollinearity among features, we apply a filter-based feature selection method to eliminate redundant features. The results show that the average errors with Multiple Linear Regression are within 1.5%. Secondly, for the situation with a lack of historical operating data, the battery-curve-matching-based method is proposed based on the Dynamic Time Warping algorithm. This method could achieve the curve matching between the reference cell and target cell, and then the curve contraction coefficients can be obtained. The result shows that the method’s average error is 2.34%. Thirdly, whereas the tougher situation is that only part of the battery curve is available, we present a substitute method based on the battery degradation mechanism. This method can estimate most of the battery plant capacity through the partial battery curve. The result shows that the method’s average error is within 2%. Lastly, we contrast the applicability and limitations of every method based on the retired battery test data after deep cycling aging.

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12

Kehl, Daniel, Torben Jennert, Frank Lienesch, and Michael Kurrat. "Electrical Characterization of Li-Ion Battery Modules for Second-Life Applications." Batteries 7, no. 2 (May 13, 2021): 32. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries7020032.

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The reuse and repurposing of lithium-ion batteries for transportation in stationary energy systems improve the economic value of batteries. A precise suitability test at the beginning of the second life is therefore necessary. Common methods such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and current interrupt (CI) analysis, as well as capacity analysis, can be used for testing. In this paper, these methods are studied from the aspects of test duration, sensitivity and acquisition costs of the measuring instruments. For this purpose, tests are carried out on battery modules, which were used for transportation. It is shown that subtle differences are better detected with EIS and less accurately with the CI method. The test duration is fastest with the CI method, followed by EIS and the capacity test. Strongly aged modules are reliably detected with all methods.

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13

Canals Casals, Lluc, Maite Etxandi-Santolaya, Pere Antoni Bibiloni-Mulet, Cristina Corchero, and Lluis Trilla. "Electric Vehicle Battery Health Expected at End of Life in the Upcoming Years Based on UK Data." Batteries 8, no. 10 (October 7, 2022): 164. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100164.

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Second-life businesses from Electric Vehicle (EV) batteries are gaining attention considering that these batteries are deemed as inappropriate for transport purposes once they reach 80 or 70% of State of Health (SoH). However, the limited number of retired batteries and the trend in battery capacity increase hinder a realistic evaluation of second-life applications. To analyze battery reuse, a closer look at the End of Life (EoL) conditions of these batteries must be taken. This study presents a battery ageing model to estimate the SoH of EV batteries according to their age and mileage. The model is applied to the current retirement characteristics of combustion vehicles to statistically determine the expected SoH at the vehicle EoL. Results indicate that most EVs will reach EoL for reasons other than under-performance. Once retired, most EV batteries will have a SoH higher than 75% within the next 20 years, opening an interesting market for second-life businesses. However, battery reuse is an option that, considering the growing EV market, will rapidly saturate the stationary energy storage demand. Before 2040, most EV batteries will follow streams towards the circular economy, although at some point, they will have to be sent directly to recycling after the vehicular use.

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14

Montes, Tomás, Maite Etxandi-Santolaya, Josh Eichman, Victor José Ferreira, Lluís Trilla, and Cristina Corchero. "Procedure for Assessing the Suitability of Battery Second Life Applications after EV First Life." Batteries 8, no. 9 (September 9, 2022): 122. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090122.

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Using batteries after their first life in an Electric Vehicle (EV) represents an opportunity to reduce the environmental impact and increase the economic benefits before recycling the battery. Many different second life applications have been proposed, each with multiple criteria that have to be taken into consideration when deciding the most suitable course of action. In this article, a battery assessment procedure is proposed that consolidates and expands upon the approaches in the literature, and facilitates the decision-making process for a battery after it has reached the end of its first life. The procedure is composed of three stages, including an evaluation of the state of the battery, an evaluation of the technical viability and an economic evaluation. Options for battery configurations are explored (pack direct use, stack of battery packs, module direct use, pack refurbish with modules, pack refurbish with cells). By comparing these configurations with the technical requirements for second life applications, a reader can rapidly understand the tradeoffs and practical strategies for how best to implement second life batteries for their specific application. Lastly, an economic evaluation process is developed to determine the cost of implementing various second life battery configurations and the revenue for different end use applications. An example of the battery assessment procedure is included to demonstrate how it could be carried out.

