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Books on the topic 'Secondary hypertension'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 3 June 2025

Last updated: 31 July 2025

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1

Li, Nanfang, ed. Secondary Hypertension. Springer Singapore, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0591-1.

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Mansoor, George A., ed. Secondary Hypertension. Humana Press, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-757-4.

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Morganti, Alberto, Enrico Agabiti Rosei, and Franco Mantero, eds. Secondary Hypertension. Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45562-0.

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4

Tsioufis, Costas, Roland E. Schmieder, and Giuseppe Mancia, eds. Interventional Therapies for Secondary and Essential Hypertension. Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-34141-5.

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5

A, Mansoor George, ed. Secondary hypertension: Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment. Humana Press, 2004.

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6

A, Mansoor George, ed. Secondary hypertension: Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment. Humana Press, 2004.

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7

International Symposium on Secondary Hypertension (1984 University ofMünster). Secondary hypertension: New aspects in diagnosis and treatment of renal and adrenal hypertension : symposium, September 28, 1984, Münster, FRG. Edited by Vetter Hans, Vetter Wilhelm, Losse H. 1920-, and Henning Berlin GmbH. Karger, 1985.

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8

Katritsis, Demosthenes G., Bernard J. Gersh, and A. John Camm. Secondary hypertension. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199685288.003.0502_update_002.

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The causes of secondary hypertension and their therapy are discussed. Considered conditions are secondary hypertension, renovascular hypertension, renal parenchymal disease, primary aldosteronism, phaeochromocytoma, adrenal incidentaloma, and other causes of secondary hypertension.

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9

Rosei, Enrico Agabiti, Alberto Morganti, and Franco Mantero. Secondary Hypertension. Springer, 2020.

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10

Rosei, Enrico Agabiti, Alberto Morganti, and Franco Mantero. Secondary Hypertension. Springer International Publishing AG, 2021.

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11

Mansoor, George A. Secondary Hypertension. Humana Press Inc.,U.S., 2004.

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12

Vetter, H. Secondary Hypertension (Cardiology). S. Karger AG (Switzerland), 1985.

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13

Li, Nanfang. Secondary Hypertension: Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment. Springer, 2019.

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14

Li, Nanfang. Secondary Hypertension: Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment. Springer Singapore Pte. Limited, 2021.

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15

Mancia, Giuseppe, Roland E. Schmieder, and Costas Tsioufis. Interventional Therapies for Secondary and Essential Hypertension. Springer, 2016.

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16

Mancia, Giuseppe, Roland E. Schmieder, and Costas Tsioufis. Interventional Therapies for Secondary and Essential Hypertension. Springer, 2018.

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17

Mansoor, George A. Secondary Hypertension: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Humana Press, 2010.

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18

Mansoor, George A. Secondary Hypertension: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment (Clinical Hypertension and Vascular Diseases). Humana Press, 2004.

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19

Ferro, José M., and Ana Catarina Fonseca. Secondary prevention. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198722366.003.0015.

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There are no specific guidelines regarding secondary stroke prevention in young adult stroke patients. Recommendations for secondary prevention are mainly extrapolated from data obtained from older individuals, because young adults were excluded or under-represented in most secondary stroke prevention clinical trials. Secondary stroke prevention includes (a) screening and control of vascular risk factors, that is, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidaemia, atrial fibrillation, hormonal contraception, infections, trauma, physical inactivity, obesity, poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol, and

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20

Stocchetti, Nino, and Andrew I. R. Maas. Causes and management of intracranial hypertension. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0233.

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Intracranial hypertension may damage the brain in two ways—it causes tissue distortion and herniation, and reduces cerebral perfusion. The many different pathologies that can result in intracranial hypertension include subarachnoid haemorrhage, spontaneous intra-parenchymal haemorrhage, malignant cerebral hemispheric infarction, and acute hydrocephalus. The pathophysiology and specific treatment of intracranial hypertension may be different and depend on aetiology. In patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage a specific focus is on treating secondary hydrocephalus and maintaining adequate cerebra

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21

Wenzel, Ulrich, Thorsten Wiech, and Udo Helmchen. The effect of hypertension on renal vasculature and structure. Edited by Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0211.