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15

Živčák, Jozef, Jaroslava Kádárová, Michaela Kočišová, Laura Lachvajderová, and Michal Puškár. "Economic Analysis of Potential Secondary Use of Batteries from Electric Vehicles." Applied Sciences 11, no. 9 (April 23, 2021): 3834. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11093834.

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This article focuses on the practical use of used batteries from electric vehicles also known as 2nd life batteries. The first part emphasizes lithium batteries, which describes the overall life cycle of the battery, its number of charging cycles and secondary use. This part of the article also focuses on implemented projects of 2nd life batteries from electric vehicles and there is an analysis of the market potential for 2nd life batteries mentioned at the end of the chapter. The second part of this study offers a practical proposition of two possible strategies for using 2nd life batteries. The main source of income in both cases is the provision of regulatory energy. Using the formulas and the function of the calculation model created in the MS Excel software, the appropriate price of the battery for car manufacturers will be calculated and from other possible scenarios of individual strategies will be expressed. The first strategy works with large central battery storage and the second strategy uses small, decentralized battery storage with a fast-charging station.

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16

Zhao, Yanyan, Oliver Pohl, Anand I. Bhatt, Gavin E. Collis, Peter J. Mahon, Thomas Rüther, and Anthony F. Hollenkamp. "A Review on Battery Market Trends, Second-Life Reuse, and Recycling." Sustainable Chemistry 2, no. 1 (March 9, 2021): 167–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/suschem2010011.

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The rapid growth, demand, and production of batteries to meet various emerging applications, such as electric vehicles and energy storage systems, will result in waste and disposal problems in the next few years as these batteries reach end-of-life. Battery reuse and recycling are becoming urgent worldwide priorities to protect the environment and address the increasing need for critical metals. As a review article, this paper reveals the current global battery market and global battery waste status from which the main battery chemistry types and their management, including reuse and recycling status, are discussed. This review then presents details of the challenges, opportunities, and arguments on battery second-life and recycling. The recent research and industrial activities in the battery reuse domain are summarized to provide a landscape picture and valuable insight into battery reuse and recycling for industries, scientific research, and waste management.

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17

Illa Font, Carlos Henrique, Hugo Valadares Siqueira, João Eustáquio Machado Neto, João Lucas Ferreira dos Santos, Sergio Luiz Stevan, Attilio Converti, and Fernanda Cristina Corrêa. "Second Life of Lithium-Ion Batteries of Electric Vehicles: A Short Review and Perspectives." Energies 16, no. 2 (January 14, 2023): 953. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16020953.

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Technological advancement in storage systems has currently stimulated their use in miscellaneous applications. The devices have gained prominence due to their increased performance and efficiency, together with the recent global appeal for reducing the environmental impacts caused by generating power or by combustion vehicles. Many technologies have been developed to allow these devices to be reused or recycled. In this sense, the use of lithium-ion batteries, especially in electric vehicles, has been the central investigative theme. However, a drawback of this process is discarding used batteries. This work provides a short review of the techniques used for the second-life batteries of electric vehicles and presents the current positioning of the field, the steps involved in the process of reuse and a discussion on important references. In conclusion, some directions and perspectives of the field are shown.

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18

Olsson, Linda, Sara Fallahi, Maria Schnurr, Derek Diener, and Patricia van Loon. "Circular Business Models for Extended EV Battery Life." Batteries 4, no. 4 (November 2, 2018): 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries4040057.

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In the near future, a large volume of electric vehicle (EV) batteries will reach their end-of-life in EVs. However, they may still retain capacity that could be used in a second life, e.g., for a second use in an EV, or for home electricity storage, thus becoming part of the circular economy instead of becoming waste. The aim of this paper is to explore second life of EV batteries to provide an understanding of how the battery value chain and related business models can become more circular. We apply qualitative research methods and draw on data from interviews and workshops with stakeholders, to identify barriers to and opportunities for second use of EV batteries. New business models are conceptualized, in which increased economic viability of second life and recycling and increased business opportunities for stakeholders may lead to reduced resource consumption. The results show that although several stakeholders see potential in second life, there are several barriers, many of which are of an organizational and cognitive nature. The paper concludes that actors along the battery value chain should set up new collaborations with other actors to be able to benefit from creating new business opportunities and developing new business models together.

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19

Li, Yunjie, Stefanie Arnold, Samantha Husmann, and Volker Presser. "Recycling and second life of MXene electrodes for lithium-ion batteries and sodium-ion batteries." Journal of Energy Storage 60 (April 2023): 106625. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106625.

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20

Platt, Alison, Khalid Fatih, Shawn Brueckner, Xiao-Zi Yuan, Darren Jang, and Eric Fuller. "Lithium-Ion Battery Second Life: Cell Performance Assessment for Stationary Energy Storage Applications." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 5 (July 7, 2022): 603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-015603mtgabs.

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Repurposing electric vehicle (EV) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for second-life applications in stationary energy storage has developed considerable interest. With EV sales continuously rising, some critical materials used in LIBs risk supply shortages, while the volume of spent batteries could begin to overwhelm the facilities capable of disposing or recycling them. EV batteries typically reach end-of-life (EOL) when the capacity fades by 20-30%; although this is EOL exclusively for automotive applications, there still remains plenty of residual energy storage available that can be further utilized for less demanding applications. If viable, this could have significant impact in satisfying economic and environmental concerns as the trend toward greener and more sustainable energy solutions gains momentum. Extending the lifespan of retired EV LIBs can potentially supplement and soften the demand for total product, relaxing the strain on newly manufactured product and changing the standard of practice in the value chain. This lifecycle expansion could also be beneficial with respect to environmental impact by reducing raw material extraction and processing, landfill disposal or recycling, and improving resource sustainability. Existing public work on the reuse of EV batteries has mostly been exploratory, including feasibility studies, techno-economic analyses, and promotional demonstrations. Although necessary as part of the framework to move forward, these investigations lack the data to demonstrate the reliability of EV batteries for second-life applications. The work presented herein utilizes the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard 62620:2014 to evaluate the compliance, in terms of both capability and longevity, of EOL EV cells for energy storage applications. Battery modules were obtained from consumer-utilized 2012 and 2014 Nissan Leafs and characterization tests were applied to determine the present state of health. Cells were electrically isolated and the IEC Standard’s electrical tests were applied using a de-rated capacity as the new nominal capacity, based on the characterization results. One of the seven IEC Standard tests included a 500-cycle endurance test in which a C/2 charge and discharge rate was applied. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was measured periodically throughout the endurance test. Results on the compliance of these cells for stationary energy storage applications will be presented and discussed.

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Bagherpour, Michael, and Raymond A. de Callafon. "Distributed Control of Second Life Batteries in a Parallel Connected Network." IFAC-PapersOnLine 53, no. 2 (2020): 12511–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2020.12.1778.

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22

Jiao, Na, and Steve Evans. "Market Diffusion of Second-life Electric Vehicle Batteries: Barriers and Enablers." World Electric Vehicle Journal 8, no. 3 (September 30, 2016): 599–608. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj8030599.

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23

Salinas, Felipe, Lars Krüger, Steven Neupert, and Julia Kowal. "A second life for li-ion cells rescued from notebook batteries." Journal of Energy Storage 24 (August 2019): 100747. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.04.021.

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24

Salek, Farhad, Shahaboddin Resalati, Denise Morrey, Paul Henshall, and Aydin Azizi. "Technical Energy Assessment and Sizing of a Second Life Battery Energy Storage System for a Residential Building Equipped with EV Charging Station." Applied Sciences 12, no. 21 (November 2, 2022): 11103. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app122111103.

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This study investigates the design and sizing of the second life battery energy storage system applied to a residential building with an EV charging station. Lithium-ion batteries have an approximate remaining capacity of 75–80% when disposed from Electric Vehicles (EV). Given the increasing demand of EVs, aligned with global net zero targets, and their associated environmental impacts, the service life of these batteries, could be prolonged with their adoption in less demanding second life applications. In this study, a technical assessment of an electric storage system based on second life batteries from electric vehicles (EVs) is conducted for a residential building in the UK, including an EV charging station. The technical and energy performance of the system is evaluated, considering different scenarios and assuming that the EV charging load demand is added to the off-grid photovoltaic (PV) system equipped with energy storage. Furthermore, the Nissan Leaf second life batteries are used as the energy storage system in this study. The proposed off-grid solar driven energy system is modelled and simulated using MATLAB Simulink. The system is simulated on a mid-winter day with minimum solar irradiance and maximum energy demand, as the worst case scenario. A switch for the PV system has been introduced to control the overcharging of the second life battery pack. The results demonstrate that adding the EV charging load to the off-grid system increased the instability of the system. This, however, could be rectified by connecting additional battery packs (with a capacity of 5.850 kWh for each pack) to the system, assuming that increasing the PV installation area is not possible due to physical limitations on site.