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The concept of hypertensive nephrosclerosis was introduced by Volhard and Fahr in 1914 and has been extensively used in the literature since then, but its existence is controversial. While it is indisputable that malignant hypertension is a cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD), there remains controversy as to whether the so-called benign nephrosclerosis can also lead to ESRD.Pressure, if it is great enough, will eventually disrupt any structure. Obviously, this is also true of blood pressure. It is therefore not surprising that an experimentally induced great increase in pressure disrupts t

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22

Waldmann, Carl, Neil Soni, and Andrew Rhodes. Cardiovascular disorders. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199229581.003.0018.

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Hypertension 284Tachyarrhythmias 288Bradyarrhythmias 290Myocardial infarction: diagnosis 292NSTEMI 294STEMI 296Acute heart failure: assessment 300Acute heart failure: management 304Bacterial endocarditis 308Hypertension is defined as sustained SBP ≥140mm Hg and/or DBP ≥90mm Hg (Table 18.1.1). In the UK, the prevalence of hypertension is ~32%. Of these, only 22% have controlled BP (<140/90mm Hg). Essential (primary) hypertension accounts for 80–90% of cases. Secondary causes of hypertension include renal and endocrine disorders and drug-induced hypertension (...

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23

Rascher, Wolfgang. The hypertensive child. Edited by Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0218_update_001.

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Arterial hypertension is a well-recognized manifestation of various forms of renal disease both in adults and children. In the paediatric age group, standards for normal blood pressure are different from adults and have now been satisfactorily defined as have standards for measuring blood pressure. The epidemic of overweight and obesity in youth is increasing the prevalence of hypertension among children and adolescents. Measurement of blood pressure requires a technique specific for different age groups of the paediatric population, is more complex and requires particular expertise. Reference

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24

Chong, Ji Y., and Michael P. Lerario. Small Vessel Disease. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190495541.003.0010.

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Lacunar strokes are strongly associated with hypertension. Long-term blood pressure management is important after lacunar stroke. Antiplatelet therapy should be instituted for secondary stroke prevention.

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25

Ritchie, James, Darren Green, Constantina Chrysochou, and Philip A. Kalra. Renal artery stenosis. Edited by Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0214.

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Modern practice typically utilizes indirect angiography by computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging as the first-line diagnostic tool for renal artery stenosis, with no established screening tool able to meaningfully impact the pre-test probability of a positive finding. Neither can any current imaging technique reliably predict patient, blood pressure, or renal outcome following renal artery revascularization, although promising developments have been made in recent years.A major mechanism of hypertension in renovascular hypertension is overproduction of renin in response to hypoperf

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26

Nageshwaran, Sathiji, Heather C. Wilson, Anthony Dickenson, and David Ledingham. Headache. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199664368.003.0001.

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This chapter on headache discusses the classification, clinical features, treatment regimes, and evidence for treatment of primary (including migraine, tension-type headache, and trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias) and secondary headache (idiopathic intracranial hypertension and medication overuse headache) disorders.

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27

Bowker, Lesley K., James D. Price, Ku Shah, and Sarah C. Smith. Cardiovascular. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198738381.003.0010.

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This chapter provides information on the ageing cardiovascular system, chest pain, stable angina, acute coronary syndromes, myocardial infarction, hypertension, treatment of hypertension, presentation of arrhythmias, management of arrhythmias, atrial fibrillation, rate/rhythm control in atrial fibrillation, stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation, bradycardia and conduction disorders, common arrhythmias and conduction abnormalities, heart failure assessment, acute heart failure, chronic heart failure, dilemmas in heart failure, heart failure with preserved left ventricular function, valvular

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28

Groeneveld, A. B. J., and Alexandre Lima. Vasodilators in critical illness. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0035.

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Vasodilators are commonly used in the intensive care unit (ICU) to control arterial blood pressure, unload the left or the right heart, control pulmonary artery pressure, and improve microcirculatory blood flow. Vasodilator refers to drugs acting directly on the smooth muscles of peripheral vessel walls and drugs are usually classified based on their mechanism (acting directly or indirectly) or site of action (arterial or venous vasodilator). Drugs that have a predominant effect on resistance vessels are arterial dilators and drugs that primarily affect venous capacitance vessels are venous di

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29

Alikhan, Raza. Prothrombotic conditions. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0285.