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Lacap, Joseph, Jae Wan Park, and Lucas Beslow. "Development and Demonstration of Microgrid System Utilizing Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries." Journal of Energy Storage 41 (September 2021): 102837. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102837.

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Colarullo, Linda, and Jagruti Thakur. "Second-life EV batteries for stationary storage applications in Local Energy Communities." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 169 (November 2022): 112913. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112913.

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27

Ambrose, Hanjiro, Dimitry Gershenson, Alexander Gershenson, and Daniel Kammen. "Driving rural energy access: a second-life application for electric-vehicle batteries." Environmental Research Letters 9, no. 9 (September 1, 2014): 094004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/9/094004.

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Jiao, Na, and Steve Evans. "Business Models for Sustainability: The Case of Second-life Electric Vehicle Batteries." Procedia CIRP 40 (2016): 250–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.114.

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29

Wu, Wei, Boqiang Lin, Chunping Xie, Robert J. R. Elliott, and Jonathan Radcliffe. "Does energy storage provide a profitable second life for electric vehicle batteries?" Energy Economics 92 (October 2020): 105010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.105010.

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Khalid, Asadullah, Alexander Stevenson, and Arif I. Sarwat. "Performance Analysis of Commercial Passive Balancing Battery Management System Operation Using a Hardware-in-the-Loop Testbed." Energies 14, no. 23 (December 1, 2021): 8037. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14238037.

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With increased usage, individual batteries within the battery pack will begin to show disparate voltage and State of Charge (SOC) profiles, which will impact the time at which batteries become balanced. Commercial battery management systems (BMSs), used in electric vehicles (EVs) and microgrids, typically send out signals suggesting removal of individual batteries or entire packs to prevent thermal runaway scenarios. To reuse these batteries, this paper presents an analysis of an off-the-shelf Orion BMS with a constrained cycling approach to assess the voltage and SOC balancing and thermal performances of such near-to-second life batteries. A scaled-down pack of series-connected batteries in 6s1p and 6s2p topologies are cycled through a combination of US06 drive and constant charge (CC) profiles using an OPAL-RT real-time Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulator. These results are compared with those obtained from the Matlab/Simulink model to present the error incurred in the simulation environment. Results suggest that the close-to-second life batteries can be reused if operated in a constrained manner and that a scaled-up battery pack topology reduces incurred error.

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31

Castillo-Martínez, Diego Hilario, Adolfo Josué Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Adrian Soto, Alberto Berrueta, David Tomás Vargas-Requena, Ignacio R. Matias, Pablo Sanchis, Alfredo Ursúa, and Wenceslao Eduardo Rodríguez-Rodríguez. "Design and On-Field Validation of an Embedded System for Monitoring Second-Life Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries." Sensors 22, no. 17 (August 24, 2022): 6376. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22176376.

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In the last few years, the growing demand for electric vehicles (EVs) in the transportation sector has contributed to the increased use of electric rechargeable batteries. At present, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are the most commonly used in electric vehicles. Although once their storage capacity has dropped to below 80–70% it is no longer possible to use these batteries in EVs, it is feasible to use them in second-life applications as stationary energy storage systems. The purpose of this study is to present an embedded system that allows a Nissan® LEAF Li-ion battery to communicate with an Ingecon® Sun Storage 1Play inverter, for control and monitoring purposes. The prototype was developed using an Arduino® microcontroller and a graphical user interface (GUI) on LabVIEW®. The experimental tests have allowed us to determine the feasibility of using Li-ion battery packs (BPs) coming from the automotive sector with an inverter with no need for a prior disassembly and rebuilding process. Furthermore, this research presents a programming and hardware methodology for the development of the embedded systems focused on second-life electric vehicle Li-ion batteries. One second-life battery pack coming from a Nissan® Leaf and aged under real driving conditions was integrated into a residential microgrid serving as an energy storage system (ESS).

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Wu, Jimmy, Andrew Mackenzie, and Neeraj Sharma. "Recycling lithium-ion batteries: adding value with multiple lives." Green Chemistry 22, no. 7 (2020): 2244–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d0gc00269k.

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Müller, Daniel, Thomas Dufaux, and Kai Peter Birke. "Model-Based Investigation of Porosity Profiles in Graphite Anodes Regarding Sudden-Death and Second-Life of Lithium Ion Cells." Batteries 5, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries5020049.