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The term thrombophilia is used to describe an individual who has a tendency to develop thrombosis. Arterial thrombosis is usually linked with classical risk factors such as age, smoking, hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, or diabetes; a thrombophilia assessment and workup is not usually considered in cases of arterial thrombosis. A clinically useful approach to the diagnosis and management of a patient with a venous thrombotic process is to categorize the disorder as either a primary (inherited) or secondary (acquired) hypercoagulable state. This topic addresses the diagnosis and management of pro

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30

Aikens, Kim, and Shauna Shapiro. The Concept of Mindfulness in Integrative Preventive Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190241254.003.0005.

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This chapter discusses mindfulness as it applies to integrative preventive medicine. Defining mindfulness as the awareness that arises through intentionally attending in an open, caring, and discerning way, the chapter proposes three core mindfulness elements: intention, attention, and attitude. It explores the potential application of mindfulness to primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. The chapter looks at the impact of mindfulness on health promotion and examines mindfulness as a secondary prevention strategy, particularly in hypertension and diabetes. It then addresses tertiary prev

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31

Hert, Stefan De, and Patrick Wouters. Heart disease and anaesthesia. Edited by Philip M. Hopkins. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642045.003.0083.

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Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of mortality. Hypertension is one of the major risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Classically, hypertension is subdivided according to the aetiology into primary and secondary hypertension. Ischaemic heart disease constitutes a major concern for perioperative morbidity and mortality. Therefore important efforts are directed towards the identification of the patient at risk for perioperative cardiac complications and towards optimization of the cardiac status before intervention. Cardiac rhythm disturbances fall into two general classes: bradyarrh

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32

Wecksell, Matthew, and Kenneth Fomberstein. Traumatic Brain Injury and C-Spine Management. Edited by David E. Traul and Irene P. Osborn. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190850036.003.0020.

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Traumatic brain injury encompasses two different types of pathology: that caused at the time of the initial physical insult, called primary injury, and then further, secondary injury caused by either host cellular responses such as oxidative injury and inflammation or by physiological insults such as ischemia, hypoxia, hypo- or hypercapnia, intracranial hypertension, and hypo- or hyperglycemia. While primary injury falls to the realm of public health (e.g., encouraging helmet use for sports, discouraging impaired driving, etc.), many secondary injuries are avoidable with proper medical managem

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33

Tatham, Andrew, and Peng Tee Khaw. Glaucoma. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199672516.003.0008.

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This chapter explores glaucoma. It starts off with an outline of optic nerve head anatomy and then describes aqueous fluid dynamics and the pathogenesis of glaucoma. It then goes on to discuss the clinical skill areas of optic nerve head assessment in glaucoma, glaucoma imaging devices, tonometry and tachymetry, gonioscopy, and perimetry. The chapter also details ocular hypertension, primary open-angle glaucoma, primary angle closure, and secondary angle closure. In addition, it discusses normal tension glaucoma, steroid-induced glaucoma, traumatic glaucoma, inflammatory glaucomas, pseudoexfol

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34

Weaver, Sheena M. Traumatic Brain Injury. Edited by Matthew D. McEvoy and Cory M. Furse. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190226459.003.0066.

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Traumatic brain injury accounts for over a million emergency room visits each year and frequently results in the need for escalated levels of care, including surgical intervention, at acute care facilities. This chapter reviews the pertinent concepts integral to the perioperative assessment and management of traumatic brain injury, specifically that of acute traumatic subdural and epidural hemorrhages. It discusses that this management hinges on the ability of the clinician to quickly recognize primary injury and its associated pathophysiology, to prevent or reduce secondary injury (including

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35

Sutter, Johan De, Miguel Mendes, and Oscar H. Franco. Cardioprotective drugs. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656653.003.0019.

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Cardioprotective drugs are important in the treatment of patients at risk for or with documented cardiovascular disease. Beta-blockers are indicated after acute coronary syndromes, stable coronary artery disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) are important in congestive heart failure, stable angina, post-acute myocardial infarction, and secondary prevention after any event or revascularization. Angiotensin receptor blockers are mainly alternative drugs for the same indications in case of intolerance to ACEi. Calcium channel blockers are first l

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36

Sutter, Johan De, Miguel Mendes, and Oscar H. Franco. Cardioprotective drugs. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656653.003.0019_update_001.