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The second-life concept helps to reduce the cost for electric vehicles by adding monetary value to disused automotive batteries. However, the sudden-death effect, a change in ageing behaviour limits the total lifetime and might reduce the second-life timespan. In this paper, we utilize a common pseudo two-dimensional (P2D) cell model to investigate the influence of different porosity profiles in the graphite electrode on the battery’s ageing. Ageing is modeled by two irreversible side reactions at the anode, the formation of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) and lithium plating. We use parameters of a high-energy cell with thick electrodes. A constant initial anode porosity as a reference is compared with two optimized porosity profiles. Simulation results show that by using a layered anode, a two-stage porosity profile with higher porosity at the separator side, the cycle count until sudden-death and especially the cycles for second-life applications can both almost be doubled.

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Hu, Xiaosong, Xinchen Deng, Feng Wang, Zhongwei Deng, Xianke Lin, Remus Teodorescu, and Michael G. Pecht. "A Review of Second-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries for Stationary Energy Storage Applications." Proceedings of the IEEE 110, no. 6 (June 2022): 735–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jproc.2022.3175614.

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35

Shahjalal, Mohammad, Probir Kumar Roy, Tamanna Shams, Ashley Fly, Jahedul Islam Chowdhury, Md Rishad Ahmed, and Kailong Liu. "A review on second-life of Li-ion batteries: prospects, challenges, and issues." Energy 241 (February 2022): 122881. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122881.

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36

Mubenga, Ngalula Sandrine, Kripa Sharma, and Thomas Stuart. "A Bilevel Equalizer to Boost the Capacity of Second Life Li Ion Batteries." Batteries 5, no. 3 (August 1, 2019): 55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries5030055.

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There is a strong interest in second life applications for the growing number of used electric vehicle (EV) batteries, but capacity variations amongst these used cells present a problem. Even when these cells are matched for capacity, some imbalance is bound to remain, and a few lower capacity cells are also likely to develop after the pack begins its second life. Conventional cell voltage equalizers (EQU) do not address this problem, and they only provide a battery discharge capacity that is exactly equal to that of the weakest cell in the pack. This can easily result in a capacity loss of perhaps 20% to 25%, or more. This indicates the need for a new class of EQUs that can provide a discharge capacity that is close to the average of the cells, instead of the weakest cell. It is proposed to call these “capacity EQUs”, and the properties they must have are described. One such EQU is the bilevel equalizer (BEQ), described previously. This present paper provides an enhanced analysis of the BEQ and improved modelling methods. It also presents more details that are necessary to implement the microcontroller algorithm for the BEQ hardware.

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Casals, Lluc Canals, Beatriz Amante García, Frédéric Aguesse, and Amaia Iturrondobeitia. "Second life of electric vehicle batteries: relation between materials degradation and environmental impact." International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 22, no. 1 (June 20, 2015): 82–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0918-3.

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38

Jiang, Yan, Jiuchun Jiang, Caiping Zhang, Weige Zhang, Yang Gao, and Na Li. "State of health estimation of second-life LiFePO4 batteries for energy storage applications." Journal of Cleaner Production 205 (December 2018): 754–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.149.

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39

Cheng, Ming, Xuan Zhang, Aihua Ran, Guodan Wei, and Hongbin Sun. "Optimal dispatch approach for second-life batteries considering degradation with online SoH estimation." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 173 (March 2023): 113053. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.113053.

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40

Paolella, Andrea, Cyril Faure, Vladimir Timoshevskii, Sergio Marras, Giovanni Bertoni, Abdelbast Guerfi, Ashok Vijh, Michel Armand, and Karim Zaghib. "A review on hexacyanoferrate-based materials for energy storage and smart windows: challenges and perspectives." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 36 (2017): 18919–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ta05121b.

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41

Quinard, Honorat, Eduardo Redondo-Iglesias, Serge Pelissier, and Pascal Venet. "Fast Electrical Characterizations of High-Energy Second Life Lithium-Ion Batteries for Embedded and Stationary Applications." Batteries 5, no. 1 (March 14, 2019): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010033.

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This paper focuses on the fast characterization of automotive second life lithium-ion batteries that have been recently re-used in many projects to create battery storages for stationary applications and sporadically for embedded applications. Specific criteria dedicated to the second life are first discussed. After a short review of the available state of health indicators and their associated determination techniques, some electrical characterization tests are explored through an experimental campaign. This offline identification aims to estimate the remaining ability of the battery to store energy. Twenty-four modules from six different commercial electric vehicles are analyzed. Well-known methodologies like incremental capacity analysis (ICA) and constant voltage phase analysis during CC-CV charge highlight the difficulty—and sometimes the impossibility—to apply traditional tools on a battery pack or on individual modules, in the context of real second life applications. Indeed, the diversity of the available second life batteries induces a combination of aging mechanisms that leads to a complete heterogeneity from a cell to another. Moreover, due to the unknown first life of the battery, typical state of health determination methodologies are difficult to use. A new generic technique based on a partial coulometric counter is proposed and compared to other techniques. In the present case study, the partial coulometric counter allows a fast determination of the capacity aging. In conclusion, future improvements and working tracks are addressed.

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Salek, Farhad, Aydin Azizi, Shahaboddin Resalati, Paul Henshall, and Denise Morrey. "Mathematical Modelling and Simulation of Second Life Battery Pack with Heterogeneous State of Health." Mathematics 10, no. 20 (October 17, 2022): 3843. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math10203843.

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The service life of Lithium-ion batteries disposed from electric vehicles, with an approximate remaining capacity of 75–80%, can be prolonged with their adoption in less demanding second life applications such as buildings. A photovoltaic energy generation system integrated with a second life battery energy storage device is modelled mathematically to assess the design’s technical characteristics. The reviewed studies in the literature assume, during the modelling process, that the second life battery packs are homogeneous in terms of their initial state of health and do not consider the module-to-module variations associated with the state of health differences. This study, therefore, conducts mathematical modelling of second life battery packs with homogenous and heterogeneous state of health in module level using second-order equivalent circuit model (ECM). The developed second-order ECM is validated against experimental data performed in the lab on SONY VTC6 batteries. The degradation parameters are also investigated using the battery cell’s first life degradation data and exponential triple smoothing (ETS) algorithm. The second-order ECM is integrated with the energy generation system to evaluate and compare the performance of the homogenous and heterogeneous battery packs during the year. Results of this study revealed that in heterogeneous packs, a lower electrical current and higher SOC is observed in modules with lower state of health due to their higher ohmic resistance and lower capacity, compared to the other modules for the specific battery pack configuration used in this study. The methodology presented in this study can be used for mathematical modelling of second life battery packs with heterogenous state of health of cells and modules, the simulation results of which can be employed for obtaining the optimum energy management strategy in battery management systems.

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Attidekou, Pierrot S., Zoran Milojevic, Musbahu Muhammad, Mohamed Ahmeid, Simon Lambert, and Prodip K. Das. "Methodologies for Large-Size Pouch Lithium-Ion Batteries End-of-Life Gateway Detection in the Second-Life Application." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 167, no. 16 (December 18, 2020): 160534. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/abd1f1.

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44

Knowles, Michael. "Impact of Second Life Electric Vehicle Batteries on the Viability of Renewable Energy Sources." British Journal of Applied Science & Technology 4, no. 1 (January 10, 2014): 152–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/bjast/2014/5632.

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Braco, Elisa, Idoia San Martín, Pablo Sanchis, Alfredo Ursúa, and Daniel-Ioan Stroe. "State of health estimation of second-life lithium-ion batteries under real profile operation." Applied Energy 326 (November 2022): 119992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119992.

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46

Neubauer, Jeremy S., Eric Wood, and Ahmad Pesaran. "A Second Life for Electric Vehicle Batteries: Answering Questions on Battery Degradation and Value." SAE International Journal of Materials and Manufacturing 8, no. 2 (April 14, 2015): 544–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2015-01-1306.

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Wang, Yixuan, Baojun Tang, Meng Shen, Yizhou Wu, Shen Qu, Yujie Hu, and Ye Feng. "Environmental impact assessment of second life and recycling for LiFePO4 power batteries in China." Journal of Environmental Management 314 (July 2022): 115083. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115083.

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Canals Casals, Lluc, and Beatriz Amante García. "Second-Life Batteries on a Gas Turbine Power Plant to Provide Area Regulation Services." Batteries 3, no. 4 (March 17, 2017): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries3010010.

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Saez-de-Ibarra, Andoni, Egoitz Martinez-Laserna, Daniel-Ioan Stroe, Maciej Swierczynski, and Pedro Rodriguez. "Sizing Study of Second Life Li-ion Batteries for Enhancing Renewable Energy Grid Integration." IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications 52, no. 6 (November 2016): 4999–5008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tia.2016.2593425.

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Diouf, Boucar. "A second life for mobile phone batteries in light emitting diode solar home systems." Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy 8, no. 2 (March 2016): 024106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4944967.

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