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Cardioprotective drugs are important in the treatment of patients at risk for or with documented cardiovascular disease. Beta-blockers are indicated after acute coronary syndromes, stable coronary artery disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) are important in congestive heart failure, stable angina, post-acute myocardial infarction, and secondary prevention after any event or revascularization. Angiotensin receptor blockers are mainly alternative drugs for the same indications in case of intolerance to ACEi. Calcium channel blockers are first l

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37

Subhas, Kamalakkannan, and Martin Smith. Intensive care management after neurosurgery. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0369.

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The post-operative management of neurosurgical patients is directed towards the prevention, prompt detection, and management of surgical complications, and other factors that put the brain or spinal cord at risk. Close monitoring is required in the first 6–12 post-operative hours as deterioration in clinical status is usually the first sign of a potentially fatal complication. The majority of patients do not require complex monitoring or management beyond the first 12 hours after elective surgery, although prolonged intensive care unit management may be required for those who develop complicat

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38

Blisard, Deanna, and Ali Al-Khafaji. Diagnosis and management of variceal bleeding in the critically ill. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0178.

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Cirrhosis is the most common cause of portal hypertension, which subsequently leads to development of gastroesophageal varices (GEV). Generally, presence of GEV correlates with the severity of cirrhosis and variceal haemorrhage can develop when hepatic venous pressure gradient exceeds 10–12 mmHg. The gold standard for diagnosis and often treatment of GEV is oesophagogastroduodenoscopy (OGD). Management of GEV is divided into primary prophylaxis, acute haemorrhage control, and secondary prophylaxis. Primary prophylaxis includes surveillance OGD and endoscopic intervention based on the size of t

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39

Ratcliff, Jonathan J., and David W. Wright. Neuroprotection for Traumatic Brain Injury. Edited by David L. Reich, Stephan Mayer, and Suzan Uysal. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190280253.003.0008.

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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common, clinically complex, heterogeneous global public health problem. Neuroprotection strategies focus on preventing secondary injury by creating a physiologic environment devoid of extremes while targeting normal physiologic parameters. Careful attention must be paid to aggressively avoid and treat hypoxia, hypotension, hypoglycemia, intracranial hypertension, and cerebral hypoperfusion (low cerebral perfusion pressure). Aggressive management of intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure through optimal patient positioning, appropriate use of sed

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40

Newell-Price, John, Alia Munir, and Miguel Debono. Adrenal disease. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0188.

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This chapter reviews the clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of three adrenal diseases: adrenal insufficiency, primary aldosteronism (hyperaldosteronism), and phaeochromocytoma. Adrenal insufficiency is a disorder characterized by impaired adrenocortical function. In primary adrenal insufficiency, destruction of the adrenal cortex results in a decreased production of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and/or androgens. Secondary adrenal insufficiency is due to disordered pituitary and hypothalamic function resulting in decreased secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone or corticotrop

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41

Khanna, Ashish K., and Piyush Mathur. Bariatric Surgery and Acute Cardiovascular Complications in the ICU. Edited by Tomasz Rogula, Philip Schauer, and Tammy Fouse. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190608347.003.0019.

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The increased numbers of bariatric surgical procedures worldwide have translated into a higher number of postoperative intensive care unit (ICU) admissions. The pathophysiologic perturbations in obesity mean that a large fraction of bariatric surgical patients have both diagnosed and undiagnosed underlying coronary artery disease, hypertension, cardiac rhythm disturbances, and baseline cardiac dysfunction. Manifestations of cardiac complications in this patient population are usually extremely subtle, both intraoperatively under anesthesia and in the ICU during the immediate postoperative peri

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42

Moulton, Calum D., and Clive Ballard. The association between depression and cognitive impairment in type 2 diabetes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198789284.003.0009.

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Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is an established risk factor for vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease, yet, the reasons are incompletely understood. To date, intervention studies targeting isolated risk factors, such as hypertension or hyperglycaemia, have proved unsuccessful. Several well-designed cohort studies have suggested that depression predicts cognitive decline in patients with T2D. However, these studies, all of later-life depression, have not fully excluded the potential for clinical overlap between depression and dementia. Mechanisms linking depression and cognitive decline may include

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43

Newell-Price, John, Alia Munir, and Miguel Debono. Obesity: differential diagnosis. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0081.

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This topic addresses the causes and consequences of obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or above. While BMI is the most commonly used measure of obesity, the waist-to-height ratio correlates better with visceral obesity. At least 1.1 billion adults are overweight worldwide, but a medical cause for obesity is found in less than 1 out of every 100 cases. The health consequences of obesity are diverse and serious. Approximately 50% of all hypertension is secondary to obesity, and the heart may also be harmed by obesity-induced chronic volume overload and ischaemic heart disease. Obe

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44

Kang, Duk-Hee, and Mehmet Kanbay. Urate nephropathy. Edited by Adrian Covic. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0092.

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Gout is a disorder of purine metabolism, characterized by hyperuricaemia and urate crystal deposition within and around the joints. The recognition of increased comorbidity burden in patients with gout rendered it as a systemic disorder rather than simply a musculoskeletal condition. Gout nephropathy (also known as chronic uric acid nephropathy or urate nephropathy) is a form of chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, induced by deposition of monosodium urate crystals in the distal collecting ducts and the medullary interstitium, associated with a secondary inflammatory reaction. Other renal his

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45

Thomas, Bernadette A., and Christopher R. Blagg. Patient selection when resources are limited. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0147_update_001.

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More than 50 years ago, outpatient care for patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) became possible through the invention of the Scribner shunt. Since that time, renal replacement therapy (RRT) has expanded to include haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, and renal transplantation. There has been tremendous global growth in the number of patients with access to RRT for ESRD, but many societies face difficult triage decisions for these costly modalities similar to those faced by the pioneers of outpatient dialysis in the early 1960s. Developed and developing societies will face the complex c

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46

Gale, Daniel P., and Terry Cook. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis and C3 glomerulopathy. Edited by Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0080.

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Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) is synonymous with mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis and refers to light microscopic appearances of a kidney biopsy in which there are increased mesangial cells and matrix with thickening of the glomerular capillary walls, often with a double contour appearance. MPGN represents morphological appearances caused by a wide range of diseases, most of which are systemic and involve activation of the immune system. It commonly presents as nephrotic syndrome, alternatively with proteinuria, haematuria, and varying degrees of hypertension and renal dy

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47

Lambert, Heather. Primary vesicoureteric reflux and reflux nephropathy. Edited by Adrian Woolf. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0355_update_001.

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Vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) describes the flow of urine from the bladder into the upper urinary tract when the ureterovesical junction fails to perform as a one-way valve. Most commonly, VUR is primary, though it can be secondary to bladder outflow obstruction and can occur in several multiorgan congenital disorders. There is good evidence of a genetic basis with a greatly increased risk of VUR in children with a family history of VUR. VUR is a congenital disorder, which largely shows improvement or complete resolution with age. Fetal VUR may be associated with parenchymal developmental defect

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48

Whittle, Ian. Raised intracranial pressure, cerebral oedema, and hydrocephalus. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198569381.003.0604.

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The brain is protected by the cranial skeleton. Within the intracranial compartment are also cerebrospinal fluid, CSF, and the blood contained within the brain vessels. These intracranial components are in dynamic equilibrium due to the pulsations of the heart and the respiratory regulated return of venous blood from the brain. Normally the mean arterial blood pressure, systemic venous pressure, and brain volume are regulated to maintain physiological values for intracranial pressure, ICP. There are a range of very common disorders such as stroke, and much less common, such as idiopathic intra

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49

Rahimi, Kazem. Heart muscle disease (cardiomyopathy). Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0106.

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Cardiomyopathy is defined as disease of heart muscle, and typically refers to diseases of ventricular myocardium. A consensus statement of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) working group on myocardial and pericardial diseases, published in 2007, abandoned the inconsistent and rather arbitrary classification into primary and secondary causes and based its classification on ventricular morphology and function only. This classification distinguishes five types of cardiomyopathy: dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, restrictive cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricula

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50

Rigo, Fausto, Covadonga Fernández-Golfín, and Bruno Pinamonti. Dilated cardiomyopathy. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198726012.003.0043.

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Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is characterized by a globally dilated and dysfunctioning left ventricle (LV). Therefore, echocardiographic diagnostic criteria for DCM are a LV end-diastolic diameter greater than 117% predicted value corrected for age and body surface area and a LV ejection fraction less than 45% (and/or fractional shortening less than 25%). Usually, the LV is also characterized by a normal or mildly increased wall thickness with eccentric hypertrophy and increased mass, a spherical geometry (the so-called LV remodelling), a dyssynchronous contraction (typically with left bundle

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